abbess–caliph
A
abbess the head of a convent (p. 288)
abolitionism a movement to end slavery (p. 602)
absolutism a political system in which a ruler holds total
power (p. 441)
acid rain the rainfall that results when sulfur produced by
factories mixes with moisture in the air (p. 970)
acropolis in early Greek city-states, a fortified gathering
place at the top of a hill which was sometimes the site
of temples and public buildings (p. 115)
adobe sun-dried brick (p. 350)
Age of Pericles the period between 461 and 429 B.C. when
Pericles dominated Athenian politics and Athens
reached the height of its power (p. 123)
agora in early Greek city-states, an open area that served
as a gathering place and as a market (p. 115)
agricultural society a group of people whose economy is
largely based on farming (p. 277)
anarchy political disorder; lawlessness (p. 470)
annex incorporate territory into an existing political unit,
such as a city or country (p. 655)
annul declare invalid (p. 397)
anthropology the study of human life and culture based on
artifacts and human fossils (p. 20)
anti-Semitism hostility toward or discrimination against
Jews (p. 336)
apartheid “apartness,” the system of racial segregation in
South Africa from the 1950s until 1991 (p. 922)
appeasement satisfying demands of dissatisfied powers in
an effort to maintain peace and stability (p. 810)
arabesque geometric patterns repeated over and over to
completely cover a surface with decoration (p. 210)
archaeology the study of past societies through an analysis
of the items people left behind them (p. 19)
archipelago a chain of islands (p. 273)
arete in early Greece, the qualities of excellence that a
hero strives to win in a struggle or contest (p. 113)
aristocracy an upper class whose wealth is based on land
and whose power is passed on from one generation to
another (p. 89)
armada a fleet of warships (p. 432)
armistice a truce or agreement to end fighting (p. 740)
arms race building up armies and stores of weapons to
keep up with an enemy (p. 851)
artifact tools, pottery, paintings, weapons, buildings, and
household items left behind by early people (p. 20)
artisan a skilled craftsperson who makes products such as
weapons and jewelry (p. 29)
ascetic a person who practices self-denial to achieve an
understanding of ultimate reality (p. 78)
astrolabe an instrument used by sailors to determine their
location by observing the positions of stars (p. 208)
australopithecine “southern apes,” the earliest humanlike
creatures that flourished in eastern and southern
Africa three to four million years ago (p. 21)
autonomous self-governing (p. 882)
B
balance of trade the difference in value between what a
nation imports and what it exports over time (p. 413)
banana republic a small country that is economically
dependent on a single product that it markets to large,
wealthy nations (p. 800)
banner in Qing China, a separate military unit made up of
Manchus; the empire’s chief fighting force (p. 489)
Bantu a family of languages spoken in central and southern Africa; a member of any group of the African peoples who speak that language (p. 232)
baroque an artistic style of the seventeenth century characterized by complex forms, bold ornamentation, and
contrasting elements (p. 449)
bazaar a covered market in Islamic cities (p. 204)
bioterrorism the use of biological and chemical weapons in
terrorist attacks (p. 972)
biowarfare the use of disease or poison against civilians
and soldiers in wartime (p. 972)
bishopric a group of Christian communities, or parishes,
under the authority of a bishop (p. 287)
Black Death a form of bubonic plague, spread by fleas carried by rats (p. 335)
blitzkrieg German for “lightning war,” a swift and sudden
military attack; used by the Germans during World
War II (p. 814)
bloc a group of nations with a common purpose (p. 863)
bourgeoisie the middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people (pp. 548, 619)
boyar a Russian noble (p. 446)
Bronze Age the period from around 3000 to 1200 B.C. characterized by the widespread use of bronze for tools
and weapons (p. 30)
Buddhism a religious doctrine introduced in northern
India in the sixth century B.C. by Siddhartha Gautama,
known as the Buddha, or “Enlightened One” (p. 78)
budget deficit the state that exists when a government
spends more than it collects in revenues (p. 887)
bureaucracy an administrative organization that relies on
nonelective officials and regular procedures (pp. 48,
422)
Bushido “the way of the warrior,” the strict code by which
Japanese samurai were supposed to live (p. 265)
C
caliph a successor of Muhammad as spiritual and temporal leader of the Muslims (p. 197)
