From knowledge to competence and from competence to the art of living
Scientific English Writing Workshop
Table of contents
The writing process
1
Signposts and linking words
2-5
The simple past vs. the present perfect tense
6
Reporting verbs and tenses
7-12
Topic sentences and paragraphing
13-15
Text flow
16-19
Relative clauses and phrase reduction
20-22
Discussions
23-24
Hedging
25-26
Articles
27-28
Problem words
29
Editing for conciseness
30-31
Suggestions for writers
32
Checklist for preparing a conference paper
33-34
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
1
On the writing process
“Work on a good piece of writing proceeds
on three levels: a musical one, where it is
composed; an architectural one, where it is
constructed; and finally, a textile one, where
it is woven.”
― Walter Benjamin (1892-1940), German
philosopher, literary and social critic, translator,
broadcaster, and essayist, in One Way Street
And Other Writings
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
2
Signposts and linking words: sequencers
Signposts and link words are words or phrases which connect ideas in a text and thus show the
reader how the ideas are related. Here are some examples:
the Socialist International (SI) took the initiative in including CEE parties, and subsequently sought to persuade the
PES in turn to incorporate them.
the PES sought additional ‘observation time’ due to the perceived complexity of the case.
the PES sought to encourage the emergence of parties that originated from movements opposed to communism,30
while parties associated with the former communist ruling parties were generally treated as pariahs.
Sequencers
Sequencers are signposts that mark or signal steps in a process, procedure, series of events, or
list of points.
first, ….. second, …… third, …. finally
initially …… afterward(s) …… subsequently …. later … finally
first ….. then …..next …later ... finally
Sequencers are often used in Methods sections of a research paper to make the time-line of a
procedure clearer. Sequencers can also be used in Results and Discussion sections to mark off
different sets of findings.
Example from an introduction:
We contribute to extant research in several respects. First of all, we add to the growing research
field on rightwing populist parties by taking a closer look at media effects on perceptions of
leaders of these parties. Second, we do not only look at one specific aspect in the coverage of
these leaders, such as prominence, visibility, or tone of coverage, but build a parsimonious model
including three dimensions in the depiction of these leaders: their prominence, their
authoritativeness—which refers to how knowledgeable a politician appears to be—and the extent
to which they use a populist style or adhere to populist ideology.
Third, we draw on previous research on the public image of right-wing populist leaders
in which two aspects were found that are important for their electoral success: effectiveness and
legitimacy (Bos & van der Brug, 2010). All (new) party leaders, right-wing populist or
mainstream, have to be perceived to be effective (i.e., able to affect policies or influence the
public debate) in order to be seen as a serious political contestant. However, right-wing populists
also need to be perceived to be legitimate, not posing a threat to democracy, because they in
particular run the risk of being identified with the extreme right. In this article, we use
effectiveness and legitimacy as dependent variables and explain over-time variations by looking
at media coverage. And finally, by connecting the results of an extensive content analysis with
panel survey data, we test media effects in a real-life setting by studying people as they encounter
information on a daily basis (de Vreese & Semetko, 2004).
Linda Bos , Wouter van der Brug & Claes de Vreese (2011) How the Media Shape Perceptions of Right-Wing Populist Leaders,
Political Communication, 28:2, 182-206, DOI: 10.1080/10584609.2011.564605
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
3
Signposts and linking words: adding information
and / also / as well / not only….but also / too
Exchange rate policy has exhibited considerable variation across countries and over time.
These indicators are used to assess the regulatory approaches across countries as well as the
interrelations between various sets of regulatory provisions.
It also provides information about relative prices within and between countries, as well as
demographic data and capital stock estimates.
It is hoped that the opposition parties will eventually regard the problem that way as well.
The results of Study 2 not only confirmed this finding but also suggested that this bias was
independent of the hostile media effect.
This, too, has contributed to the suspicion that…..
furthermore / moreover/ further / second(ly) / another
Moreover, a growing number of former colonies are now prepared to resume relations...
Furthermore, using a populist style does not harm right-wing populists, yet it does
not help them either.
A further example…
Second, we look at patterns of party competition among CEE parties.
Another interesting point regarding the influence of social media is that they imply …
in addition / additionally / apart from / besides
Besides costing too much, the political campaign was impractical.
Ladrech argues that, apart from obvious notions of social democratic brotherhood, there were
two practical reasons…
In addition, different groups responded very differently to variations in source.
Additionally, …each voter’s knowledge about the issues …
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
4
Signposts and linking words: cause and effect
because / due to / since / ...
(Cause = The recent rise of populism has been rapid and intense. Effect = Researchers have devoted
considerable amounts of time to studying it.)
Because the recent rise of populism has been rapid and intense, researchers have devoted considerable
amounts of time to studying it.
Since the recent rise of populism has been rapid and intense, researchers have devoted considerable
amounts of time to studying it.
Due to the recent rapid and intense rise of populism, researchers have devoted considerable amounts of
time to studying it.
Owing to / due to / because of the recent rapid and intense rise of populism, researchers have devoted
considerable amounts of time to studying it.
effect / result / reason
(Cause = The price of smart phones has sharply declined. Effect = There has been an increase in smart
phone sales.)
One result of / one effect of / one consequence of the sharp decline in smart phone prices has been an
increase in smart phone sales.
One reason why smart phone sales have increased is that their price has sharply declined.
The price of smart phones has sharply declined, as a result of which their sales have increased.
therefore / thus / hence
(Cause = The subjects were given two very different questionnaires. Effect = The data show dramatic
differences. )
The subjects were given two very different questionnaires. Therefore / thus / hence / consequently / as a
consequence / as a result / accordingly, the data show dramatic differences.
so that / such that
(Cause = The islanders' diet was deficient in Vitamin C. Effect = They suffered from scurvy.)
The islanders' diet was so deficient in Vitamin C that they suffered from scurvy.
There was such a deficiency of Vitamin C in the islanders' diet that they suffered from scurvy.
verbs1
Higher earning rates during the 1960s resulted1 in a higher percentage of home ownership.
Higher earning rates during the 1960s led to a higher percentage of home ownership.
A higher percentage of home ownership in the 1960s is attributed to higher earning rates.
1
There are many other verbs that collocate with specific kinds of cause, e.g. determine, engender, precipitate, trigger.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
5
Signposts and linking words: alternatives
yet / however
What Johnson et al. (2007) observed in small ruminants, however, is of considerable interest to
anesthesiologists.
Yet, the true significance of stem-cell therapy has not been recognized.
conversely / on the other hand
This research could damage their reputation; conversely, it will give them a lot of free publicity.
Where pool surroundings are not illuminated, a “tent of light” of low-brightness contrasts is
created. Conversely, where no underwater lighting is provided, the surface of the water acts like
a mirror.
nevertheless / nonetheless
All this suggests that thin populism is a discursive strategy employed by opposition parties,
fuelling discontent in society and challenging the government by identifying itself and siding with
the people. Nevertheless, Vlaams Blok clearly stands out and surpasses normal opposition
rhetoric.
Although it is difficult to assess the extent to which this new technique may be useful, it
nonetheless opens new possible choices for statistical analyses.
alternatively
The pension can be provided by means of an annuity bought from an insurance company.
Alternatively, if the dependant is under 75 when you die, the fund can be paid into an unsecured
pension arrangement.
Practice: Please complete the following sentences by using suitable signpost words.
1. Earthquakes cause the land to shake; ............................ they sometimes trigger huge waves
called tsunamis or tidal waves.
