Production and on-line comprehension of
definite articles and clitic pronouns by
Greek sequential bilingual children and
monolingual children with specific
language impairment
Article
Accepted Version
Chondrogianni, V., Marinis, T., Edwards, S. and Blom, E.
(2014) Production and on-line comprehension of definite
articles and clitic pronouns by Greek sequential bilingual
children and monolingual children with specific language
impairment. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36 (5). pp. 1155-1191.
ISSN 1469-1817 doi: 10.1017/S0142716414000101 Available at
http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/37643/
It is advisable to refer to the publisher’s version if you intend to cite from the
work.
To link to this article DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0142716414000101
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
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bGYI*"-)3,E*^GF6HG^C*%/()3*/5#"'*/'#"(,/*-&&#@1-)(,$*=0*1(&'%",/D*`5(.$",)*1,"+#"@,$*
/(@(.-".0*#)*'5,*'-/7/*8('5#%'*-)$*8('5*'5,*1(&'%",/*-)$*'5,("*-&&%"-&0*"-',*8-/*Ybf*
-)$*YYf*",/1,&'(2,.0D**
>5,* $(++(&%.'(,/* '5-'* 1",6/&5##.* >B* &5(.$",)* +-&,* 8('5* '5,* -)-15#"(&* %/,* #+*
$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*5-2,*=,,)*-''"(=%',$*'#*'5,("*()-=(.('0*'o assess other people s belief
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
C
!A&'!)'B+.$.$D!'))7)*!97$*.*%'6!.$!%&'!()7619%.7$!70!B+**!$71$*!="E@FG?/!(7**'**.8'*!=C@HG?/!+*!I',,!+*!$7$J
%+)D'%!$71$*!=C@HG?@!
17!
!
1,"/1,&'(2,/* -)$* '#* &-1'%",* '5,* [±hearer] distinction (Schafer & de Villiers, 2000).*
<&&#"$()3*'#*'5,*-&&#%)'*=0*9&5-+,"*L*$,*K(..(,"/*AMNNNCI*0#%)3*&5(.$",)*=,+#",*'5,*
-3,* #+* H* &-))#'* &#@1%',* '5,* ,)'-(.@,)'* '5-'* (/* ,/'-=.(/5,$* =,'8,,)* -* 1",2(#%/.0*
@,)'(#),$* $(/&#%"/,* -)',&,$,)'* ()'"#$%&,$* 8('5* -)* ()$,+()(',* )#%)* 15"-/,* -)$* ('/*
/%=/,S%,)'*@,)'(#)*=0*-*$,+()(',*)#%)*15"-/,*$%,*'#*&#3)('(2,*.(@('-'(#)/*",.-',$*'#*
'5,*$,2,.#1@,)'*#+*'5,*>5,#"0*#+*J()$*A>aJC*-)$*'#*'5,*.-&7*#+*'5,*OP5,-","Q*+,-'%",*
()*'5,("*3"-@@-"D*<&&#"$()3*'#*9&5-+,"*L*$,*K(..(,"/*AMNNNCI*'5,*OP5,-","Q*+,-'%",*(/*-*
/,@-)'(&* +,-'%",* 5#/',$* 8('5()* '5,* B!I* -)$* ('/* 1",/,)&,* (/* -* 1",",S%(/(',* +#"* '5,*
1"#c,&'(#)*#+*-*+%..0*",+,",)'(-.*B!D*9&5-+,"*L*$,*K(..(,"/*AMNNNC*-"3%,*'5-'*&5(.$",) s
,-".0* )#@()-.* 1"#c,&'(#)/* $#* )#'* 5#/'* '5,* +,-'%",* OP5,-","QG* ()/',-$I* '5,("* 3"-@@-"*
&#@1"(/,/*-*.,?(&-.*'5,!*&-',3#"0I*85(&5*5#/'/*'5,*+,-'%",*O%)(S%,QD* >5,*(/*.,?(&-..0*
@-"7,$* -/* O%)(S%,Q* -)$* #&&%"/* 8('5* )#%)* 15"-/,/* 85#/,* ",+,",)'* (/* %)(S%,.0*
($,)'(+(-=.,*=0* '5,* &5(.$* ()*'5,* &#)',?'* #+* '5,* %'',"-)&,* A9&5-+,"*L*$,*K(..(,"/I* MNNNE*
YUUCD* ;)* '5,* ="($3()3* &#)$('(#)I* &5(.$",)* /%&&,,$* ()* ,/'-=.(/5()3* -* %)(S%,),//*
",.-'(#)/5(1*=,'8,,)*'5,*85#.,*-)$*('/*1-"'*$%,*'#*8#".$*7)#8.,$3,D*[#8,2,"I*'5,0*
1,"+#"@* 1##".0* #)* '5,* -)-15#"(&* &#)$('(#)I* 85(&5* ",S%(",/* '-7()3* ()'#* &#)/($,"-'(#)*
'5,*interlocutor s*#"*hearer s 1#()'*#+*2(,8*AOP5,-","QC*-)$*'5,*1"#c,&'(#)*#+*-*+%..*B!*
18!
!
category in the children s grammar.* >5(/* -&&#%)'* '5,)* 1",$(&'/* '5-'* '5,* $,+()(',*
-"'(&.,/*%/,$*=0*0#%)3*&5(.$",)*$#*)#'*&-""0*'5,*'-"3,'I*-$%.'6.(7,*/,@-)'(&*+,-'%",/I*
=,&-%/,*,-".0*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*.-&7*'5,*OP5,-","Q*+,-'%",*.()7,$*8('5*>aJD*
;)*&#)'"-/'*'#*'5,*+()$()3/*+"#@*'5,*%/,*#+*-"'(&.,/*()*-)-15#"(&*&#)',?'/I*#),*
/'%$0* 5-/* /5#8)* '5-'* '5,* &#@1%'-'(#)* #+* -* 1-"'685#.,* ",.-'(#)/5(1* -)$* '5,*
,/'-=.(/5@,)'*#+*",+,",)&,*2(-*="($3()3*-",*-&S%(",$*,-".0*-&"#//*/,2,"-.*.-)3%-3,/D*
<2"%'()* L* `##1@-)/* AMNNNC* ,?-@(),$* 85,'5,"* ^6Y60,-"6#.$* B%'&5* -)$* R%//(-)*
&5(.$",)* &-)* -&S%(",* '5,* ="($3()3* ",.-'(#)* %/()3* -* '"%'562-.%,* c%$3@,)'* '-/7D* ;)* '5(/*
'-/7I* &5(.$",)* 8,",* 1",/,)',$* 8('5* -* 1(&'%",* $,1(&'()3* -* =#-'* /-(.()3* 1-/'* -* &-/'.,D*
>5,*=#-'*5-$*-*",$*+.-3*-)$*'5,*&-/'.,*-*=.%,*#),D*>5,)*'5,0*8#%.$*5,-"*/,)',)&,/*
such as There sails a boat by*A/(&C. The flag is red , which is true, and There sails a
=#-'* =0* A/(&C. The flag is blue , which is false, because it refers to the flag of the
&-/'.,D* R,/%.'/* /5#8,$* '5-'* '5,* ^60,-"6#.$/* 8,",* -'* &5-)&,* .,2,.* 85,)* ('* &-@,* '#*
",c,&'()3* '5,* +-./,* &#)',?'/* ()* =#'5* B%'&5* -)$* R%//(-)I* -.'5#%35* '5,0* 1,"+#"@,$*
-.@#/'*-'*&,(.()3*#)*'5,*'"%,*&#)$('(#)D*>5,*b6*-)$*'5,*H60,-"*#.$/*5-$*)#*1"#=.,@/*
",c,&'()3*'5,*+-./,*/,)',)&,/D*<2"%'()*L*`##1@-)/*AMNNNC*()',"1",'*'5,/,*",/%.'/*-/*
/5#8()3*'5-'*&5(.$",)*-",*-=.,*'#*&#@1%',*'5(/*="($3()3*",.-'(#)/5(1*=-/,$*#)*8#".$*
19!
!