Glossary
1003
capital–Daoism
Glossary
capital money available for investment (p. 582)
caste one of the five major divisions of Indian classes in
ancient times: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras,
and Untouchables (p. 75)
caste system a set of rigid categories in ancient India that
determined a person’s occupation and economic
potential as well as his or her position in society, based
partly on skin color (p. 75)
caudillo in postrevolutionary Latin America, a strong
leader who ruled chiefly by military force, usually
with the support of the landed elite (p. 674)
censorate part of the Chinese bureaucracy that made sure
government officials were doing their jobs (p. 99)
centuriate assembly in the Roman Republic, the most
important of the people’s assemblies; it elected the
chief officials, such as the consuls and praetors, and
passed laws (p. 152)
chivalry in the Middle Ages, the ideal of civilized behavior
that developed among the nobility; it was a code of
ethics that knights were supposed to uphold (p. 295)
Christian humanism a movement that developed in northern Europe during the Renaissance combining classical learning (humanism) with the goal of reforming
the Catholic Church (p. 390)
Christianity monotheistic religion that emerged during the
first century A.D. (p. 171)
city-state a city with political and economic control over
the surrounding countryside (p. 39)
civil disobedience refusal to obey laws that are considered
to be unjust (p. 788)
civilization a complex culture in which large numbers of
people share a number of common elements such as
social structure, religion, and art (p. 30)
clan a group of related families (pp. 349, 493)
clergy church leaders (p. 173)
Cold War the period of political tension following World
War II and ending with the fall of Communism in the
Soviet Union at the end of the 1980s (p. 834)
collaborator a person who assists the enemy (p. 827)
collective bargaining the right of unions to negotiate with
employers over wages and hours (p. 755)
collectivization a system in which private farms are eliminated and peasants work land owned by the government (p. 763)
colony a settlement of people living in a new territory,
linked with the parent country by trade and direct
government control (p. 413)
commercial capitalism economic system in which people
invest in trade or goods to make profits (pp. 320, 492)
commodity a marketable product (p. 694)
common law a uniform system of law that developed in
England based on court decisions and on customs and
usage rather than on written law codes; replaced law
codes that varied from place to place (p. 298)
commonwealth a republic (p. 438)
1004
Glossary
commune in China during the 1950s, a group of collective
farms, each of which contained more than 30,000 people who lived and worked together (p. 942)
concentration camp a camp where prisoners of war, political prisoners, or members of minority groups are confined, typically under harsh conditions (p. 768)
concession political compromise (p. 698)
Confucianism the system of political and ethical ideas formulated by the Chinese philosopher Confucius
toward the end of the Zhou dynasty; it was intended
to help restore order to a society that was in a state of
confusion (p. 95)
conquistador a Spanish conqueror of the Americas (p. 412)
conscription military draft (p. 718)
conservatism a political philosophy based on tradition and
social stability, favoring obedience to political authority and organized religion (p. 590)
consul a chief executive officer of the Roman Republic;
two were elected each year, one to run the government
and one to lead the army into battle (p. 152)
consulate government established in France after the overthrow of the Directory in 1799, with Napoleon as first
consul in control of the entire government (p. 564)
consumer society a society preoccupied with buying goods
(p. 867)
contras rebels financed by the United States who began a
guerrilla war against the Sandinista government in
Nicaragua (p. 909)
cooperative a farm organization owned by and operated
for the benefit of the farmers (p. 913)
cottage industry a method of production in which tasks are
done by individuals in their rural homes (p. 582)
coup d’état a sudden overthrow of the government
(p. 561)
creole a person of European descent born in the New
World and living there permanently (p. 672)
Crusade military expedition carried out by European
Christians in the Middle Ages to regain the Holy Land
from the Muslims (p. 306)
culture the way of life a people follows (p. 30)
cuneiform “wedge-shaped,” a system of writing developed by the Sumerians using a reed stylus to create