2 . A newly discovered infrared object in the solar system could be a burned-out comet;
................................, it may be merely an asteroid.
3. Uranium has a half-life of 4.5 billion years; ....... ............... it takes 4.5 billion years for half the
atoms in a mass of radioactive uranium to decay to lead (Pb).
4. We followed normal procedures when the patient complained of chest pain. ...................... we
measured the heart and pulse rate. ..................., we administered an electrocardiogram.
...................., we had the patient undergo a stress-exercise test.
5. Under some circumstances, light is considered to be a wave; ............................., there are
conditions under which light behaves as discrete 'packets' or quanta.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
6
Verb forms: The past and perfect tenses
One problem for many writers whose first language is not English is that they cannot decide
when to use the simple past tense (‘We conducted the survey over a two-year period’) and when
to use the present perfect (‘We have up to now conducted a series of 17 group interviews’).
A simple way of explaining the difference:
Past tense …
Present perfect tense …
(we conducted)
(we have conducted)
…is used when the writer is thinking of a
specific finished action, event, or situation
that was performed or occurred at a specific
time in the past.
…is used when the effect or result of the
action (not the time when it happened) is
important.
…is used when the action or situation began
in the past and is still going on.
…with certain words like recently, up to now,
and so far
Exercise
Try to use the two tenses correctly by writing the correct form of the verb in brackets in the following
sentences.
1. In reaction to the growing misgivings, several initiatives (design) to promote and implement
accountability standards for civil society organizations (CSOs).
2. A group of transnationally active CSOs (formulate) the ‘International NGO Accountability Charter’, a
set of self-imposed governance standards.
3. This view (develop) with considerable subtlety by Sartori.
4. Previous studies (x, 1992; y, 2003; z, 2004) consistently (indicate) that a large number of employees
report that language problems interfere with work efficacy.
5. In the past two decades, a growing body of feminist work (explore) the gender-technology relation.
6. A small but growing number of computer-mediated communication (CMC) studies (adopt) a social
network perspective (x, 2003; y, 2004; z 2006).
7. Some of the late populist Pim Fortuyn’s views (are) far too progressive for his supporters.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
7
Citing others’ ideas (Move 1b): Reporting verbs2
Referring or reporting verbs are used to summarize another writer’s ideas. There are three main
reasons for referring to other writers:
-
to avoid the charge or plagiarism
to add more authority to your own writing
to direct the reader to the original sources
References are supposed to be neutral. However, the choice of reporting verb often reveals the
writer’s evaluation of or attitude toward the source material. Notice the subtle difference between
the following sentences:
Roberts (2004) in her book chapter on child language variation states that there are a lot of
reasons why the early work on language variation and change did not focus on the
speech of young children.
Roberts (2004) in her book chapter on child language variation assumes that there are a lot of
reasons why the early work on language variation and change did not focus on the speech of young children.
Roberts (2004) in her book chapter on child language variation claims that there are a lot of reasons why the
early work on language variation and change did not focus on the speech of young children.
Task: Decide which of the following reporting verbs tend to be neutral and which verbs tend to
be evaluative:
neutral
evaluative
describe
discuss
state
present
explain
maintain
examine
affirm
argue
reveal
presume
assume
assert
contend
allege
claim
imply
mention
2
This and the next pages are adapted from Baily (2003), Academic Writing, and Swales & Feak (1994), Academic
Writing for Graduate Students.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
8
find
observe
show
demonstrate
Example:
Structure:
Sigley (1997a: 467-73) shows that there is a
Verb + that
significant difference between American English
and other varieties on this point.
The verbs above summarize another writer’s ideas fairly neutrally.
The following verbs mean that the writer is presenting a case:
Examples:
argue
claim
consider
hypothesise
suggest
believe
state
assume
conclude
explain
imply
indicate
maintain
presume
reveal
Chomsky argued that phonological features are binary.
Structure:
Verb + that
In their pilot study they implied that the use of a western
dialect evokes positive emotions among the majority of
their informants.
The following verbs can be used to express that the cited passage is a reaction to another writer’s
position:
Example:
Structure:
accept
admit
agree
deny
doubt
concede
Ender (in print) concedes that some of the observed
dialectal differences may, in some cases, be attributed to
age, gender and social mobility.
The following verbs all have a negative meaning:
Example:
blame
condemn
criticize
Leemann criticizes this approach for relying too
heavily on intuition.
Verb + that
Structure:
Verb + somebody/something +
for + noun/gerund
The following verbs have various interpretations, but they all follow a particular structural pattern:
Examples:
Structure:
assess
characterize
classify
define
describe
evaluate
identify
interpret
portray
present
Leemann portrays his informants as being interested
individuals.
Verb + somebody/something +
as + noun/gerund
Davidenko classified the Virgin Islands as a continent.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
9
Selected reporting verbs with their dictionary definitions1 and French
translation2
maintain
presume
assume
assert
contend
allege
claim
imply
reveal
demonstrate
hypothesize
to affirm in or as if in argument; to
continue to say that something is true
to assume with confidence; to suppose to
be true without proof
to take for granted or true; to believe to be
true without actually having proof that it is;
to suppose
to state or declare firmly and often
forcefully
to claim that something is true
soutenir, défendre, affirmer,
maintenir
présumer, supposer
to say that something is true or that
someone has done something wrong even
though this has not been proven
to say that something is true, even though
there is no definite proof
to indicate by inference or association
(rather than by direct statement)
to make something generally or publicly
known
to prove or make clear by reasoning or
evidence
make an assumption for the sake of
argument
alléguer, prétendre que, déclarer que
supposer que, présumer
affirmer que, soutenir que, maintenir
soutenir que
prétendre que, déclarer que
laisser entendre, supposer, impliquer,
laisser supposer que
révéler, découvrir, laisser voir
démontrer
supposer, formuler/émettre une
hypothèse, faire des hypothèses/des
suppositions
conclure, déduire
indicate
to reach a logically necessary end by
reasoning; infer on the basis of evidence
to point out; to be a sign or index
assess
to determine the importance, size, or value
estimer, évaluer
define
to determine or identify the essential
qualities or meaning
to determine or fix the value, significance
or condition of something
to establish the identity of sth.; to determine
the (taxonomic) position of sth.
to explain or tell the meaning of something
définir, délimiter, préciser,
déterminer
évaluer, former un jugement sur,
peser (mesurer, pour progrès)
identifier, distinguer
conclude
evaluate
identify
interpret
indiquer
interpréter
1
English definitions from Macmillan English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English and Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
2
French translation from Larousse and Word Reference online dictionaries
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
10
Selected reporting verbs with their dictionary definitions1 and German
translation2
maintain
to affirm in or as if in argument; to continue to say
that something is true
presume
to assume with confidence; to suppose to be true
without proof
to take for granted or true; to believe to be true
without actually having proof that it is; to suppose
assume
assert
to state or declare firmly and often forcefully
contend
to claim that something is true
allege
to say that something is true or that someone has
done something wrong even though this has not been
proven
to say that something is true, even though there is no
definite proof
to indicate by inference or association (rather than
by direct statement)
claim
imply
reveal
to make something generally or publicly known
demonstrate
to prove or make clear by reasoning or evidence
hypothesize
make an assumption for the sake of argument
conclude
indicate
to reach a logically necessary end by reasoning; infer
on the basis of evidence
to point out; to be a sign or index
assess
to determine the importance, size, or value
define
to determine or identify the essential qualities or
meaning
to determine or fix the value, significance or
condition of something
evaluate
identify
interpret
to establish the identity of sth.; to determine the
(taxonomic) position of sth.