7)#8.,$3,D* <$$('(#)-..0I* '5,0* 1"#1#/,* '5-'* '5,* ",-/#)* 850* '5,* 0#%)3,"* 3"#%1*
1,"+#"@/* -'* &5-)&,* (/* $%,* '#* '5,* .-&7* #+* 1"#&,//()3* ",/#%"&,/* ",S%(",$* +#"*
&#)$%&'()3* '5,/,* &#@1%'-'(#)/D* >5,/,* #1,"-'(#)/* 5-2,* 5(35,"* &#@1.,?('0* -/* '5,0*
",S%(",* '5,* ()',"-&'(#)* #+* =#'5* /0)'-&'(&* -)$* ,?'"-6/0)'-&'(&* 7)#8.,$3,* A<2"%'()I*
UVVVCD*<)*-.',")-'(2,*,?1.-)-'(#)*+#"*'5,*.#8*-&&%"-&0*()* '5,*0#%)3,"*3"#%1I*(/*'5-'*
'5,*'-/7*$,@-)$/*#+*'5,*'"%'562-.%,*c%$3@,)'*'-/7*,?&,,$*'5,*1"#&,//()3*",/#%"&,/*
#+* '5,* &5(.$",)* -'* '5(/* -3,D* </* -* ",/%.'I* '5,0* +-(.* '5,* &#)$('(#)/I* ()* 85(&5* '5,",* (/* -*
@(/@-'&5*=,'8,,)*'5,*/,)',)&,*-)$*'5,*1(&'%",*=,&-%/,*@(/@-'&5*&#)$('(#)/*.,-$*
'#*-*",-)-.0/(/*'5-'*",S%(",/*-$$('(#)-.*1"#&,//()3*",/#%"&,/*&#@1-",$*'#*@-'&5()3*
&#)$('(#)/*AJ-"()(/*L*9-$$0I*MNU^CD*
>5,* -=#2,* @,)'(#),$* /'%$(,/* 5-2,* 1"(@-"(.0* +#&%/,$* #)* '5,* ()+.%,)&,* #+*
/,@-)'(&* &#)',?'* #)* -&&%"-&0I* 85,",-/* '5,* ,""#"* '01,/I* /%=/'('%'(#)/* #"* #@(//(#)/I*
5-2,* ",&,(2,$* .,//* -'',)'(#)D* [#8,2,"I* '5,*,""#"*'01,/* &#%.$*-./#* /5,$* .(35'* #)* '5,*
&5(.$"en s underlying grammar and the nature of their problems with $,+()(',*-"'(&.,/D*
;)*'5,*1",2(#%/*/'%$(,/I*>B*&5(.$",)*)#'*#).0*#@('',$I*=%'*-./#*/%=/'('%',$*'5,*$,+()(',*
8('5* '5,* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,D* 9(@(.-"* /%=/'('%'(#)* ,""#"/* ()* '5,* -)-15#"(&* &#)',?'* 5-2,*
=,,)*",1#"',$*()*/'%$(,/*%/()3*/'#"06',..()3*'-/7/*8('5*1",6/&5##.*&5(.$",)*A[(&7@-))I*
20!
!
MNN^CI* -)$* '5,0* 5-2,* =,,)* .-=,..,$* -/* ()&#5,",)&,* ,""#"/* A4@/.(,* L* 9',2,)/#)I*
UVWUC* #"* -/* $(/&#%"/,* ()',3"-'(#)* ,""#"/* AT"ä@,"I* MNN^CD* B,* `-'* AMNUU=C* #=/,"2,/*
'5-'* '5(/* '01,* #+* ,""#"/* $#,/* )#'* ()$(&-',* 1"#=.,@/* 8('5* '5,* .()3%(/'(&* 1"#1,"'(,/* #+*
-"'(&.,/D*R-'5,"I*/5,*-"3%,/*'5-'*'5,*&#@1,',)&,*",.-'()3*'#*'5,*()+#"@-'(#)*/'"%&'%",*
(/*()* 1.-&,I* =%'* 0#%)3*>B* &5(.$",)* 5-2,* '"#%=.,* 8('5* '5,* ,2-.%-'(#)* #+* '5,* ),8),//*
/'-'%/* #+* ",+,",)'/D* >5(/* (/* -* &#3)('(2,* "-'5,"* '5-)* -* .()3%(/'(&* .(@('-'(#)D* ;)* '5(/*
",/1,&'I* '5,* ',"@* ()&#5,",)&,* ,""#"/* A4@/.(,* L* 9',2,)/#)I* UVWUC* @-0* =,*
@(/.,-$()3I*-/*'5,*&5(.$",)*@-0*)#'*@(/",1",/,)'*'5,*$(/&#%"/,*&#)',?'D*;)*5,"*/'%$0*
8('5* MGY* '#* HGY* 0,-"6#.$* X",)&56/1,-7()3* &5(.$",)I* $,* `-'* AMNUU=C* -''"(=%',$* '5,/,*
'01,/*#+*,""#"/*()*'5,*-)-15#"(&*&#)',?'/*1-"'.0*'#*,?1,"(@,)'-.*-"',+-&'/*-)$*'#*'5,*
.-&7* #+* &#)'()%#%/* 2(/%-.* ",+,",)&,* #+* '5,* &5-"-&',"/* ()* '5,* 1(&'%",* /'#"(,/D*
91,&(+(&-..0I* /5,* -"3%,/* '5-'* >B* &5(.$",)* =,+#",* '5,* -3,* #+* H* ',)$* )#'* '#* '"-&7* '5,*
",+,",)&,* #+* ,)'('(,/* '5-'* -",* -=/,)'* +"#@* '5,* 2(/%-.* &#)',)'* -)$* 5-2,* 1"#=.,@/*
()',3"-'()3* '5,/,* ,)'('(,/* ()'#* $(/&#%"/,D* B(/&#%"/,* ()',3"-'(#)* ,""#"/* -",* )#'*
()',"1",',$* -/* &#@1,',)&,* ,""#"/* =%'* "-'5,"* -/* ()$(&-'(2,* #+* +-(.%",* ()* 1,"+#"@-)&,D*
B,* `-'* AMNUU=C* -"3%,$* '5-'* &#""#=#"-'()3* ,2($,)&,* '5-'* '5,* 1"#=.,@/* 8('5* '5,*
-"'(&.,/* ()* >B* &5(.$",)* 8,",* )#'* .()3%(/'(&* &#@,/* +"#@* '5,* ",/%.'/* #+* '5,* ="($3()3*
21!
!
&#)$('(#)I*()*85(&5*&5(.$",)*$($*)#'*@-7,*-)0*/%=/'('%'(#)*,""#"/D*>5,/,*+()$()3/*8,",*
()',"1",',$* ()* +-2#%"* #+* &#)'()%('0* =,'8,,)* '5,* &5(.$* -)$* '5,* -$%.'* 3"-@@-"G* '5,*
$(++(&%.'(,/*8('5*'5,*-)-15#"(&*%/,*#+*-"'(&.,/* 8,",*-''"(=%',$*'#*$(/&#%"/,*()',3"-'(#)*
1#//(=.0* $%,* '#* '5,* 5(35* $,@-)$/* #+* 1"#&,//()3* ",/#%"&,/* ",S%(",$* 85(./'* '"-&7()3*
$(/&#%"/,*",+,",)&,*A9,""-'"(&,I*MNNYCD*>5(/*-&&#%)'*$(++,"/*+"#@*'5-'*#+*9&5-+,"*L*$,*
Villiers (2000), in which children s grammar consists of an incomplete projection d%,*
'#*.-&7*#+*'5,*OP5,-","Q*+,-'%",D**
>%")()3*'#*()$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/I*@#/'*/'%$(,/*5-2,*+#&%/,$*#)*85,'5,"*#"*)#'*>B*
4)3.(/56/1,-7()3* &5(.$",)* #2,"%/,* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* ()* '5,* &#)',?'* #+* ()$,+()(',/* A$,*
`-'I* MNUU-G* 9&5-,++,"* L* J-''5,8/#)I* MNNHG* 2-)* [#%'* ,'* -.DI* MNUNC* -)$* .,//* #)*
85,'5,"* #"* )#'* '5,* $(++,",)'* /,@-)'(&* &#)',?'/* -++,&'* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,* 1"#$%&'(#)* ()*
&5(.$",)*A$,*K(..(,"/*,'*-.D*MNNNG*9&5-+,"*L*$,*K(..(,"/I*MNNNCD*9'%$(,/*=0*9&5-,++,"*L*
J-''5,8/#)*AMNNHC*-)$*2-)*[#%'*,'*-.D*AMNUNC*5-2,*/5#8)*'5-'*1",6/&5##.*&5(.$",)*
',)$* '#* /%=/'('%',* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* 8('5* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* A=,'8,,)*MHf* -)$* HNf* #+*
'5,*'(@,C*-)$*'5-'*1,"+#"@-)&,*2-"(,/*$,1,)$()3*#)*'5,*'-/7I*(D,D*85,'5,"*('*(/*1(&'%",*
=-/,$*AYNf6FHf*-&&%"-&0C*A9&5-,++,"*L*J-''5,8/#)I*MNNHG*2-)*[#%'*,'*-.DI*MNUNC*
#"*('*&#)'-()/*)#*1(&'%",*1"#1/*A^Nf*-&&%"-&0C*A2-)*[#%'*,'*-.DI*MNUNCD**
22!
!
!",6/&5##.*&hildren s ,""#"/*#+*/%=/'('%'()3*()$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*8('5*$,+()(',*#),/*
have been described as egocentric (Maratsos, 1976), namely as an inability to take
the hearer s perspective into consideration, when introducing a new referent only
7)#8)* '#* '5,* /1,-7,"D* [#8,2,"I* '5,/,* /'%$(,/* $(++,"* ()* ',"@/* #+* '5,* ,?1,"(@,)'-.*
'-/7/* -)$* '5,* /,@-)'(&* &#)',?'/I* -)$* '5,/,* +-&'#"/* 5-2,* =,,)* /5#8)* '#* 5-2,* -*
$,+()('(2,*,++,&'*#)*'5,*children s performance*A/,,*$,*`-'I*MNUU=*+#"*-)*#2,"2(,8*#+*
/'%$(,/*-)$*-&&#%)'/CD*
>5,*#).0*'8#*/'%$(,/*that do not report any egocentric errors are the ones by*
9&5-+,"* L* $,* K(..(,"/* AMNNNC* -)$* $,* K(..(,"/I* 9&5-+,"I* !,-"/#)I* L* 9,0@#%"* AMNNNCD*
9&5-+,"* -)$* $,* K(..(,"/* AMNNNC* ,?-@(),$* '5,* 1"#$%&'(#)* #+* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* ()* '5,*
/-@,* 3"#%1* #+* ^6'#6H60,-"* #.$* &5(.$",)* 85#* 1-"'(&(1-',$* ()* '5,* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,*
&#)$('(#)/D*;)$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*8,",*,?-@(),$*()*'5",,*/,@-)'(&*&#)',?'/D*>5,/,*8,",*
'5,* ",+,",)'(-.* /1,&(+(&* ()$,+()(',* &#)',?'I* -/* ()* AFCI* '5,* )#)6",+,",)'(-.* 1",$(&-'(#)-.*
-/*()*AWCI*-)$*'5,*)#)6",+,",)'(-.*()/'"%@,)'-.*-/*()*AVCD^*
*
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
K
!L'!I71,6!,.4'!%7!%&+$4!+$!+$7$-B71*!)'8.'I')!07)!*1DD'*%.$D!%&'*'!%')B*@!A&'!%')B*!1*'6!.$!%&'!7).D.$+,!