wedge-shaped impressions on a clay tablet (p. 42)
czar Russian for “caesar,” the title used by Russian emperors (p. 445)
D
daimyo “great names,” heads of noble families in Japan
who controlled vast landed estates and relied on
samurai for protection (pp. 265, 496)
Dao “Way,” the key to proper behavior under Confucianism (p. 92)
Daoism a system of ideas based on the teachings of Laozi;
teaches that the will of Heaven is best followed
deficit spending–fief
E
ecology the study of the relationships between living
things and their environment (p. 970)
elector an individual qualified to vote in an election
(p. 561)
emancipation the act of setting free (p. 601)
empire a large political unit, usually under a single leader,
that controls many peoples or territories (p. 40)
enlightened absolutism a system in which rulers tried to
govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their full royal powers (p. 529)
entrepreneur a person interested in finding new business
opportunities and new ways to make profits (p. 582)
ephor one of the five men elected each year in ancient
Sparta who were responsible for the education of
youth and the conduct of all citizens (p. 119)
epic poem a long poem that tells the deeds of a great hero,
such as the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (p. 112)
Epicureanism school of thought developed by the philosopher Epicurus in Hellenistic Athens; it held that happiness is the chief goal in life, and the means to achieve
happiness was the pursuit of pleasure (p. 143)
estate one of the three classes into which French society
was divided before the revolution: the clergy (first
estate), the nobles (second estate), and the townspeople (third estate) (pp. 299, 548)
eta Japan’s outcast class, whose way of life was strictly
regulated by the Tokugawa (p. 499)
ethnic cleansing a policy of killing or forcibly removing an
ethnic group from its lands; used by the Serbs against
the Muslim minority in Bosnia (pp. 782, 881)
extraterritoriality living in a section of a country set aside
for foreigners but not subject to the host country’s
laws (p. 685)
F
faction a dissenting group (p. 556)
fascism a political philosophy that glorifies the state above
the individual by emphasizing the need for a strong
central government led by a dictatorial ruler (p. 759)
federal system a form of government in which power is
shared between the national government and state
governments (p. 540)
feminism the movement for women’s rights (p. 625)
feudal contract under feudalism, the unwritten rules that
determined the relationship between a lord and his
vassal (p. 294)
feudalism political and social system that developed during the Middle Ages, when royal governments were
no longer able to defend their subjects; nobles offered
protection and land in return for service (p. 293)
fief under feudalism, a grant of land made to a vassal; the
vassal held political authority within his fief (p. 294)
Glossary
1005
Glossary
through inaction so that nature is allowed to take its
course (p. 96)
deficit spending when a government pays out more money
than it takes in through taxation and other revenues,
thus going into debt (p. 756)
deforestation the clearing of forests (p. 970)
deism an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based
on reason and natural law (p. 520)
demilitarize eliminate or prohibit weapons, fortifications,
and other military installations (p. 810)
democracy “the rule of the many,” government by the people, either directly or through their elected representatives (p. 118)
depression a period of low economic activity and rising
unemployment (p. 754)
de-Stalinization the process of eliminating Stalin’s more
ruthless policies (p. 856)
détente a phase of relaxed tensions and improved relations between two adversaries (p. 875)
dharma in Hinduism, the divine law that rules karma; it
requires all people to do their duty based on their status in society (p. 77)
dictator an absolute ruler (p. 158)
dictatorship a form of government in which a person or
small group has absolute power (p. 619)
direct democracy a system of government in which the
people participate directly in government decision
making through mass meetings (p. 123)
direct rule colonial government in which local elites are
removed from power and replaced by a new set of
officials brought from the mother country (p. 651)
disarmament a limit or reduction of armed forces and
weapons (p. 976)
discrimination prejudice, usually based on race, religion,
class, sex, or age (p. 956)
dissident a person who speaks out against the regime in
power (p. 876)
divine right of kings the belief that kings receive their