to explain or tell the meaning of something
unterstützen,
verfechten, behaupten;
aufrechterhalten
annehmen, mutmassen,
unterstellen, vermuten
vermuten,
voraussetzen,
unterstellen, davon
ausgehen, dass
behaupten, beteuern,
erklären
verfechten, behaupten
behaupten, unterstellen
behaupten, geltend
machen
bedeuten, implizieren,
voraussetzen,
unterstellen
aufdecken, aussagen,
enthüllen, offenlegen
aufzeigen, beweisen,
darlegen
annehmen,
voraussetzen, eine
Hypothese aufstellen
rückschliessen, einen
Schluss ziehen aus…
andeuten, angeben,
anzeigen, hinweisen
einschätzen, bemessen,
beurteilen
abgrenzen, abstecken,
erläutern, erklären
abschätzen,
einschätzen, bewerten,
evaluieren
aufzeigen, bestimmen,
bezeichnen, ermitteln
ausdeuten, auslegen
1
English definitions from Macmillan English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English and Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
2
German translation from Leo Online dictionary
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
11
Reporting verbs used in citation (e.g., Move 1b)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Jones (1996) points out/suggests/explains/demonstrates/argues… that
A study carried out by Jones et al. (1996) reveals/suggests/proves… that
Jones’ data (3) also suggest that …
A number of researchers have shown/demonstrated/argued … that …(4)
Following Jones et al. (1996), we …
A series of experiments on citizens’ political attitudes were
described/reported/presented/reviewed by Jones et al. (1996).
According to several investigations (5,6), this position is, however, untenable.
Referring to other studies
Here are some excerpts from authentic references to other studies in a number of research
fields. Some of the verbs have been blanked out to give you a chance to practice, but the first
letters have been left to give you a hint.
1. These characteristics are consistent with the findings r
in Hogan (1978b).
2. Research in
that the speed task may be suspect in its effectiveness as an age
differentiation procedure (Bouchard, 1969; Bouchard et al., 1974).
3. A complete description of the survey may be f
in Featherman and Hauser (1995).
4. For a review of earlier treatments the reader is r
to James (1988).
5. A more extensive discussion of each study is a
(an adjective)
in Shadish (1990).
6. Models of stress and coping such as those p
suggest that those measures must be taken into account…
by Perlin (1987) and Hull (1987)
7. It has long been r
that human blood pressure can change dramatically as
a function of the affective content of communication (Wolff et al. 1955).
8. As Schneiberg (1994a; 1994b) and Armer (1993) n
be expected to be either valid or invalid.
, the resulting scales cannot
9. The methodology of the survey has been d
in detail elsewhere. (9)
10. Berson et al. (1955) a
that the use of reliability tests is essential.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
12
Introductions: Citing the literature and tense choice (Move 1b)
Several studies of research article introductions have shown that two-thirds of all citing
statements fall into one of three major patterns:
I. Past (reference to single studies)
Tissot (2009, personal communication) investigated the theoretical principles underlying the
language use of adolescents.
For example, Stebler and House (1989) and MacLeod and Bertman (1997) failed to reveal a
negative correlation between age and dialect change.
II. Present Perfect (reference to areas of inquiry)
Studies have documented an effect of climate, particularly temperature, on human disease (7,
35, 39).
This is known as spread-skill relationships, which have been widely evaluated for
meteorological ensemble forecasts (e.g. Scherrer et al., 2004).
III. Present (reference to state of current knowledge)
Deletion of this node leads to loss of an entire phrase (8, 11).
It is estimated that approximately 80% of cases are domestically acquired. 10,13
Writer’s Perspective
Look carefully at the verbs in each category. The tense signals the writer's perspective on the
findings or concepts reported.
The tense also depends in some cases on the verb used. If the main verb refers to what a
particular researcher or author did (e.g. investigate, analyze, study), the tense is often past.
However, if the verb refers to what the person thought or wrote (e.g. state, conclude, claim),
other tenses are possible. Look at the following contrast:
Shell et al. (1995) analyzed the word order prevalence in Semitic languages.
Shell et al. (1995) have concluded that word order prevalence in Semitic languages is.....
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
13
About topic sentences
The first sentence of a paragraph is usually called the topic sentence. You may have noticed
in your reading of certain English texts that it is possible to place the topic sentence at the end of
the paragraph (as a kind of conclusion), or even in the middle (as a kind of link between the two
parts). It is even possible not to have a topic sentence at all; in this case, we say that the topic is
implied or suggested. Be aware of these possibilities when you read; otherwise, you might miss
the point which the author is trying to make. When you write, however, remember that a topic
sentence placed at the beginning of a paragraph is the clearest kind of paragraph organization –
simple, effective, easy for you to manage, and easy for your reader to understand.
What makes a good topic sentence? The most important thing to remember at this point is
that in a topic sentence, always try to make a statement about your topic which limits it to a
certain extent:
Topic sentence = TOPIC + LIMITING (Focusing) STATEMENT
Take, for example, the general topic of soccer. There are too many things to say about soccer to
put into a single paragraph. Therefore, your problem as a writer consists of deciding how you
want to write about soccer. In other words, you need to limit (focus) your discussion.
One good way to limit (focus) your topic is to place key words or phrases in the topic
sentence. These words or phrases will let the reader know how you are going to discuss the topic.
These words or phrases are sometimes called controlling words or phrases, since they control the
organization of the paragraph. In a paragraph on soccer, for example, they will immediately
indicate to the reader that you plan to do one of several things:
Discuss the history of soccer
Compare it with another sport
Describe its difficulty
Explain the rules of the game.
Taken from Martin L. Arnaudet and Mary Ellen Barrett’s Paragraph Development: A Guide for Students of English,
2nd edition, 1990, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, p. 3.
Below is a list of the most common ways to limit (focus) a topic in a topic sentence:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Place (e.g., in Europe)
Time or period of time (e.g., during the past two months)
Quality (e.g., challenging)
Showing similarities (e.g., have much in common)
Showing differences (e.g. is more complex than)
A number of things or a list (e.g., three theories)
Effect (e.g., creates jobs)
Cause or reason (e.g., for several reasons)
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
14
Identifying topic sentences3
Please read the paragraphs below and select the most suitable topic sentence from the three
choices provided. Then try to explain your choice as well as why each of the other two is
inappropriate. For example, an item might be too general, too specific, an incomplete
grammatical sentence, or unrelated to the supporting sentences.
1.
(topic sentence)___________________________________________________. Where Britons
end certain words with –se, Americans usually end the same words with –ce, (British practise
versus American practice); the reverse is sometimes true, too (British defence versus American
defense). Notice also the British preference for final –re over the American –er (metre versus
meter). Finally, most Americans consider neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton
characteristically adds a u and spells the word neighbour.
A. British and American English are not the same.
B. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling.
C. The endings of British and American words are not the same.
2.
(topic sentence)___________________________________________________. The first one is
the small pocket dictionary. Dictionaries of this type are usually only abridgments of earlier, more
comprehensive dictionaries. The definitions found in a pocket dictionary are usually rather
sketchy, and few or no example sentences are given to help the international student understand
how the word is actually used in a sentence. Equally inadequate is the bilingual dictionary (ThaiEnglish, Spanish-English, Russian English, and so forth). This type of dictionary is often based
on the idea of making word-for-word translations, a notion which shows no understanding of the
idiomatic nature of all languages. Moreover, bilingual dictionaries are often hastily and sloppily
compiled, as well as hopelessly out of date even before they are published.