M9&+0')!N!6'!O.,,.')*!=CPPP?!+$6!M9&+0')!'%!+,@!=CPPP?!*%16.'*!I')'!*('9.0.9!.$6'0.$.%'/!()'6.9+%.7$+,!+$6!$7$J
)'0')'$%.+,!)'*('9%.8',-@!L'!Q',.'8'!%&+%!%&'*'!$'I!%')B*!()78.6'!+!B7)'!+991)+%'!6'*9).(%.7$!70!%&'!6.00')'$%!
97$6.%.7$*@!
23!
!
AFC
R,+,",)'(-.*/1,&(+(&*()$,+()(',*
4?1,"(@,)',"E*;*=,'*0#%*5-2,*/#@,'5()3*5-)3()3*#)*'5,*8-..*#+*0#%"*"##@D*
Z5-'*(/*('h*
`5(.$*A,?1,&',$*",/1#)/,CE*<*1(&'%",D*
*
AWC
\#)6",+,",)'(-.*1",$(&-'(#)-.*
4?1,"(@,)',"E*>5()7*#+*-*1#.(&,@-)D*>,..*@,*85-'*5,*5-/D*
`5(.$*A,?1,&',$*",/1#)/,CE*<*=-'D*
*
AVC
\#)6",+,",)'(-.*()/'"%@,)'-.*
4?1,"(@,)',"E*J-"0*5-/*c,..#I*/#%1*-)$*&,",-.*'#*,-'D*Z5-'*&-)*/5,*,-'*('*-..*
8('5h*
`5(.$*A,?1,&',$*",/1#)/,CE*<*/1##)D*
*
9&5-+,"* L* $,* K(..(,"/* AMNNNC* ",1#"',$* &,(.()3* 1,"+#"@-)&,* +#"* '5,* )#)6",+,",)'(-.*
1",$(&-'(#)-.* A=,'8,,)* WFDHf* -)$* VYf* $,1,)$()3* #)* '5,* -3,* 3"#%1C* -)$* )#)6
",+,",)'(-.*()/'"%@,)'-.*A=,'8,,)*WMf*-)$*VbfC*%/,*#+*()$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/I*-/*8,..*-/*
24!
!
+#"* ",+,",)'(-.* /1,&(+(&* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* A=,'8,,)* WYf* -)$* VFfCD* >5,* @-c#"('0* #+*
,""#"/*-&"#//*-..*&#)$('(#)/*&#)/(/',$*()*#@(//(#)/I*-)$*2,"0*+,8*/%=/'('%'(#)/*8,",*
#=/,"2,$* ()* '5,* )#)6",+,",)'(-.* &#)$('(#)/D* B,* K(..(,"/* ,'* -.D* AMNNNC* ,?-@(),$* '5,*
1"#$%&'(#)* #+* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* ()* ^6'#F60,-"6#.$* &5(.$",)* %/()3* '5,* /-@,* '-/7* -/*
9&5-+,"*L*$,*K(..(,"/*AMNNNCD*B,*K(..(,"/*,'*-.D*AMNNNC*+#%)$*'5-'*'5,*",+,",)'(-.*/1,&(+(&*
()$,+()(',* %/,* #+* -"'(&.,/* ,.(&(',$* '5,* @#/'* ,""#),#%/* ",/1#)/,/* 8('5* -)* -2,"-3,*
-&&%"-&0* #+* ^HD^f* -&"#//* -..* -3,* 3"#%1/D* >5,* )#)6",+,",)'(-.* ()/'"%@,)'-.* -)$*
1",$(&-'(#)-.*%/,/*#+* -I*#)*'5,*#'5,"*5-)$I*8,",*%)1"#=.,@-'(&*A()/'"%@,)'-.E*WMDbfI*
1",$(&-'(#)-.E* VbDUf* -&&%"-&0CD* >5,* .-&7* #+* /%=/'('%'(#)* ,""#"/* ()* '5,* &-/,* #+*
()$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*/5#8/*'5-'*0#%)3*&hildren do not have problems with the [±hearer]
$(/'()&'(#)G* ('* "-'5,"* /5#8/* '5-'* #2,"%/,* #+* '5,* ()* ()$,+()(',* &#)',?'/* @-0* =,* -* '-/7*
,++,&'I* 85,)* %/()3* 2(/%-.* &#)',?'* A$,* `-'I* MNUU=CD* [#8,2,"I* '5,* $,* K(..(,"/* ,'* -.D*
AMNNNC* /'%$0* 5-/* '5,* /-@,* .(@('-'(#)/* ()* ',"@/* #+* 1-"'(&(1-)'/I* ,?1,"(@,)'-.* (',@/*
-)$*",/%.'/*-/*'5,*#),*8('5*'5,*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*@,)'(#),$*1",2(#%/.0D**
>5,*-&S%(/('(#)*#+*$,+()(',*-)$*()$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*5-/*",&,(2,$*.,//*-'',)'(#)*()*
",/,-"&5* #)* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;D* 4-".0* /'%$(,/* ,?-@()()3* '5,* $,2,.#1@,)'* #+*
3"-@@-'(&-.* @#"15,@,/* ()* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* %/()3* )-'%"-.(/'(&* $-'-* 5-2,* ",1#"',$*
25!
!
'5-'* '5,0* $(++,"* +"#@* '5,("* J:i6@-'&5,$* &#)'"#./* #)* '5,* 1"#$%&'(#)* #+* -"'(&.,/*
A:,#)-"$* ,'* -.DI* UVVFG* J&]",3#"* L* :,#)-"$I* UVVbG* R(&,* L* Z,?.,"I* UVVYCI* -.'5#%35*
#'5,"*/'%$(,/*5-2,*+#%)$*)#*$(++,",)&,*=,'8,,)*'5,*'8#*3"#%1/* A:,*\#"@-)$*,'*-.DI*
UVV^CD*
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range of baseline tasks assessing the children s non62,"=-.*-)$*2,"=-.*-=(.('(,/D*
>5,/,*(ncluded Raven s coloured matrices*AR-2,)I*`#%"'I*L*R-2,)I*MNNWCI*'5,*>,/'*
#+*R,&,1'(#)*#+*]"-@@-"*M*A_(/5#1I*MNN^CI*'5,*_"('(/5*!(&'%",*K#&-=%.-"0*9&-.,/*;;*
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32!
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Children s Test of Non68#"$*",1,'('(#)*A]-'5,"&#.,*L*_-$$,.,0I*UVVYCD*\#),*#+*'5,*
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4?&.%/(#)*&"(',"(-*+#"*-..*3"#%1/*8-/*1,"+#"@-)&,*=,.#8*#),*/'-)$-"$*$,2(-'(#)*
on the Raven s coloured matrices and a history in 5,-"()3*(@1-("@,)'I*+"-)7*
),%"#.#3(&-.*(@1-("@,)'I*1/0&5#6,@#'(#)-.*$(/'%"=-)&,I*-)$*$(-3)#/(/*#+*-%'(/@D*
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Raven s coloured matrices and were, therefore, excluded from the study. Inclusion
&"(',"(-*+#"*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*&#)/(/',$*#+*-*&.()(&-.*$(-3)#/(/*#+*.-)3%-3,*
(@1-("@,)'*-)$*1,"+#"@-)&,*#+*-'*.,-/'*#),*/'-)$-"$*$,2(-'(#)*=,.#8*'5,*@,-)*()*
#),*#"*@#",*.-)3%-3,*-//,//@,)'/D**
>-=.,*M*illustrates the children s age and their raw and standard scores on the
Raven s (non62,"=-.*-=(.('(,/CI*'5,*>Ra]6M*A3"-@@-'(&-.*-=(.('(,/CI*-)$*'5,*_!K96;;*
A2#&-=%.-"0CD*
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$($*)#'*$(++,"*+"#@*'5,("*-3,6@-'&5,$*&#)'"#./*A1lNDUCI*=%'*'5,*>B6KJ*&#)'"#./*8,",*
0#%)3,"*'5-)*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*-)$*'5,*>B6<J*&#)'"#./*A=#'5*&#@1-"(/#)/E*
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standard scores of the Raven s, the TROG6MI*-)$*'5,*_!K96;;*A9:;*2/D*=#'5*3"#%1/*
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>Ra]6M*A1kDNNUCD**
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&#)',?'I*-/*()*AFCI*AWC*-)$*AVC*",/1,&'(2,.0D*
;)*'5,*$,+()(',*-)-15#"(&*&#)$('(#)I*'5,*'-"3,'*)#%)*8-/*()('(-..0*()'"#$%&,$*()'#*
'5,* $(/&#%"/,* 8('5* -)* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,* -)$* '5,)* ('* 8-/* ,.(&(',$* %/()3* '5,* S%,/'(#)*
35!