power from God and are responsible only to God
(p. 437)
diviner a person who is believed to have the power to
foretell events (p. 238)
domestication adaptation for human use (p. 28)
domino theory idea that, if one country falls to communism, neighboring countries will also fall (p. 853)
dowry a gift of money or property paid at the time of marriage, either by the bride’s parents to her husband or,
in Islamic societies, by a husband to his wife (pp. 206,
252, 381)
Duma the Russian legislative assembly (p. 632)
dynasty a family of rulers whose right to rule is passed on
within the family (p. 47)
filial piety–indirect rule
filial piety the duty of family members to subordinate
their needs and desires to those of the male head of the
family, a concept important in Confucianism (p. 93)
fossil a remnant or impression of an organism from a past
geologic age that has been preserved in the earth’s
crust (p. 20)
fresco a painting done on fresh, wet plaster with waterbased paints (p. 384)
G
Glossary
genocide the deliberate mass murder of a particular racial,
political, or cultural group (pp. 782, 825)
geocentric literally, earth-centered; a system of planetary
motion that places Earth at the center of the universe,
with the sun, moon, and other planets revolving
around it (p. 513)
global economy an economy in which the production, distribution, and sale of goods take place on a worldwide
scale, as in a multinational corporation (p. 972)
grand vizier the Ottoman sultan’s chief minister, who led
the meetings of the imperial council (p. 461)
Great Schism a split in the Catholic Church that lasted
from 1378 to 1418, during which time there were rival
popes in Rome and in the French city of Avignon;
France and its allies supported the pope in Avignon, while France’s enemy England and its allies supported the pope in Rome (p. 337)
greenhouse effect global warming caused by the buildup
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (p. 970)
griot a special class of African storytellers who help keep
alive a people’s history (p. 241)
guerrilla tactics the use of unexpected maneuvers like sabotage and subterfuge to fight an enemy (p. 795)
guild a business association associated with a particular
trade or craft; guilds evolved in the twelfth century
and came to play a leading role in the economic life of
medieval cities (p. 322)
gunpowder empire an empire formed by outside conquerors who unified the regions that they conquered
through their mastery of firearms (p. 460)
H
hajj a pilgrimage to Makkah, one of the requirements of
the Five Pillars of Islam (p. 193)
han one of the approximately 250 domains into which
Japan was divided under the Tokugawa (p. 497)
harem “sacred place,” the private domain of an Ottoman
sultan, where he and his wives resided (p. 461)
heavy industry the manufacture of machines and equipment for factories and mines (p. 856)
heliocentric literally, sun-centered; the system of the universe proposed in 1543 by Nicholas Copernicus, who
argued that the earth and planets revolve around the
sun (p. 513)
1006
Glossary
Hellenistic Era the age of Alexander the Great; period
when the Greek language and ideas were carried to
the non-Greek world (p. 141)
helot in ancient Sparta, captive peoples who were forced
to work for their conquerors (p. 118)
heresy the denial of basic church doctrines (p. 326)
hieratic script simplified version of hieroglyphics used in
ancient Egypt for business transactions, record keeping, and the general needs of daily life (p. 52)
hieroglyph a picture or symbol used in a hieroglyphic system of writing (p. 354)
hieroglyphics “priest-carvings” or “sacred writings,” a
complex system of writing that used both pictures and
more abstract forms; used by the ancient Egyptians
and Mayans (p. 52)
Hijrah the journey of Muhammad and his followers to
Madinah in 622, which became year 1 of the official
calendar of Islam (p. 193)
Hinduism the major Indian religious system, which had its
origins in the religious beliefs of the Aryans who settled India after 1500 B.C. (p. 77)
hominid humans and other humanlike creatures that walk
upright (p. 21)
Homo erectus “upright human being,” a species that
emerged around 1.5 million years ago and marked a
second stage of early human development (p. 21)
Homo sapiens “wise human being,” a species that
emerged around 250,000 years ago and marked a third
stage in human development (p. 21)
Homo sapiens sapiens “wise, wise human being,” a species
that appeared in Africa between 150,000 and 200,000
years ago; they were the first anatomically modern
humans (p. 22)
hoplite in the early Greek military system, heavily armed
foot soldiers (p. 116)