A. A number of dictionaries are inappropriate for international students.
B. Some dictionaries are not comprehensive enough.
C. The worst kind of dictionaries.
3.
(topic sentence)_________________________________________________.
In previous work (Voll and Taboada 2007), we showed a prototype for extracting topic
sentences, and performing sentiment analysis on those only. We also showed how a sentencelevel discourse parser, developed by Soricut and Marcu (2003), could also be used to
differentiate between main and secondary parts of the text. At the sentence level, exploring the
types of syntactic patterns that indicate subjectivity and sentiment is also a possibility (Greene
and Resnick 2009). Syntactic patterns can also be used to distinguish different types of opinion
and appraisal (Bednarek 2009).4
A. There are several robust techniques to analyze syntactic patterns in various parts
of a text.
B. The classification of paragraphs into comments and description is but one of the
many ways in which contextual information can be incorporated into a robust
approach to sentiment reaction.
C. To analyze sentiment reaction, various researchers have proposed techniques at
different levels of the text.
3
Taken from Martin L. Arnaudet and Mary Ellen Barrett’s Paragraph Development: A Guide for Students
nd
of English, 2 edition, 1990, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, pp. 14-16.
4
Taken from ‘Conclusions and Future Research’ in Lexicon-Based Methods for Sentiment Analysis, 2010,
in Computational Linguistics, Vol.37, Nr. 2, pp.301-302.
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Supplying topic sentences5
The topic sentence of each of the paragraphs below has been omitted. Please read each
paragraph carefully and then write an appropriate topic sentence for each.
Remember that a topic sentence announces a topic and then limits (focuses) it. Remember, too,
that the topic sentence sets the tone for the entire paragraph by introducing certain key words or
phrases while the subsequent sentences develop and support that topic.
1.
(topic sentence)___________________________________________________. The one most
people are familiar with is the “desk dictionary,” sometimes referred to as a general-purpose
dictionary. Another kind is the pronouncing dictionary, which is concerned with a word’s
pronunciation more than with its meaning. A third type is the bilingual dictionary, which lists the
words in one language and attempts to give equivalent meanings in another language. Other
types include technical dictionaries, special-purpose dictionaries, and scholarly dictionaries.
2.
(topic sentence)___________________________________________________. In some
cultures, the act of touching another person is considered very intimate and is therefore reserved
for people who know each other very well. In the United States, for example, young children are
taught that it is rude to stand too close to people. By the time they are adults, Americans have
learned to feel most comfortable when they are about an arm’s length away from people to
whom they are talking. And many Americans do not touch each other with great frequency while
talking (this is particularly true of men). In contrast, in other cultures have more relaxed rules
regarding touching. For example, it is usual for friends – both men and women – to embrace
each other when they meet. When they talk, they generally stand closer than Americans do, and
they touch each other more often. They are as much at ease doing this as Americans are with
more space between them, and they feel just as uncomfortable with Americans’ “touching rules”
as Americans feel with theirs.
3.
(topic sentence)_________________________________________________.
The first is much more focused on the extent to which U.S. electoral communication practices
(American –style “video politics”) are becoming “the role model for political communicators in
other liberal democracies”(Gurevitch and Blumler 1990: 312). The second interpretation touches
on the extent to which the process of Americanization is a shorthand term for describing a series
of changes in the social, political, and economic makeup of the West (and other countries) that
prepares the ground for the adoption of American practices. This second interpretation of
Americanization alludes to a larger process of social change.6
5
Taken from Martin L. Arnaudet and Mary Ellen Barrett’s Paragraph Development: A Guide for Students
nd
of English, 2 edition, 1990, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, pp. 18-21.
6
The “Americanization” of Political Communication: A Critique. Ralph Negrine and Stylianos
Papathanassopoulos. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 1996 1:45, p. 52.
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16
Text flow: Given and new information
When readers say that sentences are difficult to read they usually mean one or both of the
following:
(1) that the individual sentences are hard to understand, and/or
(2) that a series of sentences does not seem to have clear connections from sentence to
sentence.
These problems with the readability of a text are important because, if a reader cannot
understand the individual sentences and how they connect, he or she is not going to be able to
deal with the text as the author intended.
Consider these two versions of the same text passage:
Version A
The five-year plan does not indicate a clearly defined commitment to long-range environmental
research. For instance, the development of techniques rather than the identification and definition
of important long-range issues is the subject of the plan where it does address long-range
research.
Version B
The five-year plan does not indicate a clearly defined commitment to long-range environmental
research. For instance, where the plan does address long-range research, it discusses the
development of techniques rather than the identification of important long-range issues.
For most people, Version B is easier to read. Why?
Texts typically contain a mixture of given or known information and new information. That is,
some elements in a sentence refer to concepts or objects that have already been discussed or
that are assumed to be understood from the context; this is given information. Other elements
refer to concepts or things that have not yet been discussed and are not assumed to be
understood from the context; this is new information. In Version A above, when the reader has
finished reading sentence 1, the information contained in that sentence is given and the
additional information which is being added by sentence 2 is new.
After you had read the first sentence of either version, you had heard about the five year-plan, a
clearly defined commitment, and long-range environmental research. As you are reading the
second sentence of each version, you are trying to fit the information you are seeing in the
second sentence into the context created by the first. The second sentence in version B is easier
to understand, because it immediately announces that it is talking about the plan. This
placement of given information early in the sentence, ideally in the subject position, makes it
easier for readers to process incoming sentences. Thus, the suggestion for all sentences in
connected texts is to put given information before new information. This means that the
important information is often towards the end of a sentence, not at the beginning.
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17
Rearranging sentences to improve text flow
Task: See if you can improve the given-new information flow in the following sentences:
(1) The third approach is the international regime approach, specifically the EU regime.
That the strength of the international regime will impact on policy reform is suggested by
this approach.
(2) Until the early 1980s, the building and running of computer models to aid decision
making was generally carried out by data processing and operational research (OR)
departments. The specialized nature of most of the applications software was the
major reason for such a state of affairs.
(3) According to a recent survey, 26% of all American adults, down from 38% thirty years
ago, now smoke. Mounting evidence linking smoking and fatal diseases is the cause
to which the decrease can be attributed.
(4) Typically, an emotion begins with an individual’s assessment of the personal
meaning of some antecedent event. Triggering a cascade of response tendencies
such as subjective experience, facial expression, cognitive processing, and
physiological changes, this appraisal process may be either conscious or
unconscious.
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18
Text flow: Active and passive7
English style usually prefers active verbs to passive verbs. But sometimes an active verb
creates problems for the flow of the text, whereas the passive in this case may improve the flow
of text for the reader.
Consider the following example.
A. The collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble creates (active)
a black hole.
B. A black hole is created (passive) by the collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no
larger than a marble.
Which sentence would you prefer to read in the following passage?
Consider these two versions of the same passage:
Version A
Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists
studying black holes in space. The collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a
marble creates (active) a black hole. So much matter compressed into so little volume changes
the fabric of space around it in puzzling ways.
Version B
Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists
studying black holes in space. A black hole is created by the collapse of a dead star into a point
perhaps no larger than a marble. So much matter compressed into little volume changes the
fabric of space around it in puzzling ways.
Version B is generally easier to read. Why?