!
Guess which , as in (5C*-=#2,D*;)*'5,*="($3()3*&#)$('(#)I*'5,*)#%)*()*'5,*/'#"0*-)$*
'5,* '-"3,'* )#%)* 8,",* /'"#)3.0* -//#&(-',$* '5"#%35* -* whole6part relation, as in (6CD*
>5,* )#%)* '5-'* $,)#',$* '5,* 85#.,* /,'* +"#@* '5,* 85#.,61-"'* ",.-'(#)* 8-/* 1",/,)',$*
first. The noun that denoted the part was then elicited with the question What
*
? .*
;)$,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* 8,",* ,.(&(',$* '5"#%35* '5,* S%,/'(#)* WhatDDD? * ()* '5,* )#)6
",+,",)'(-.*1",$(&-'(#)-.*-)$*()/'"%@,)'-.*&#)$('(#)/*-)$*'5,*/'-',@,)'* Tell me*85-'*
it is *()*'5,*",+,",)'(-.*/1,&(+(&*&#)$('(#)D*>5,*&#)',?'*()*'5,*.,-$6()*/,)',)&,*$(++,",$*
$,1,)$()3*#)*'5,*/,@-)'(&*&#)',?'D*;)*'5,*",+,",)'(-.*/1,&(+(&*()$,+()(',*&#)$('(#)I*'5,*
&#)',?'* 1",/%11#/,/* '5,* speaker s knowledge. In the )#)6",+,",)'(-.* 1",$(&-'(#)-.*
&#)$('(#)I* '5,* ()$,+()(',* )#%)* 15"-/,* 8-/* -.8-0/* '5,* &#@1.,@,)'* #+* '5,* 2,"=* 5-2,*
-)$* 8-/* ()* -)* -//#&(-'(2,* ",.-'(#)/5(1* 8('5* '5,* )#%)* 15"-/,* 8('5()* '5,* .,-$6()*
/,)',)&,I* ,D3D* +##'=-..* 1.-0,"6=-..D* ;)* '5,* )#)6",+,",)'(-.* ()/'"%@,)'-.* &#)$('(#)I* '5,*
'-"3,',$* (',@* ",+,"",$* '#* -* /1,&(+(&* /,'* #+* (',@/* 1",/%11#/,$* =0* '5,* /('%-'(#)-.*
&#)',?'I*,D3D*'5()3/*'5-'*&-)*=,*%/,$*'#*&5#1*%1*2,3,'-=.,/I*=%'*)#'*'#*-*/1,&(+(&*(',@*
8('5()*'5,*/,'D**
<..* )#%)/* -&"#//* &#)$('(#)/* -11,-",$* ()* '5,* #=c,&'* 1#/('(#)* -)$* 8,",*
()-)(@-',*=,&-%/,*#=c,&'/*-",*1"#'#'01(&-..0*()-)(@-',D*>5,*)#%)/*()*'5,*-)-15#"(&*
36!
!
&#)$('(#)*8,",* =##7I*&-"I*1#/',"I*$#..I*/5("'I*'"-()I*-)$*()*'5,*="($3()3*&#)$('(#)* /7()I*
.($I*$##"I*,)3(),I*85,,.I*8()$#8D*;)*'5,*()$,+()(',*/1,&(+(&*&#)$('(#)I*'5,*'-"3,'*)#%)/*
8,",* =-..I* +(.@I* $",//I* 1(&'%",I* +.#8,"I* .,'',"I* -)$* ()* '5,* )#)6",+,",)'(-.* 1",$(&-'(#)-.*
&#)$('(#)I* '5,* 1-("/* 8,",* +(",@-)65#/,I* +##'=-..* 1.-0,"6=-..I* &"(&7,'* 1.-0,"6=-'I*
&.(@=,"6"#1,I* ',))(/* 1.-0,"6"-&7,'I* 1-()',"6="%/5D* ;)* '5,* )#)6",+,",)'(-.* ()/'"%@,)'-.*
&#)$('(#)I* '5,* '-"3,'* )#%)/* 8,",* =-3e=#?I* 1,)I* 1#'I* @%3I* @-1I* 7)(+,D* >5,* )#%)/*
8,",* @-'&5,$* -&"#//* &#)$('(#)/* +#"* +",S%,)&0* A_--0,)I* !(,1,)="#&7I* L* 2-)* R(c)I*
UVV^CI* .,)3'5* A)%@=,"* #+* /0..-=.,/C* -)$* -3,* #+* -&S%(/('(#)* A=,.#8* YI* JR`*
1/0&5#.()3%(/'(&* $-'-=-/,I* UVVFCD* >5,",* 8,",* Y* (',@/* 1,"* &#)$('(#)* A-)-15#"(&* 2/D*
="($3()3I*/1,&(+(&*2/D*1",$(&-'(#)-.*2/D*()/'"%@,)'-.CI*3(2()3*"(/,*'#*^N*(',@/*()*'#'-.D**
*
`#$()3*-)$*/&#"()3*
X#"*'5,*'8#*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,*&#)$('(#)/I*",/1#)/,/*()2#.2()3*-*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,*-)$*'5,*
'-"3,'*)#%)I*(D,D*'5,*)#%)*'5-'*5-$*-.",-$0*=,,)*()'"#$%&,$*()*'5,*/'#"0*()*'5,*&-/,*#+*
'5,* -)-15#"(&* &#)$('(#)I* #"* '5,* )#%)* '5-'* 8-/* 1-"'* #+* '5,* 85#.,61-"'* ",.-'(#)* ()* '5,*
case of the bridging condition, were coded as correct . Responses that involved an
indefinite article with the target noun were coded as substitutions . Responses with
37!
!
bare (articleless) target nouns were coded as omissions . There wer,*-./#*-*)%@=,"*
#+* #'5,"* ",/1#)/,/* '5-'* 8,",* 1"#$%&,$* =0* '5,* &5(.$",)I* -)$* ,/1,&(-..0* '5,* &5(.$",)*
with SLI, that were classified as other . In the anaphoric condition, these were
#&&%"",)&,/* #+* -* &#%)'* )#%)* 8('5* #"* 8('5#%'* -)* -"'(&.,I* 85(&5* 8-/* )#'* -.",-$0*
@,)'(#),$*()*'5,*/'#"0I*#"*85(&5*8-/*)#'*-*@,@=,"*#+*'5,*85#.,61-"'*",.-'(#)*()*'5,*
="($3()3* &#)$('(#)D* `5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* -./#* 1"#$%&,$* @-//* )#%)/* ()* '5,* $,+()(',*
conditions and these were also classified as other . *
;)*'5,*'5",,*()$,+()(',*&#)$('(#)/I*",/1#)/,/*()2#.2()3*-)*()$,+()(',*-"'(&.,*8('5*
-*'-"3,'*)#%)I*'5-'*(/*-*)#%)*'5-'*8-/*/,@-)'(&-..0*#"*1"-3@-'(&-..0*+,.(&('#%/I*8,",*
considered as correct . Responses where the target noun was produced but the
()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,* 8-/* /%=/'('%',$* =0* -* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,* #"* #@('',$* 8,",* '",-',$* -/*
/%=/'('%'(#)/* #"* #@(//(#)/* ",/1,&'(2,.0D* R,/1#)/,/* 8('5* 1.%"-.* )#%)/I* 1#//,//(2,/I*
proper names or pragmatically unrelated nouns were classified as other . ! !"#1#"'(#)*
&#"",&'I*/%=/'('%'(#)/I*#@(//(#)/*-)$*#'5,"*",/1#)/,/*8,",*&-.&%.-',$*#%'*#+*-..*+#%"*
",/1#)/,* '01,/* A$,)#@()-'#"E* &#"",&'I* /%=/'('%'(#)/I* #@(//(#)/I* #'5,"CD* >5,* '5",,*
3"#%1/* $($* )#'* $(++,"* ()* ',"@/* #+* )%..* ",/1#)/,/* ()* '5,* +(2,* &#)$('(#)/D* X#"* -..* '5",,*
3"#%1/*)%..*",/1#)/,/*&#)/'('%',$*.,//*'5-)*Mf*#+*'5,*$-'-D**
38!
!