hostage system a system used by the shogunate to control
the daimyo in Tokugawa Japan; the family of a
daimyo lord was forced to stay at their residence in the
capital whenever the lord was absent from it (p. 498)
humanism an intellectual movement of the Renaissance
based on the study of the humanities, which included
grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy, and
history (p. 382)
I
imperator commander in chief; the Latin origin of the
word emperor (p. 159)
imperialism the extension of a nation’s power over other
lands (p. 648)
indemnity payment for damages (p. 689)
indigenous native to a region (p. 658)
indirect rule colonial government in which local rulers are
allowed to maintain their positions of authority and
status (p. 651)
inductive reasoning–matrilineal
inductive reasoning the doctrine that scientists should proceed from the particular to the general by making systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test hypotheses or theories, a process that
will lead to correct general principles (p. 517)
indulgence a release from all or part of punishment for sin
by the Catholic Church, reducing time in purgatory
after death (p. 391)
industrial capitalism an economic system based on industrial production or manufacturing (p. 586)
infidel an unbeliever, a term applied to the Muslims during the Crusades (p. 306)
inflation a rapid increase in prices (pp. 177, 434)
Inquisition a court established by the Catholic Church in
1232 to discover and try heretics; also called the Holy
Office (p. 326)
insulae Roman apartment blocks constructed of concrete
(p. 167)
interdict a decree by the pope that forbade priests to give
the sacraments of the church to the people (p. 325)
intifada “uprising,” militant movement that arose during
the 1980s among supporters of the Palestine
Liberation Organization living in Israel (p. 932)
Islam monotheistic religion that emerged in the Arabian
Peninsula during the seventh century A.D. (p. 193)
J
K
kaiser German for “caesar,” the title of the emperors of the
Second German Empire (p. 599)
kamikaze Japanese for “divine wind,” a suicide mission in
which young Japanese pilots intentionally flew their
airplanes into U.S. fighting ships at sea (p. 832)
karma in Hinduism, the force generated by a person’s
actions that determines how the person will be reborn
in the next life (p. 77)
khanate one of the several separate territories into which
Genghis Khan’s empire was split, each under the rule
of one of his sons (p. 254)
knight under feudalism, a member of the heavily armored
cavalry (p. 293)
L
laissez-faire literally, “let [people] do [what they want],”
the concept that the state should not impose government regulations but should leave the economy alone
(p. 521)
M
magic realism a form of expression unique to Latin
American literature; it combines realistic events with
dreamlike or fantastic backgrounds (p. 905)
Magna Carta the “Great Charter” of rights, which King
John was forced to sign by the English nobles at
Runnymeade in 1215 (p. 299)
Mahatma “Great Soul,” title given to Mohandas Gandhi
by the Indian people (p. 788)
Mahayana a school of Buddhism that developed in northwest India, stressing the view that nirvana can be
achieved through devotion to the Buddha; its followers consider Buddhism a religion, not a philosophy,
and the Buddha is a divine figure (p. 268)
mainland states part of a continent, as distinguished from
peninsulas or offshore islands (p. 421)
maize corn (p. 360)
mandate a nation governed by another nation on behalf of
the League of Nations (p. 744)
Mandate of Heaven claim by Chinese kings of the Zhou
dynasty that they had direct authority from heaven to
rule and to keep order in the universe (p. 91)
Mannerism an artistic movement that emerged in Italy in
the 1520s and 1530s; it marked the end of the
Renaissance by breaking down the principles of balance, harmony, and moderation (p. 448)
manor in medieval Europe, an agricultural estate run by a
lord and worked by peasants (p. 317)
masterpiece piece created by a journeyman who aspires to
be a master craftsperson; it allowed the members of a
guild to judge whether the journeyman was qualified
to become a master and join the guild (p. 322)
matrilineal tracing lineage through the mother rather than
the father (p. 237)
Glossary
1007
Glossary
janissary a soldier in the elite guard of the Ottoman Turks
(p. 458)
jihad “struggle in the way of God” (p. 197)
Judaism monotheistic religion developed among the
Israelites (p. 56)
laity regular church members (p. 173)
lay investiture the practice by which secular rulers both
chose nominees to church offices and gave them the
symbols of their office (p. 324)