The first sentence ends by introducing ‘black holes in space.’ Version A of the second sentence
begins with information about collapsed stars and marbles, which, for readers, do not yet have
any apparent relationship with black holes. However, the passive Version B begins with black
holes, thus creating a smooth flow for readers from the first to the second sentence. Even more,
the second sentence of Version B ends with ‘a point perhaps no larger than a marble,’ which
connects well with the beginning of the third sentence, ‘so much matter compressed into little
volume.’
What does this mean for your writing? Where does the problem lie? For you, everything you
write is familiar and in that sense, given. This makes it difficult for you to distinguish between
new and given information for your readers. However, your readers will appreciate any effort
you make to put given information before new information, because it will make their reading
easier. Thus, when you are trying to balance language principles such as a preference for
the active voice with principles about text flow and cohesiveness, it is wise to give
priority to helping readers create flow and connection.
7
From Joseph M. Williams’ Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace (2007), pp. 76-77
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19
Linking sentences with this + summary noun
One way to maintain text flow is to use this/these + a summary noun to join ideas together.
English instructors know that non-native writers need to understand the differences
between formal and informal language. However, this understanding cannot usually
be acquired quickly.
In recent years, the number of students applying to Ph.D. programs has increased
steadily, while the number of places available has remained constant. This situation
has resulted in intense competition for admission.
The “summary noun”, or “summary phrase” in some cases, can be of varying length depending
on what particular aspect you want to focus on in the next (few) sentence(s). Look at this example
with various versions of summary expressions:
In the past, flood impact assessments have focused primarily on the economic losses resulting from a flood.
Now, however, emphasis is also being placed on potential environmental benefits.
a. This will result in a more complete picture of the gains and losses from a flood.
b. This expansion will result in a more complete picture of the gains and losses from a flood.
c. This expansion of focus will result in a more complete picture of the gains and losses from a flood.
d. This expansion in assessment focus will result in a more complete picture of the gains and losses from a
flood.
e. This expansion in assessment focus with regard to flooding will result in a more complete picture of the
gains and losses from a flood.
Exercise: Complete each sentence1 by using a summary word after this.
1. A major alternative or complementary theory explaining long-term effects is
desensitization theory. This ______ is based on the empirical fact that most humans seem
to have an innate negative emotional response to observing blood, gore, and violence.
2. As the above review indicates, over the past several decades, the correlation between TVviolence viewing and childhood or adolescent aggression has been unambiguously
demonstrated. It has also been clearly confirmed that in the short run, exposure to violence
causes an increase in immediate aggressive behavior. ______ _________ have been
obtained repeatedly for both boys and girls.
3. As described earlier, a close friend, spouse, or significant other of the participant was also
interviewed and was asked to rate the participant’s frequency of engaging in aggressive
behavior as well as to report on the participant’s specific criminal and antisocial acts.
____ _________has been used successfully in past studies (Huesmann, 1984) and is
advantageous because it provides an alternative source of information in addition to selfreport.
4. The analyses presented thus far suggest that childhood TV violence viewing is predictive
of serious adult aggression and violence for both males and females even after controlling
for childhood aggressiveness. The effect is exacerbated for boys who identify with
aggressive males in the programs they watch. These _______ support the hypothesis that
the causal effects of media violence that have been demonstrated in the laboratory extend
into real life from childhood to adulthood.
1
Excerpts from: L. Rowell Huesmann, Jessica Moise-Titus, Cheryl-Lynn Podolski, & Leonard D. Eron. “Longitudinal Relations
Between Children’s Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977–1992.”
Developmental Psychology, 2003, Vol. 39, No. 2, 201-221.
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20
Relative clauses and commas
Relative clauses are sub-sentences found within whole sentences. They contain either
participles (e.g. recorded, holding) or relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that, and whose)
with a verb in a finite form (e.g., consists, were added).
Mutualisms are best viewed as balanced antagonistic interactions that nonetheless
provide net benefits to both species.
The styles form a narrow pit at the tip of the fused column, into which Epicephala
females deposit pollen and insert the ovipositor.
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Task 1: Now mark the relative clauses in these examples.
Farmers are thus forced to cultivate products whose growth depends on rainfall.
This is the masking of odours that the parasitoids use to find hosts by associated plant
odours, such as those which may be produced by the added floral resources.
Defining and non-defining relative clauses and commas
Relative clauses may be defining or non-defining. Defining clauses contain essential identifying
information and do not have commas, because they are so closely connected to what they
define. In contrast, non-defining relative clauses add extra information and so are set off by
commas. In British English, the word ‘which’ can be used in both defining and non-defining
clauses, but in all varieties of English, the word ‘that’ can only be used in defining clauses. This
means that you should not use a comma before that. This is one source of confusion for
native German writers (‘dass’ requires a comma before it).
Task 2: Study the following example sentences.
Defining
•
This has resulted in a mature field in which most of the questions have been answered.
•
Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice
that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.
Non-defining
•
The diverse oak forests of North Central Florida, which are dominated by multiple species
of a single genus, present a challenge to the principle of competitive exclusion.
•
This analysis excludes scrub species, which have thin bark.
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21
More on relative clauses
Omitting relative pronouns
Who, that or which are relative pronouns and can be used in place of nouns to head relative
clauses. Who is used for people and which and that for things. Relative pronouns that are
grammatical objects of their clause can be omitted.
Example: These are details which/that future researchers will have to consider.
!
These are details future researchers will have to consider.
Task 1: Decide whether the following underlined relative pronouns may be omitted.
1. There are a number of further possibilities which we could explore.
2. Humans are highly social animals and often help unrelated individuals who may never
reciprocate the altruist’s favor.
Combining sentences using relative clauses
Scientific writers often use relative clauses to express more complex thoughts; combining
sentences is a common technique to achieve this.
Task 2: Combine the following sentences using relative clauses. Use commas where necessary.
1. The project required three assistants. One assistant had to be fluent in Chinese.
3. Questionnaires were distributed to 150 politicians. All of these politicians had signed an
agreement to participate.
4. The Eskey River supplies water to the central valley. The Eskey contains small amounts of
dioxin.
Reduced relative clauses
Both defining and non-defining relative clauses can be reduced. Academic writers often make
their writing more compact by omitting the relative pronoun and reducing relative clauses by
using participles, either present (-ing) or past (-ed, -n):
A. These behaviors have slightly different causes, which accounts for ...
--> These behaviors have slightly different causes, accounting for ...
B. Almost all of the variables which are currently known to react with population size…
--> Almost all of the variables currently known to react with population size ...
C. These issues, which were developed in detail above, must be dealt with in any future research.
-->These issues, mentioned above, must be dealt with in any future research.
(This is a more elegant solution than ‘the above-mentioned issues’.)
Task 3: Examine your own text to see how you have used relative clauses.
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22
Phrase reduction in abstract writing
An abstract is a compact summary of a research article. It is possible to make a text more
compact by
• reducing relative clauses, e.g.
the problem which we described ! the problem described
• reducing prepositional phrases to noun phrases, e.g.
the acquisition of resources ! resource acquisition
• using one powerful, concise word instead of many, e.g.
in this situation ! here
more and more ! increasingly
Task: Read this "specially prepared" abstract. Edit the parts that have been underlined in order
to make them shorter and more compact. When you have finished, check your version with the
original version printed below.