*
<)-.0/,/*
B,+()(',* -)$* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* 8,",* -)-.0/,$* /,1-"-',.0* %/()3* ",1,-',$6@,-/%",/*
<\aK</* 8('5* ]"#%1* A9:;I* >B6<JI* >B6KJC* -/* '5,* =,'8,,)* 3"#%1* +-&'#"* -)$*
9,@-)'(&*`#)',?'*A-)-15#"(&*2/D*="($3()3G*/1,&(+(&*2/D*1",$(&-'(#)-.*2/D*()/'"%@,)'-.C*
-/* '5,* 8('5()* 3"#%1* +-&'#"* ()* 1,"* 1-"'(&(1-)'* AXUC* -)$* 1,"* (',@* AXMC* -)-.0/,/D* ;)* '5,*
,""#"* -)-.0/,/I* 8,* ()&.%$,$* 4""#"* >01,* A#@(//(#)I* /%=/'('%'(#)I* #'5,"C* -/* -)*
-$$('(#)-.*8('5()*3"#%1*+-&'#"D*4""#"*"-',/*8,",*&-.&%.-',$*=0*&#@1%'()3*'5,*@,-)*+#"*
,-&5*,""#"*'01,*#%'*#+*'5,*'#'-.*)%@=,"*#+*,""#"/D*4""#"*"-',/*8,",*&-.&%.-',$*+#"*,-&5*
&#)$('(#)* -)$* +#"* ,-&5* 1-"'(&(1-)'* /,1-"-',.0G* 8,* '5,)* "-)* '5,* 1-"'(&(1-)'* -)$* (',@*
-)-.0/,/* 8('5* ,""#"* '01,* -)$* /,@-)'(&* &#)$('(#)* -/* +-&'#"/D* ;)',"-&'(#)/* 8('5* 3"#%1*
8,",* %)1-&7,$* %/()3* <\aK</* +#"* ,-&5* 3"#%1* /,1-"-',.0D* J-()* ,++,&'/* -)$* 8('5()6
3"#%1* ()',"-&'(#)/* 8,",* +#..#8,$* %1* %/()3* 1#/'65#&* &#@1-"(/#)/* 8('5* _#)+,""#)(*
&#"",&'(#)D*Z5,)*Mauchly s test indicated that the assumption of sphericity had be,)*
2(#.-',$* +#"* @-()* ,++,&'/* -)$* ()',"-&'(#)/I* '5,* $,3",,/* #+* +",,$#@* 8,",* &#"",&',$*
%/()3* ]",,)5#%/, ],(//,"* ,/'(@-',/* #+* /15,"(&('0D* ;)$(2($%-.* 2-"(-=(.('0* 8-/*
()2,/'(3-',$* =0* &#@1-"()3* '5,* /'-)$-"$* $,2(-'(#)/* -)$* "-)3,/* =,'8,,)* '5,* '5",,*
39!
!
3"#%1/*-)$*-./#*=0*&-.&%.-'()3*'5,*1"#1#"'(#)*#+*&5(.$",)*()*,-&5*3"#%1*-)$*&#)$('(#)*
85#*1,"+#"@,$*8('5()*/1,&(+(&*"-)3,/*ANf6MHfI*MYf6HNfI*HUf6FHfI*FYf6UNNfCD*
*
R,/%.'/*
<$%.'*$-'-*
>5,*-$%.'/*5-$*&,(.()3*-&&%"-&0*-&"#//*-..*&#)$('(#)/*A="($3()3E*VFDUfI*"-)3,E*VUf6
UNNfI*9BE*UWG*/1,&(+(&E*VMfI*"-)3,E*W^f6UNNfI*9BE*MMG*)#)6",+,",)'(-.*
1",$(&-'(#)-.E*VYDFfI*"-)3,E*W^f6UNNfI*9BE*MNG*)#)6",+,",)'(-.*()/'"%@,)'-.E*
VYDFfI*"-)3,E*W^f6UNNfI*9BE*MNCI*-1-"'*+"#@*'5,*-)-15#"(&*&#)$('(#)*85,",*
-&&%"-&0*",-&5,$*WMDYf*A"-)3,E*YNf6UNNfI*9BE*^NCD*>5,*-$%.'/*#).0*&#@@('',$*
#@(//(#)*,""#"/*-&"#//*-..*&#)$('(#)/D**
*
`5(.$*$-'-*
B,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*
40!
!
>-=.,*^*-)$*X(3%",*U*1",/,)'*'5,*-&&%"-&0*",/%.'/*#)*'5,*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,*()*'5,*
-)-15#"(&*-)$*'5,*="($3()3*&#)$('(#)*+#"*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;I*'5,*>B6<J*-)$*>B6
KJ*&5(.$",)D*
*
;\94R>*><_:4*^*[4R4*
;\94R>*X;]iR4*U*[4R4*
*
>5,*-)-.0/(/*#+*&#"",&'*",/1#)/,/*",2,-.,$*5(35,"*-&&%"-&0*()*'5,*="($3()3*
&#@1-",$*8('5*'5,*-)-15#"(&*&#)',?'*AXUAUIYUCj^MDFb,p<.001, MjD^HG*
XMAUIUHCjHYDYHI1kDNNUI* MjDFVC*-)$*-*/(3)(+(&-)'*$(++,",)&,*=,'8,,)*'5,*3"#%1/*
AXUAMIYUCjFDFM,p=.001, MjDMNG*XMAMIUHCjUYDVNI1kDNNUI* MjDYVCD*>5,",*8-/*)#*
()',"-&'(#)*=,'8,,)*/,@-)'(&*&#)',?'*-)$*3"#%1D*>5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*1,"+#"@,$*
/(3)(+(&-)'.0*8#"/,*'5-)*'5,*>B6<J*&5(.$",)*A1jDNNUCI*=%'*$($*)#'*$(++,"*+"#@*'5,*>B6
KJ*&5(.$",)G*'5,*'8#*&#)'"#.*3"#%1/*$($*)#'*$(++,"*+"#@*,-&5*#'5,"D**
>5,* -)-.0/,/* .##7()3* -'* ()$(2($%-.* 2-"(-=(.('0* /5#8,$* '5-'* '5,* /'-)$-"$*
$,2(-'(#)*-)$*"-)3,/*8,",*/(@(.-"*()*'5,*'5",,*3"#%1/*A/,,*>-=.,*^CD*>5,*-)-.0/,/*#+*
()$(2($%-.*$-'-*+#"*,-&5*3"#%1*&#)+("@,$*'5,*$(++,",)&,/*=,'8,,)*'5,* '8#*&#)$('(#)/*
41!
!
-)$* =,'8,,)* '5,* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* -)$* '5,* >B6<J* &5(.$",)I* -/* /5#8)* ()* >-=.,* bE*
YFf*#+*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*A)jUYC*/&#",$*=,.#8*MHf*()*'5,*-)-15#"(&*&#)$('(#)*=%'*
#).0* MVf* A)jFC* ()* '5,* ="($3()3* &#)$('(#)G* '5,* ",/1,&'(2,* 1"#1#"'(#)/* +#"* '5,* >B6<J*
&5(.$",)* 8,",* #).0* MWf* A)jWC* +#"* '5,* -)-15#"(&* -)$* Ff* A)jMC* +#"* '5,* ="($3()3*
&#)$('(#)D*J#",#2,"I*#).0*Wf*A)jMC*#+*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*/&#",$*-=#2,*FHf*()*'5,*
-)-15#"(&*&#)$('(#)*=%'*MVf*A)jFC*()*'5,*="($3()3*&#)$('(#)I*85,",-/*'5,*",/1,&'(2,*
1"#1#"'(#)/* +#"* '5,* >B6<J* &5(.$",)* 8,",* HMf* A)jUHC* +#"* '5,* -)-15#"(&* -)$* HVf*
A)jUFC* +#"* '5,* ="($3()3* &#)$('(#)D* >5,* 1"#1#"'(#)/* #+* '5,* >B6KJ* &5(.$",)* 8,",* ()*
=,'8,,)*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*-)$*'5,*>B6<J*3"#%1/*A=,.#8*MHf*()*'5,*-)-15#"(&*
&#)$('(#)E*^YfI*)jbG*()*'5,*="($3()3*&#)$('(#)E*VfI*)jUG*-=#2,*FHf*()*'5,*-)-15#"(&*
&#)$('(#)E*MFfI*)j^G*()*'5,*="($3()3*&#)$('(#)E*HHfI*)jYCD**
*
;\94R>*><_:4*b*[4R4*
;\94R>*X;]iR4*M*[4R4*
*
9%=/,S%,)'.0I*8,*,?-@(),$*'5,*'01,/*#+*,""#"/*A>-=.,*^I*X(3%",*MCD*Mauchly s
',/'*()$(&-',$*'5-'*'5,*-//%@1'(#)*#+*/15,"(&('0*5-$*=,,)*2(#.-',$*+#"*'5,*@-()*,++,&'*
42!
!
#+* 4""#"* >01,* ()* '5,* 1-"'(&(1-)'* -)-.0/(/* A MAMCj^WDUbI* 1kDNNUC* -)$* '5,* ()',"-&'(#)*
=,'8,,)*`#)',?'*-)$*4""#"*>01,*()*'5,*(',@*-)-.0/(/*A MAMCjYDNMI*1kDNHCD*>5,",+#",I*
$,3",,/* #+* +",,$#@* 8,",* &#"",&',$* %/()3* ]",,)5#%/, ],(//,"* ,/'(@-',/* #+*
/15,"(&('0*A jDYW*+#"*4""#"*'01,*-)$*DFb*+#"*'5,*()',"-&'(#)*=,'8,,)*&#)',?'*-)$*,""#"*
'01,CD* <+',"* '5(/* &#"",&'(#)I* '5,* ,""#"* -)-.0/(/* ",2,-.,$* -* @-()* ,++,&'* #+* 9,@-)'(&*
`#)',?'* AXUAUIYUCj^MDFb,p<.001, MjD^HG* XMAUIUHCjHbDUNI1kDNNUI MjDFWCI* -* @-()*
,++,&'*
#+*
4""#"*
>01,*
AXUAUDbIWMDVFCjUMDMF,p<.001, MjDUFG*
XMAMI^NCjbHDHHI1kDNNUI MjDFHCI*-*@-()*,++,&'*#+*]"#%1*AXUAMIYUCjFDFM,p=.001, MjDMNG*
XMAMIUHCjUYDYWI1kDNNUI MjDYVCI* * -)* ()',"-&'(#)* =,'8,,)* `#)',?'* -)$* 4""#"* >01,*
AXUAMIUMMCjUHDbY,p<.001, MjDMNG* XMAUDbWIMMDM^CjMUDWVI1kDNNUI MjDHVCI* -)$* -* '5",,6
8-0*
()',"-&'(#)*
=,'8,,)*
`#)',?'I*
4""#"*
'01,*
-)$*
]"#%1*
AXUAbIUMMCj^DMb,p<.05, MjDNVG*XMAbI^NCjbDUWI1kDNUI MjD^YCD**
9,1-"-',*<\aK</*8,",*&-""(,$*#%'*+#"*,-&5*3"#%1D*X#"*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;I*
Mauchly s test indicated that the assumption of sphericity had be,)*2(#.-',$*+#"*'5,*
@-()*,++,&'*#+*4""#"*>01,*()*'5,*1-"'(&(1-)'*-)-.0/(/*A MAMCjUbDYYI*1jDNNUCI*'5,",+#",I*
$,3",,/* #+* +",,$#@* 8,",* &#"",&',$* %/()3* ]",,)5#%/, ],(//,"* ,/'(@-',/* #+*
/15,"(&('0*A jDYFCD*<+',"*'5(/*&#"",&'(#)I*8,*+#%)$*-*@-()*,++,&'*#+*9,@-)'(&*`#)',?'*
43!