Gender, work control, and stress: a theoretical discussion and an empirical test
E.M. Hall, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Within the field of occupational stress research the theoretical orientation, the research
instruments, and the populations that have been studied have largely been standardized on male
subjects and restricted to male subjects. This article discusses the threats that studies based on
investigations of one sex only pose to the valid assessment of the effects on health of working
life. Following this critique, an empirical examination of the differential distribution of control
over work is examined within a random sample (n = 13,203) of Swedish males and females who
work. Results indicate that even in a socially progressive society the labor force continues to be
highly segregated according to sex. Males, as a group, were found to have access to a larger set of
jobs and a set of jobs of many more different kinds than females, as a group. Work control was
found to be consistently higher among men than among women. The highest level of control was
found among white-collar men in jobs that were segregated for males, while the lowest was
found among blue-collar women in male-segregated jobs. It was notable that men had a higher
level of control than women even in jobs that are traditionally considered "women's work." The
implications of these findings are discussed in terms of directions for the future in the
psychosocial work environment field.
Original abstract
Within the field of occupational stress research the theoretical orientation, the research
instruments and the populations studied have largely been standardized on and restricted to male
subjects. This article discusses the threats that single-sex studies pose to the valid assessment of
the health effects of working life. Following this critique, an empirical examination of the
differential distribution of work control is examined within a random sample (n = 13,203) of
Swedish working males and females. Results indicate that even in a socially progressive society
the labor force continues to be highly sex-segregated. Males, as a group, were found to have
access to a larger and more diverse set of jobs than females, as a group. Work control was found
to be consistently higher among men than among women. The highest level of control was found
among white-collar men in male-segregated jobs, while the lowest was found among blue-collar
women in male-segregated jobs. It was notable that men had a higher level of control than women
even in jobs that are traditionally considered "women's work." The implications of these findings
are discussed in terms of future directions in the psychosocial work environment field.
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23
The Discussion Section
The discussion section is usually the last major section of a paper. In this section the writer steps
back and takes a broad look at what the results or evidence means and evaluates the
investigation or the argument as a whole.
Look at the following discussion section (abridged) from a research report in the field of applied
psychology. In the study, the productivity of older and younger factory workers was compared. In
the left margin, note the kinds of information that are included.
AGE EXPERIENCE AND PERFORMANCE ON SPEED
AND SKILL JOBS IN AN APPLIED SETTING*
Discussion
1
________________
________________
________________
The decremental theory of aging led us to infer that older
workers in speed jobs would have poorer performance,
greater absenteeism, and more accidents compared with
other workers. 2The findings, however, go against the theory.
3
The older workers generally earned more, were absent less,
had fewer accidents, and had less turnover than younger
workers. 4One possible conclusion is that the requirements of
the speed jobs in the light manufacturing industry under
study do not make physical demands on the older workers to
the limits of their reserve capacity. 5The competence and
experience of the older workers in these specific jobs may
have compensated for their reduced stamina….
6
________________
This study has taken a step in the direction of defining the
relationship between age, experience, and productivity in one
particular industry. 7It is possible of course that other
industries with a different complex of speed jobs and skill
jobs may produce entirely different results. 8In addition, it is
important to emphasize that methodological problems in the
research design limit our interpretations.
9
________________
The approach outlined in this study should be replicated in
other manufacturing plants, as well as in other occupational
areas in light, medium, and heavy industries in order to
construct a typology of older worker performance in a
variety of jobs.
* From: Gingier, S., Dispenzieri, A., and Eisenberg, J. (1983). “Age, Experience and Performance on
Speed and Skill Jobs in an Applied Setting”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68/3:472-473.
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24
Discussion section characteristics
The discussion section is usually the last major section of a paper. In this section, the writer
steps back and takes a broad look at what the results or evidence means and evaluates the
investigation or the argument as a whole.
It is not as easy to provide guidelines for discussion sections as it is for introductions. This is
because discussions vary considerably, depending on the type of research question answered in
the paper.
Discussion section – possible moves1
1. A reference to the main question or hypothesis of the study.
2. A statement of the most important findings.
3. Whether the findings support the original hypothesis, and/or whether they agree
with the findings of other researchers.
4. Possible explanations for or speculations about the findings.
5. Limitations of the study that restrict the extent to which the findings can be
generalized.2
6. Implications or importance of the study.
7. Recommendation for future research and applications.
8. A conclusion or summarizing statement.
Investigation task
•
Look at your model article again, and focus on the discussion section. Which moves can
you identify?
•
Look at the verbs. Which tenses are used? Can you explain why?
•
Are there any words that make the writers' statements less than 100% certain or definite?
Which ones?
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25
Hedging
When reporting and discussing the results of their research, scientific writers need to be cautious
about whether they are discussing proven facts, high probabilities or remote possibilities. And
even if they have clear proof, there is a convention of modesty that prevents them from seeming
too confident about their research. That is, instead of writing It is clear that X is a result of Y, they
write There is an apparent causal relationship between X and Y. This qualification of the author's
confidence in a proposition is called hedging. Hedging is most commonly accomplished by
means of
(1) special verbs (e.g., indicate, suggest, appear),
(2) modal verbs (e.g., may, could, would),
(3) certain nouns, adjectives and adverbs (e.g., possibility, likely, apparent, probably,
generally).
(4) embedding (e.g., it is…., there is…..).
Verbs
A parent’s level of identity formation provides a standard of
development for adolescent daughters.
People clearly favour abstract language when providing general
descriptions of ingroup and outgroup.
very certain
HEDGING
A parent’s level of identity formation appears to provide a standard
of development for adolescent daughters.
The findings indicate that people favor abstract language when
providing general descriptions of ingroup and outgroup.
somewhat certain
(but there are possibly
counterarguments or
counterevidence)
This research suggests that an economic perspective on national
boundaries should be developed.
Ancient accounts of colonialization may tell us more about the
period in which they were written than about the events they purport
to “record”.
Anorexia might/could be caused by a faulty gene.
not very certain
Other probability words
A parent’s level of identity formation obviously provides a standard
of development for adolescent daughters.
very certain
It is well known that a substantial portion of both national and
personal income can be attributed to human capital.
An economic perspective on national boundaries will certainly be
developed.
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26
HEDGING
People with high general education are much more likely to support
government spending [on environment, culture and the arts].
quite certain
It is tenable that decision-making models also appeal to political
economists for this reason.
A perhaps more surprising fact is that age presumably makes little
difference for wealth inequality.
somewhat certain
This raises the possibility that prior experience with ongoing illness
affected the treatment.
This could perhaps indicate that prior experience with
entrepreneurship already affected these relations.
very uncertain
Exercise
Change the following sentences so that they are less certain.
1. The notion of the linearity of time is defined by the facts of birth and death.
2. Overall, the results of all three studies prove that the rehearsal and retrieval of time-based
[memory] tasks is less self-initiated… than previously thought.
3. Universities are organized in ways that separate scholars in adjoining disciplines.
Another way of expressing probability or certainty is to form that-clauses with
THERE IS or IT IS:
There is a
It is
high probability
good possibility
slight possibility
remote possibility
that people who learn by repetition prefer
multiple choice tests because they know they
achieve better results on them.
highly possible
quite possible
possible
remotely possible
that the grammar of a foreign language is
learned more efficiently by adults than by
children.
Exercise
Modify the following statements using ‘it’ or ‘there’ expressions:
1. It has been established that men achieve better results on multiple-choice tests than women.
One reason for this is that women take fewer risks in answering questions.
2. All people see a national border as a dividing line.
3. A person's social network reinforces his or her attitudes to society.
►It is also possible to protect oneself or hedge as a researcher/writer by using verbs like
IMPLY and TEND, adjectives like PLAUSIBLE or adverbs such as GENERALLY
(SPEAKING), USUALLY, or AS A RULE.