!
AXUAUIM^CjMUDbV,p<.001, MjDbWI* XMAUIHCjUHDV^I1jDNUI*
MjDFYCI* -* @-()* ,++,&'* #+* 4""#"*
>01,* AXUAUD^HI^NDVbCjbDYY,p<.05, MjDUFG* XMAMIUNCjUND^bI1kDNUI MjDYFCI* -)$* -*
/(3)(+(&-)'*()',"-&'(#)*=,'8,,)*`#)',?'*-)$*4""#"*>01,*AXUAMIbYCjHD^H,p<.01, MjDUVG*
XMAMIUNCjUUDYHI1kDNUI MjDFNCD* >5,* ()',"-&'(#)* 8-/* &-%/,$* =0* $(++,",)&,/* =,'8,,)*
'5,* #@(//(#)e/%=/'('%'(#)* 2/D* #'5," * ,""#"/D* >5,",* 8-/* )#* $(++,",)&,* ()* ',"@/* #+*
other errors in the two semantic contexts, but '5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*5-$*/(3)(+(&-)'.0*
@#",* #@(//(#)/* -)$* /%=/'('%'(#)/* ()* '5,* -)-15#"(&* &#@1-",$* 8('5* '5,* ="($3()3*
&#)',?'*A1kDNU*()*=#'5*&-/,/CD*J#",#2,"I*8('5()*,-&5*/,@-)'(&*&#)',?'I*'5,*&5(.$",)*
@-$,* -)* ,S%-.* )%@=,"* #+* /%=/'('%'(#)/* -)$* #@(//(#)/I* -)$* '5,",* 8,",* @#",*
/%=/'('%'(#)* -)$* #@(//(#)* ,""#"/* '5-)* other errors (p<.001 in both cases)D* X#"* '5,*
>B6<J*&5(.$",)I*Mauchly s test indicated that the assumption of sphericity had be,)*
2(#.-',$* +#"* '5,* @-()* ,++,&'* #+* 4""#"* >01,* ()* '5,* 1-"'(&(1-)'* -)-.0/(/* A MAMCjMHDWYI*
1kDNNUCI* -)$* $,3",,/* #+* +",,$#@* 8,",* &#"",&',$* %/()3* ]",,)5#%/, ],(//,"*
,/'(@-',/* #+* /15,"(&('0* A jDYMCD* >5,* &#"",&',$* -)-.0/(/* ",2,-.,$* -* @-()* ,++,&'* #+*
9,@-)'(&*`#)',?'*AXU(1,28)=7.12,p<.05, MjDMNG*XMAUIHCjUbDNVI1kDNHI MjDFbCI*-*@-()*
,++,&'*
#+*
4""#"*
>01,*
AXUAUDMbI^bDYHC=14.57,p<.001, MjD^bG*
XMAMIUNCj^YDUWI1kDNNUI MjDWWCI* -)$* -* /(3)(+(&-)'* ()',"-&'(#)* =,'8,,)* `#)',?'* -)$*
44!
!
4""#"* >01,* AXUAMIHYCjHDUb,p<.05, MjDUHG* XMAMIUNCjbDUMI1kDNHI MjDbHCD* 9%=/,S%,)'*
1-("8(/,* &#@1-"(/#)/* /5#8,$* '5-'* '5,* &5(.$",)* @-$,* -)* equal number of other
,""#"/*()*'5,*'8#*/,@-)'(&*&#)',?'/I*=%'*'5,",*8,",*/(3)(+(&-)'.0*@#",*#@(//(#)/*-)$*
/%=/'('%'(#)/*()*'5,*-)-15#"(&*&#@1-",$*8('5*'5,*="($3()3*&#)',?'*A1kDNH*-)$*1kDNU*
",/1,&'(2,.0CD* Z('5()* ,-&5* /,@-)'(&* &#)',?'I* '5,",* 8,",* @#",* #@(//(#)* '5-)*
/%=/'('%'(#)* ,""#"/* +#"* =#'5* '5,* -)-15#"(&* -)$* '5,* ="($3()3* &#)$('(#)* A1kDNU* ()* =#'5*
&-/,/C*and fewer other errors (p<.001 in both cases)D*X#"*'5,*>B6KJ*&5(.$",)I*'5,*
-)-.0/(/* ",2,-.,$* -* @-()* ,++,&'* #+* `#)',?'* AXU(1,10)=10.87,p<.01, MjDHMG*
XMAUIHCj^HDHVI1kDNUI MjDWWCI*-)$*-*/(3)(+(&-)'*()',"-&'(#)*=,'8,,)*`#)',?'*-)$*4""#"*
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-''"(=%',/* $(++(&%.'(,/* 8('5* -"'(&.,/* '#* 8#"7()3* @,@#"0* 1"#=.,@/* A!#.(',* ,'* -.DI* MNUUCI*
A(((C*'5,*'5("$*-&&#%)'*1",/%11#/,/* 1"#=.,@/*8('5*>aJ*-)$*'5,*[±hearer] distinction
A9&5-+,"* L* $,* K(..(,"/I* MNNNCI* -)$* A(2C* '5,* +#%"'5* -&&#%)'* -''"(=%',/* 1"#=.,@/* 8('5*
$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*'#*'5,("*$(/&#%"/,*1"#1,"'(,/*A$,*`-'I*MNUU=CD*>5,*+("/'*'8#*-&&#%)'/*
54!
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5-2,*=,,)*-"3%,$*8('5()*'5,*&#)',?'*#+*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;I*85,",-/*'5,*'8#*.-'',"*#),/*
8('5()*'5,*&#)',?'*#+*1",6/&5##.*>B*&5(.$",)D*
9'-"'()3* +"#@* '5,* 1"#/#$(&* -&&#%)'I* -&&#"$()3* '#* J&]",3#"* -)$* :,#)-"$*
AUVVbC* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* 5-2,* 1"#=.,@/* 8('5* 4)3.(/5* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* =,&-%/,* '5,0*
&#)/'('%',* 8,-7I* %)/'",//,$* /0..-=.,/* '5-'* 1",&,$,* -* /'"#)3* /0..-=.,* &-""(,$* =0* '5,*
)#%)I*,D3D* '5,*3(".*A9ZCD*>5,/,*1"#/#$(&*+-&'#"/*&-))#'*-&&#%)'*+#"*'5,*",/%.'/*#+*'5,*
1",/,)'*/'%$0D*;+*'5,*$(++(&%.'(,/*()*'5,*1"#$%&'(#)*#+*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/*8,",*$%,*'#*'5,("*
1"#/#$(&* )-'%",I* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* /5#%.$* #@('* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* ("",/1,&'(2,* #+* '5,*
/,@-)'(&*&#)',?'*=,&-%/,*'5,*1"#/#$0*(/*&#)/'-)'*-&"#//*/,@-)'(&*&#)',?'/D*;)*'5,*
1",/,)'* /'%$0I* 5#8,2,"I* 8,* +#%)$* '5-'* 1,"+#"@-)&,* $,1,)$,$* %1#)* /,@-)'(&*
&#)',?'D* X%"'5,"@#",I* -.'5#%35* ()$,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* -./#* &#)/'('%',* 8,-7I* %)/'",//,$*
/0..-=.,/I*'5,0*5-$*5(35,"*1"#$%&'(#)*"-',/*'5-)*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/DF*
>%")()3*'#*!#.(',*,'*-.D*AMNUUCI*'5,*$(++(&%.'(,/*8('5*'5,*-)-15#"(&*%/,*#+*$,+()(',*
-"'(&.,/* ()* 9:;* &5(.$",)* /5#%.$* =,* &-%/,$* =0* 8#"7()3* @,@#"0* 1"#=.,@/D* \-@,.0I*
&5(.$",)* ),,$* '#* 7,,1* '"-&7* #+* $(/&#%"/,* ",+,",)&,* -)$* ",'-()* '5,* 1",2(#%/.0*
()'"#$%&,$* $(/&#%"/,* -)',&,$,)'* ()* 8#"7()3* @,@#"0D* <.'5#%35* )#* 8#"7()3* @,@#"0*
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
F
!L'!I71,6!,.4'!%7!%&+$4!7$'!+$7$-B71*!)'8.'I')!07)!(7.$%.$D!71%!%&'!.**1'!70!%&'!.$6'0.$.%'!+)%.9,'*!%7!1*@!
55!