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27
Articles
It is often difficult for non-native speakers to decide whether to use the or a, or whether to omit
the article altogether, that is, should one write the operation or an operation or possibly just
operation? This makes the correct use of articles one of the most difficult points in English
grammar. The problem here is that different languages have different rules for when to use
definite (the) or indefinite (a/an) articles, and some languages even lack articles completely.
Basically, the distinction between the operation and an operation is the difference between one
specific or particular operation that the writer has in mind and is referring to (the operation) and
any operation, in a general sense (an operation).
Indefinite article (a/an)
A or an is used with singular countable nouns whose specific identity is not known or not
important. The initial sound (not letter!) of the word after the article determines whether a
or an is used. Use a before a consonant sound (a scale, a university) and an before a vowel
sound (an assay, an hourly rate). Do not use the indefinite article with plurals and uncountable
nouns (equipment, not an equipment; information, not an information). In these cases, a piece
of or some may be used if necessary, for example, a piece of equipment or some information. A
number of words, like experience and communication, have both countable and uncountable
meanings, which causes confusion about when to use the article. The writer needs to remain
clear about which meaning is intended when making the decision about whether to use an
article.
Definite article (the)
The definite article is used to modify a singular or plural noun when
The noun has been introduced earlier in the text – second mention
The 50 participants were divided into two groups.
The patients were then asked to …
For specifiers, e.g., same, sole, only, chief, principal
The only research previously conducted in this area yielded modest results.
The last conference on cardiovascular resuscitation was judged a success.
A prepositional phrase or clause following the noun limits it or makes its identity
definite
…the differentiation between immediate and delayed emotional reactions…
…the effect of this sizeable shift…
A superlative or ordinal makes the noun specific and unique
…the most effective method of…
…the most severe systematic disturbance occurred between May and July…
Only one possible referent in the reader’s and writer’s shared knowledge; unique
reference
The authors’ previous study demonstrated that…
…the data, the model
The Journal of Democracy, The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy
Generic reference, to refer to an entire class of things
optimal positioning of the tongue, the Han woman, the Tsunami victim, the
chronically ill
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
28
Golden rules for articles
Using articles correctly and precisely in English is difficult for both native and non-native writers.
One reason for this is that the rules are more like guidelines than strict directions for use.
Another reason is that one or more choices may be grammatically correct, but each choice
conveys a different meaning. Yet a third reason is that, in some cases, the use of articles is a
matter of style rather than correct usage.
In an effort to provide a handy way of helping you make your decisions, I will reproduce below
the checklist from the section Improve your Writing Skills in the Macmillan English Dictionary for
Advanced Learners (2007, 2nd edition, p. IW34).
When deciding which of the three articles to use (definite, indefinite, or zero article),
ask yourself the following questions:
•
Is the noun countable or uncountable?
•
Are you referring to something generically or specifically: That is, are you
talking about an abstract idea or a whole class of people or things? Or are
you referring to a specific, individual member of a class or group?
•
Are you introducing a person, thing, or idea, for example, for the first time, or
referring to something you have already mentioned?
•
Is it obvious which thing, person, or idea (or which things, people, or ideas)
you are referring to?
The answers to all these questions will determine your choice of article, and the
explanations in section 2 (in the dictionary) will help you to make the right decision.
Practice with articles
The following text was written on a fictitious idea by a writing teacher but he based it closely on
an abstract written by a student whose first language does not use the English type of article.8
Notice the position and presence or absence of articles. Each sentence has at least one error.
The guidelines and golden rules should help you improve the text.
Patient-specific design of medicines (PSDM) is novel method which was first described by Smith
and Jones. PSDM method is based on the conventional designs modified by using alternative
gene-based protocol. Main feature of the PSDM approach is its high specificity of treatment. The
principle of the PSDM approach is depicted in the Figure 1.
Using PSDM method, we observe the shift in the specificity of the treatment. During the normal
design of medicines, specificity is obtained from experience of the scientists. In the PSDM
method, the specificity is obtained from the genes of the patient. Specificity of the PSDM method
can be augmented by adding information from the family members. The PSDM method is
estimated to increase specificity by a factor of five.
8
This is an example from Tim Skern’s Writing Scientific English: A Workbook (2009, Vienna: facultas.wuv, p.26)
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
29
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
Problem words in describing results
A. rise, raise, arise
Raise needs an object. (raise, raised, raised)
All firms are nominally interested in raising standards
All rents have been raised by 20%.
We would like to raise the following question:
Rise and arise never have an object. (rise, rose, risen)
Because the sun rises earlier in the summer,…
Prices rose last year for the first time since 2000.
Disagreements between parents are certain to arise.
1. These findings naturally _________ more questions than they answer.
2. Over the past 50 years, IQ scores have shown a tendency to ________.
3. The questionnaire is designed to ___________ awareness of environmental issues.
4. This was the first time that a problem with the method _______________.
5. In this paper we wish to _________ two main issues:
6. Prices tend to ________ when supply decreases.
7. The number of female CEOs _______ over the last decade.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------B. Special Verb Agreements
Look at this sentence: A minority of subjects were native speakers.
Grammars suggest three principles that govern verb agreement in such cases: the principle of
proximity, the grammatical principle, and the semantic principle. It is, however, not easy to
predict which of these principles editors will adhere to.
A rule of thumb may read as follows: When talking about fractions (a minority) of a number of
things (subjects), a plural form of a verb is used. However, if one is talking about fractions of a
single thing, a singular form of a verb is used, e.g.: Two thirds of the planet’s surface is covered
with water. (These rules are according to Collins Cobuild English Grammar.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The average of all the results ______ 67.8.
Half of the subjects ______ asked to answer an experimental question.
Nearly 19% of the candidates __________ unable to complete the test.
Approximately 46% of the test population _________ from overseas.
One quarter of the participants _________required to repeat the test.
And what about this?
6. A small number of female subjects ________ included on an experimental basis.
7. The low number of female subjects ______ regarded as unusual.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
30
Editing for conciseness
Because journal space is limited and readers’ time is precious, writers need to be as concise as
possible without sacrificing clarity or meaning. This is especially true for methods sections.
Reread your text several times, editing it to make it as brief as possible but still reader friendly.
Conciseness, also less frequently termed concision, is a writing skill that should be developed,
as it can be useful in many types of factual writing.
Consider the following statement on American foreign policy:
The point to be made here is that we can see that American policy in
regard to foreign countries, as the State Department in Washington
and the White House have put it together and made it public to the
world, has given material and moral support to too many foreign
factions in other countries that have controlled power and have then
had to give up the power to other factions that have defeated them.
It is far from being concise; in fact, it is five times as long as it needs to be for the message it
conveys, which is:
US foreign policy has supported too many foreign factions that have subsequently lost
power.
Practice: Simplify and shorten these common phrases and sentences.
1. An examination was carried out on the patient
2. A second trial was performed six months later and it was found that ...
3. There was a significant increase in weight in over 90% of employees and this was cause
for concern.
4. Hospitals use opioids frequently to treat pain states that can be assessed as moderate to
severe and either acute or chronic.
A final piece of advice on words
Books on scientific writing frequently warn writers to avoid what they call "jargon" and to adhere
to plainer words such as start rather than initiate or help rather than facilitate. This advice is of
questionable value. It may be good advice for writers of popular science, but writers of research
papers need to use the specialist language and follow the writing conventions of their field
because they are writing for peers, not lay people. Thus, articles from reputable journals are
better guides to which words to use than books on general usage.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
31
Redundancy and wordiness
Space in journals and readers' time is valuable. Therefore, do not use three words if one word
will do - unless, of course, you achieve a more accurate meaning with three words. One way to
consolidate a text is to remove all redundancy, i.e., all instances of saying the same thing twice.