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@,-/%",* 8-/* %/,$* ()* '5,* !#.(',* ,'* -.D* AMNUUC* -)$* ()* '5,* 1",/,)'* /'%$0I* 8,* =,.(,2,*
that working memory does not fully explain the children s difficulties with articles and
@-0*#).0*=,*()$(",&'.0*()2#.2,$*()*'5,*1"#=.,@/*8('5*$,+()(',*-)-15#"(&*-"'(&.,/D*J#",*
/1,&(+(&-..0I*(+*8#"7()3*@,@#"0*.(@('-'(#)/*8,",*'5,*#).0*&-%/,*#+*'5,*1"#=.,@/*8('5*
'5,*-)-15#"(&*%/,*#+*-"'(&.,/*()*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;I*'5,)*8,*8#%.$*,?1,&'*'5,@*'#*5-2,*
$(++(&%.'(,/* ",@,@=,"()3* '5,* -.",-$0* @,)'(#),$* $(/&#%"/,* -)',&,$,)'I* #@(''()3* '5,*
'-"3,'* )#%)* 15"-/,* -)$e#"* 1"#$%&()3* -* .#'* #+* ("",.,2-)'* )#%)* 15"-/,/* )#'* -.",-$0*
introduced in the discourse. The children with SLI produced significantly more other
",/1#)/,/*&#@1-",$*8('5*'5,("*'01(&-..0*$,2,.#1()3*1,,"/I*85(&5*/%33,/'/*'5-'*'5,0*
5-2,*/#@,*1"#=.,@/*",'-()()3*'5,*'-"3,'*)#%)*()*8#"7()3*@,@#"0D*[#8,2,"I*$,/1(',*
'5(/* $(++,",)&,I* '5,0* +,.(&('#%/.0* 1"#$%&,$* '5,* '-"3,'* )#%)* Vbf* #+* '5,* '(@,* ()* '5,*
-)-15#"(&* &#)$('(#)I* -/* &-)* =,* /,,)* ()* >-=.,* ^* =0* -$$()3* '5,* &#"",&'* ",/1#)/,/*
AMbD^fCI* #@(//(#)/* A^UDMfC* -)$* /%=/'('%'(#)/* A^WDMfCD* ;)* '5,/,* &#)',?'/* '5,* '-"3,'*
)#%)* 8-/* -.8-0/* 1"#$%&,$G* ()* &#)'"-/'I* '5,* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* +-(.,$* '#* 1"#$%&,* '5,*
'-"3,'*-"'(&.,*-11"#?(@-',.0*FNf*#+*'5,*'(@,I*-/*&-)*=,*/,,)*=0*-$$()3*'5,*#@(//(#)*
A^UDMfC*-)$*/%=/'('%'(#)*A^WDMfC*,""#"/*A>-=.,*^CD*>5,/,*",/%.'/*/%33,/'*'5-'*()*'5,*
@-c#"('0* #+* &-/,/I* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* -",* -=.,* '#* ",'-()* '5,* '-"3,'* )#%)* ()* 8#"7()3*
56!
!
@,@#"0I* =%'* +-(.* '#* -11"#1"(-',.0* %/,* '5,* $(/&#%"/,* ",S%(",@,)'/I* )-@,.0* %/,* -*
$,+()(',*-"'(&.,*'#*",+,"*'#*-)*-.",-$0*@,)'(#),$*$(/&#%"/,*-)',&,$,)'D**
<$$('(#)-.* ,2($,)&,* /%11#"'()3* '5,* -"3%@,)'* '5-'* '5,* 1"#=.,@/* #+* &5(.$",)*
8('5* 9:;* -",* )#'* ",.-',$* '#* 8#"7()3* @,@#"0* .(@('-'(#)/I* =%'* /5#%.$* =,* -''"(=%',$* '#*
#'5,"*",-/#)/I*&#@,/*+"#@*'5,*,?-@()-'(#)*#+*'5,*="($3()3*%/,*#+*-"'(&.,/D*Z#"7()3*
@,@#"0* (/* ()2#.2,$* )#'* #).0* ()* '5,* -)-15#"(&I* =%'* -./#* ()* '5,* ="($3()3* &#)$('(#)D* ;)*
'5(/* &#)$('(#)I* '5,* &5(.$* (/* ",S%(",$* '#* 7,,1* '5,* /%1,"/,'* #+* '5,* 1-"'685#.,* /,'* ()*
8#"7()3*@,@#"0*-)$*&#@1%',*-*.,?(&-..06=-/,$*",.-'(#)/5(1*=,'8,,)*'5,*85#.,*-)$*
('/* 1-"'I* ,D3D* =-)-)-6/7()D* `5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* 1,"+#"@* =,'',"* #)* '5(/* &#)$('(#)G* '5,0*
1"#$%&,*'5,*'-"3,'*)#%)*-11"#?(@-',.0*VMf*#+*'5,*'(@,I*-/*&-)*=,*/,,)*()*>-=.,*^*
=0* -$$()3* '5,* &#"",&'* ",/1#)/,/* AHMDbfCI* #@(//(#)/* AUVDYfC* -)$* /%=/'('%'(#)/*
AUVDbfCD**
>5%/*+-"I*'5,*",/%.'/*+"#@*'5,*1",/,)'*/'%$0*",+%',*1"#=.,@/*8('5*1"#/#$0*-)$*
8#"7()3* @,@#"0* -/* 1#//(=.,* /#%"&,/* +#"* '5,* $(++(&%.'(,/* '5-'* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* 5-2,*
8('5*$,+()(',*-"'(&.,/D*Z,*)#8*'%")*'#*'5,*-&&#%)'/*#)*'5,*>B*1",6/&5##.*&5(.$",)*'5-'*
1",/%11#/,/* 1"#=.,@/* 8('5* >aJ* -)$* '5,* OP5,-","Q* +,-'%",I* #"* $(++(&%.'(,/* 8('5* '5,*
57!
!
$(/&#%"/,* 1"#1,"'(,/* #+* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* -)$* ,?-@(),* '#* 85-'* ,?',)'* '5,/,* &-)* -./#*
=,*-11.(,$*'#*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;D*
9&5-+,"*L*$,* K(..(,"/*AMNNNC* 5-2,* -''"(=%',$* '5,*1"#=.,@/* 8('5* '5,*-)-15#"(&*
%/,* #+* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* ()* >B* 1",6/&5##.* &5(.$",)I* '#* lack of TOM and the [±hearer]
$(/'()&'(#)D*In the Schafer & de Villiers (2000) account, the absence of the OP5,-","Q*
+,-'%",* 5-/* ",1,"&%//(#)/* #)* '5,* /0)'-&'(&* /'"%&'%",* #+* '5,* )#%)* 15"-/,I* )-@,.0*
85,'5,"* #"* )#'* -* +%..* +%)&'(#)-.* &-',3#"0* AB!C* (/* 1"#c,&',$* #"* @,",.0* -* .,?(&-.* )#%)*
15"-/,* A'5,!CD* ](2,)* '5-'* '5,* >B* -)$* 9:;* &5(.$",)* ()* '5,* 1",/,)'* /'%$0* -",* H6'#6V6
0,-"/*#.$I*'5,0*-",*'##*#.$*+#"*#),*'#*/%33,/'*'5-'*'5,("*1"#=.,@/*.(,*()*-)*()&#@1.,',*
1"#c,&'(#)*#+*-*+%)&'(#)-.*&-',3#"0D**
X%"'5,"@#",I*-*&-2,-'*(/*-'*/'-7,*5,",D*`#"1%/*/'%$(,/*5-2,*/5#8)*'5-'*'5",,6
0,-"6#.$* &5(.$",)* -",* -=.,* '#* %/,* -* +%..* "-)3,* #+* ",+,""()3* ,?1",//(#)/I* ()&.%$()3*
definite and indefinite articles, at the same time when they fail false belief tasks
A]%)$,.I* \',.('5,#/* L* T#8-./70I* MNNFCD* ]%)$,.* ,'* -.D* AMNNFC* @-7,* -)* (@1#"'-)'*
$(/'()&'(#)* =,'8,,)* >aJ*-/* '5,* /'%$0* #+* false beliefsI* '5-'* (/* '5,* -=(.('0* '#* 2,"=-..0*
-''"(=%',*=,.(,+/*'#*#'5,"/*'5-'*-",*$(++,",)'*+"#@*one s*#8)I*-)$*>aJ*-/*'5,*-=(.('0*'#*
consider the interlocutor s point of view. This suggests that the TOM interpreted as
58!
!
the computation of false beliefs may be dissocia',$* +"#@* '5,* O±5,-","Q* $(/'()&'(#)I*
namely the ability to recognise the interlocutor s mental state and to linguistically
,)&#$,* /5-",$* ()+#"@-'(#)D* ](2,)* '5-'* '5,* &5(.$",)* ()* '5,* 1",/,)'* /'%$0* -",* #.$,"*
'5-)*'5,*&5(.$",)*()*1",2(#%/*/'%$(,/I*8,*$#*)#'*,?1,&'*'5,@*'#*5-2,*>aJ*1"#=.,@/*
$,+(),$*-/*'5,*ability to recognise the hearer s point of viewD*9'%$(,/*8('5*0#%)3*>B*
&5(.$",)*5-2,*/5#8)*'5-'*'5,0*are sensitive to their interlocutor s point of view, and
'5%/*'#*'5,*O±/1,-7,"I*±5,-","Q*$(/'()&'(#)*+"#@*'5,*-3,*#+*'5",,*0,-"/I*-/*8,..*-/*'#*
'5,* $(/&#%"/,* 1"#@(),)&,* #+* ",+,",)'(-.* ,?1",//(#)/I* %/()3* /(@(.-"* &%,/* -/* -$%.'/*
A9#)3* L* X(/5,"I* MNNHCDW* <* /'%$0* 8('5* 0#%)3* 9:;* &5(.$",)* 5-/* -./#* /5#8)* '5-'* '5,("*
1"#=.,@/* 8('5* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* -",* 3"-@@-'(&-.* "-'5,"* '5-)* 8('5* ()',"1",'()3* /5-",$*
/1,-7,"* -)$* 5,-","* 7)#8.,$3,* A9&5-,++,"* ,'* -.DI* MNN^CD* !",2(#%/* /'%$(,/I* '5%/I*
/%33,/'*'5-'*'5,*>B*-)$*9:;*&5(.$",)*#+*'5(/*-3,*/5#%.$*)#'*5-2,*1"#=.,@/*8('5*'5,*
O±5,-","I*±/1,-7,"Q*$(/'()&'(#)D*[#8,2,"I*'5,*+-&'*'5-'*^Yf*#+*'5,*>B6KJ*&5(.$",)*-/*
#11#/,$* '#* MHf* #+* '5,* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* -)$* )#* >B6<J* &5(.$",)* /%=/'('%',$* @#",*
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
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59!
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5-2,*/#@,*",/($%-.*1"#=.,@/*8('5*1,"/1,&'(2,*'-7()3D*
;)*'5,*1",/,)'*1-1,"*8,*8#%.$*.(7,*'#*1"#1#/,*'5-'*=#'5* '5,*>B*&5(.$",)*-)$*
&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*-",*1"(@-"(.0*&5-..,)3,$*=0*'5,*$(/&#%"/,6",.-',$*1"#1,"'(,/*#+*'5,*
-)-15#"(&* %/,* #+* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,/* -)$* @#",* /1,&(+(&-..0* 5-2,* $(++(&%.'(,/* 8('5*
@-()'-()()3*$(/&#%"/,*&#)'()%('0*2(-*.()3%(/'(&*@,-)/D*J#",*/1,&(+(&-..0I*'5,("*$(++(&%.'0*
.(,/*()*'5,*()',3"-'(#)*()'#*$(/&#%"/,*#+*-*1",2(#%/.0*@,)'(#),$*$(/&#%"/,*-)',&,$,)'*
A()'"#$%&,$* 8('5* -)* ()$,+()(',* )#%)* 15"-/,C* %/()3* -* $,+()(',* )#%)* 15"-/,* A$,* `-'I*
MNUU=G*T"ä@,"I*MNN^CD**
:,'* %/* ,?1.-()D* ;)* '5,* -)-15#"(&* &#)$('(#)* ()* '5,* 1",/,)'* /'%$0I* '5,* /1,-7,"*
A,?1,"(@,)',"C*()('(-..0*()'"#$%&,/*'8#*,)'('(,/*%/()3*'8#*()$,+()(',*)#%)*15"-/,/I*,D3D*
-* =##7* -)$* -* $",//D* >5,/,* ()$,+()(',* )#%)* 15"-/,/* &-""0* '5,* OP/1,-7,"I* 65,-","Q*
+,-'%",/I* -/* '5,0* -",* #).0* 7)#8)* '#* '5,* /1,-7,"D* <+',"* =,()3* @,)'(#),$I* '5,* '8#*
entities become part of the hearer s (the child s) knowledge -)$*-*&#@@#)*3"#%)$*(/*
,/'-=.(/5,$D*;)*'5,*1",/,)'*'-/7I*'5,*&5(.$*(/*",S%(",$*'#*-&7)#8.,$3,*'5,/,*,)'('(,/*
-/* -.",-$0* ()'"#$%&,$* -)$* 7)#8)* '#* '5,* 5,-","* A'5,* ,?1,"(@,)',"* )#8C* -)$* '#*
@-()'-()*$(/&#%"/,*&#)'()%('0*-/*'5,*/1,-7,"*A'5,*&5(.$C*=0*",+,""()3*'#*#),*#+*'5,*'8#*
60!
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&5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* ()* '5(/* /'%$0* /5#8,$* -* .-"3,* 1"#1#"'(#)* #+* /%=/'('%'(#)/* -)$*
#@(//(#)/* #+* '5,* $,+()(',* -"'(&.,D* \#'(&,* '5-'* /%=/'('%'(#)* ,""#"/* -/* -* @-()* ,""#"*
1-'',")* 8,",* -./#* ",1#"',$* ()* '5,* 1",2(#%/* /'%$(,/* 8('5* >B* &5(.$",)* A9&5-+,"* L* $,*
K(..(,"/I* MNNNI* $,* K(..(,"/* ,'* -.D* MNNNC* -)$* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* A!#.(',* ,'* -.D* MNUUC* =%'*
5-2,*)#'*=,,)*,?1.-(),$*()*'5,/,*/'%$(,/D*Z,*=,.(,2,*'5-'*'5,/,*,""#"*'01,/*&-)*5,.1*
%/*$(/,)'-)3.,*'5,*)-'%",*#+*'5,*1"#=.,@/*#+*'5,*&5(.$",)*8('5*9:;*-)$*'5,("*.-)3%-3,*
@-'&5,$*&#)'"#./D**
</* @,)'(#),$* -=#2,* '5,* &5(.$",)* )#'* #).0* #@('',$I* =%'* -./#* /%=/'('%',$* '5,*
$,+()(',* -"'(&.,* 8('5* '5,* ()$,+()(',* #),I* ,/1,&(-..0* ()* -)* -)-15#"(&* &#)',?'D* >5,/,*
/%=/'('%'(#)*,""#"/*#+*'5,*$,+()(',*8('5*'5,*()$,+()(',*-"'(&.,*()*-*&#)',?'*'5-'*$,)#',/*
#.$*()+#"@-'(#)*-)$*1",/%11#/,/*OP5,-","Q*7)#8.,$3,*5-2,*=,,)*&-..,$* ()&#5,",)&,*
#"* $(/&#%"/,* ()',3"-'(#)* ,""#"/* -)$* 5-2,* =,,)* ",1#"',$* ()* 1",2(#%/* /'%$(,/* 8('5*
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'5,/,*/'%$(,/I*'5,/,*,""#"/*5-2,*=,,)*'",-',$*-/*1,"+#"@-)&,6=-/,$*,""#"/*'5-'*$#*
)#'*",+.,&'*'5,*children s linguistic abilitiesI*-)$*-",*&-%/,$*=0*the children s inability
61!
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;)*#%"*/'%$0I*'5,",*8-/*-./#*-*&.,-"*-3,*,++,&'*()*'5,*/%=/'('%'(#)*,""#"/I*-/*'5,*
0#%)3,"* 2#&-=%.-"0* @-'&5,$* &5(.$",)* -)$* '5,* &5(.$",)* 8('5* 9:;* 1"#$%&,$* -/* @-)0*
#@(//(#)/*-/*/%=/'('%'(#)/I*85,",-/*'5,*>B6<J*&5(.$",)*1",$#@()-)'.0*#@('',$I*-)$*
'5,* -$%.'/* #).0* #@('',$* -)$* ),2,"* /%=/'('%',$* ()* '5,* -)-15#"(&* &#)',?'D V* <$$('(#)-.*
,2($,)&,* +#"* -* S%-.('-'(2,* $(++,",)&,* =,'8,,)* '5,* >B* &5(.$",)* -)$* '5,* &5(.$",)* 8('5*
9:;*&#@,/*+"#@*'5,*+()$()3*'5-'*'5,*>B*&5(.$",)*@-7,*2,"0*+,8*/%=/'('%'(#)*,""#"/*()*
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/.(35'.0* @#",* '5-)* '5,* .-)3%-3,6@-'&5,$* &5(.$",)* ()* '5(/* &#)$('(#)I* -)$* &"%&(-..0I* -*
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@-$,* @#",* '5-)* MHf* ,""#"/* #+* /%=/'('%'(#)* ()* '5,* ="($3()3* &#)$('(#)D* >5(/* '01,* #+*
,""#"* ()$(&-',/* '5,("* ()-=(.('0* '#* +,.(&('#%/.0* $(/",3-"$* '5,* 1",2(#%/.0* @,)'(#),$*
()$,+()(',*)#%)*15"-/,D**
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
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([@P"?/!*1DD'*%.$D!%&+%!*1Q*%.%1%.7$*!6'9)'+*'!I.%&!+D'!.$!%&'!A;!9&.,6)'$@!\7!*.D$.0.9+$%!97))',+%.7$*!I')'!
7Q*')8'6!Q'%I''$!+D'!+$6!7B.**.7$!+$6!7%&')!'))7)*@!
62!
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Figure 2
!"#$%&'()'*&%+&,-.#&'/01'23'omissions, substitutions and other responses on the
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Figure 3
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Table 1
!"#$%&'(&)%*"+,-.&/0%0&12&3%2-+-,%&"+3&-+3%2-+-,%&"4,-.$%0&-+&5+6$-07&
&
8)9%":%4&
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+1+;4%2%4%+,-"$&
Table 2
1!
!
Table 2: Children s age, raw scores (RS) and standard scores (SS) on the baseline
!"#$#%%
&'()*%
+,-%./%
2345%
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728&9:%
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Table 3
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Table 4
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Table 5
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Table 6
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