Here are some examples of typical redundancy in scientific papers.
Redundancy
Improvement
large in size
large
entirely eliminate
eliminate
greenish in color
greenish
in close proximity to
close, near
pooled together
pooled
end result
result
A second way to reduce the number of words in your text is to remove the verbal padding from
inflated expressions or else convert these expressions into a completely different word. It is
important to re-read completed papers several times with an eye to weeding out non-essential
words.
Inflated expressions
Improvement
first of all
first
in a satisfactory manner
satisfactorily
at an earlier date
previously
an example of this is the fact that for example
presents a picture similar to
resembles
A third way of making scientific writing leaner and more meaningful is to look for nouns ending in
"-ion" or for phrases containing "of", and then to consider reformulating the sentence using a
more powerful verb or adjective. For example, sentence A below can be made more compact
and muscular if the noun evaluation is converted to the verb evaluate and the object in the
prepositional phrase of voter activity is made the subject of the verb, as shown in sentence B.
A. Evaluation of voter activity was used as a means of assessing degree of democracy.
B. Voter activity was evaluated to assess degree of democracy.
Below is a second example of a sentence that is made more concise by using a verb directly
instead of embedding it into a “there-is clause”. Notice also the use of the active voice in B.
A. There were several case studies of populism that they assessed in their study.
B. Their study assessed several case studies of populism.
Likewise, a simple but lengthy phrase such as a process for the promotion of growth can be
transformed into a growth-promoting process.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
32
Suggestions for writers
A course participant once said with dismay, “I’m having trouble organizing my professional life so
I have both the time and energy for writing.” Since then, I have been asking participants to share
what helps or hinders them as they go about writing. Below are some of the many responses. I
hope they will facilitate and accelerate your writing.
How do you go about writing? Do you have any little “secrets for successful writing” to share?
“Practice makes perfect,” so I write every day, even a little.
I schedule writing times in my weekly agenda and don’t make other arrangements then.
To feel more secure before I write, I get an overview of the field by reading the entire articles in the
relevant literature. This makes writing go more quickly for me.
Writing at home with music or the TV on in the background creates a writing atmosphere for me that’s
better than at the lab.
I write better at home and in the evening, because I need silence to write.
I need to be alone when I write, because after I write a passage, I read it out loud.
I need space around me for my piles of papers when I write.
A tidy desk helps me keep my mind uncluttered.
I work best in the office, because at home I don’t always have everything I need.
ETH Zurich offers great access to papers online. I go there once a month just to read.
I have a general train pass, so I take the day or a few hours off from work and my family, get in the train,
and ride around Switzerland while I write. Nobody bothers me, but I don’t feel alone.
When writing my first draft, it’s important for me to focus only on creativity and getting words on the
paper. It slows me down a lot if I try to correct language then.
I need at least 7 hours in one piece to really focus on writing – I need to schedule my writing and “make
an appointment” with myself. No pagers, no cell phone.
I work best under pressure: a deadline, a conference, or an alarm clock set to go off after some time. I
give myself 4 hours for the first draft of an introduction, for example.
I produce cards with the most important notes when I read the literature. When I sit down and start
writing, I put these cards on thematic piles which I can consult. Of course I need a room to myself and
absolute silence.
It is useful to visualize my ideas, using paper and pencil. Writing on the computer as a first step is
confusing because it is linear. Imposing linearity on complex ideas is a second step.
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
33
Checklist for preparing a conference paper
Selecting the conference
•
Will you or your supervisor select the conference?
•
How will it be financed?
•
What are the guidelines for the oral presentation and any written follow-up (manuscript
submission, style requirements)?
•
What are the review procedures for the presentation and the paper?
•
What are the deadlines (e.g., application, submission of abstract and
presentation/paper)?
Preparing for the conference
•
Have you scheduled time for preparing?
•
Have you reviewed the difference in rhetoric and style between a journal abstract and a
conference abstract? (Day 1, Handouts 31 and 33)
•
Have you reviewed the differences between oral and written academic English?
•
And have you applied them to your oral presentation and written manuscript?
•
Have you discovered the most supportive atmosphere and conditions for your writing?
Have you discovered your own best time of the day or week for writing?
•
Have you lined up colleagues to read and comment on your work?
•
Have you lined up resources for language help, both on- and offline?
•
Have you lined up language advising or editing, either by a colleague or a professional?
While writing your paper
• What shape will your paper take? Will it be the conventional hourglass, with some form
of introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections or will it be, for example, the
broader problem-solution type?
•
Have you decided which part of your paper you will start with? Methods are often written
first, for example, and introductions, last.
•
Introduction
Have you positioned yourself in the field, referred to previous literature
appropriately, established a research territory, created a niche for your work, and
clearly moved into the niche you have created?
•
Methods and theory-building
Have you followed the conventions as to, for example, length, amount of detail,
and explanation?
Have you checked your tenses, using the past tense to recount what you did and
how you did it and using another appropriate tense when you generalize, offer an
hypothesis, or refer to your purpose?
Have you made sure that each sentence and paragraph is as compact yet as
clear as possible?
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
34
•
Results, findings, and evidence
Have you presented your evidence and interpreted it so that your readers see that
the evidence answers the question or solves the problem raised in the
introduction?
Are the relationships between the various pieces of evidence explicit and
appropriately linked?
Have you defined your main terms as you use them? Have you formulated
testable hypotheses, if appropriate?
•
Discussion
Have you taken a broad look at what the evidence means and evaluated the
investigation or argument as a whole?
Of the many and various moves possible in a discussion, have you included at
least some of the following? Have you referred to the main question, stated the
most important findings and related them to other findings, considered the study’s
limitations, implications, and significance, made recommendations for future
research and application, and provided a summarizing or concluding statement?
Organization and text flow
• Have you kept your readers uppermost in your mind? Can they read your work in a
streamlined fashion to quickly get to your main points? Do the title, abstract, section
headings, introduction, conclusion/summary, and topic sentences weave your text
together?
•
Does your text flow smoothly? Have you provided new and old information in a way that
your readers can follow your arguments easily, especially because the ideas may be
complex?
Editing
• Have you edited and polished your paper several times, with periods for reflection in
between?
•
Have you used the specialist language and followed the scientific writing conventions
found in your body of literature?
•
Have colleagues read and commented on your work for clarity, readability, and
relevance?
Submitting the article and next steps
• Have you prepared a cover letter/email, usually less than a page, that includes why you
believe your research should be presented at this particular conference?
•
Do you know the conference organizers usual practices concerning submissions? For
example, how long should they take to accept or reject a submission? At what point is it
acceptable to contact the editor again in case you have not received a reply? Can you
submit to more than one conference at a time?
•
If your work is accepted but the reviewers ask for modifications, what will these
modifications entail? Do you find them acceptable? If you decide not to make the
changes, have you informed the editor in good time so there is no expectation that your
work will be resubmitted?
If your research is not accepted for presentation at the conference selected, what is your Plan
B? In other words, what is your next step – another conference, a journal, further reflection,
further editing, or perhaps another step?
Scientific English Writing Workshop for NCCR Democracy Day 2 11 April 2014
University of Zurich, Cityport, AFL H376, Affolternstrasse 56, Oerlikon
Dr. Jeannette Regan, Instructor
[email protected]
PLEASE DO NOT PHOTOCOPY OR DISTRIBUTE
35