Legalism a popular philosophy developed in China
toward the end of the Zhou dynasty, it proposes that
human beings are evil by nature and can only be
brought to the correct path by harsh laws (p. 97)
liberalism a political philosophy originally based largely
on Enlightenment principles, holding that people
should be as free as possible from government
restraint and that civil liberties—the basic rights of all
people—should be protected (p. 591)
lineage group an extended family unit that has combined
into a larger community (p. 237)
literacy the ability to read (p. 627)
longhouse Iroquois house about 150 to 200 feet (46 to 61 m)
long built of wooden poles covered with sheets of bark
and housing about a dozen families (p. 348)
mercantilism–ordeal
Glossary
mercantilism a set of principles that dominated economic
thought in the seventeenth century; it held that the
prosperity of a nation depended on a large supply of
gold and silver (p. 413)
mercenary a soldier who sells his services to the highest
bidder (p. 377)
Mesoamerica the name used for areas of Mexico and
Central America that were civilized before the arrival
of the Spanish (p. 352)
mestizo a person of mixed European and native American
Indian descent (pp. 537, 672)
Middle Passage the journey of slaves from Africa to the
Americas, so called because it was the middle portion
of the triangular trade route (p. 416)
militant combative (p. 429)
militarism reliance on military strength (p. 598)
minaret the tower of a mosque from which the muezzin
calls the faithful to prayer five times a day (p. 209)
ministerial responsibility the idea that the prime minister is
responsible to the popularly elected executive body
and not to the executive officer (p. 631)
missionary a person sent out to carry a religious message
(p. 288)
mobilization the process of assembling troops and supplies and making them ready for war (pp. 720, 830)
modernism a movement in which writers and artists
between 1870 and 1914 rebelled against the traditional
literary and artistic styles that had dominated
European cultural life since the Renaissance (p. 639)
monarch a king or queen who rules a kingdom (p. 30)
monarchy government by a sovereign ruler such as a king
or queen (p. 64)
monasticism practice of living the life of a monk (p. 288)
money economy an economic system based on money
rather than barter (p. 320)
monk a man who separates himself from ordinary human
society in order to dedicate himself to God; monks live
in monasteries headed by abbots (p. 288)
monotheistic having one god (p. 59)
Monroe Doctrine the United States policy guaranteeing the
independence of Latin American nations and warning
against European intervention in the Americas, made
by President James Monroe in 1823 (p. 673)
monsoon a seasonal wind pattern in southern Asia that
blows warm, moist air from the southwest during the
summer, bringing heavy rains, and cold, dry air from
the northeast during the winter (p. 72)
mosque a Muslim house of worship (p. 202)
muezzin the crier who calls the Muslim faithful to prayer
from the minaret of a mosque (p. 209)
mulatto a person of mixed African and European descent
(p. 537)
multinational corporation a company with divisions in
more than two countries (p. 902)
1008
Glossary
mummification a process of slowly drying a dead body to
prevent it from decaying (p. 48)
N
nationalism the unique cultural identity of a people based
on common language, religion, and national symbols
(p. 568)
natural rights rights with which all humans are supposedly born, including the rights to life, liberty, and
property (p. 451)
natural selection the principle set forth by Darwin that
some organisms are more adaptable to the environment than others; in popular terms, “survival of the
fittest” (p. 608)
Neanderthal type of Homo sapiens that lived in Europe and
the Middle East between 100,000 and 30,000 B.C. (p. 21)
neo-Confucianism a revised form of Confucianism that
evolved as a response to Buddhism and held sway in
China from the late Tang dynasty to the end of the
dynastic system in the twentieth century (p. 256)
Neolithic Revolution the shift from hunting of animals and
gathering of food to the keeping of animals and the
growing of food on a regular basis that occurred
around 8000 B.C. (p. 27)
New Economic Policy (NEP) a modified version of the old
capitalist system adopted by Lenin in 1921 to replace
war communism in Russia; peasants were allowed to
sell their produce, and retail stores and small industries could be privately owned, but heavy industry,
banking, and mines remained in the hands of the government (p. 761)
new monarchy in the fifteenth century, government in
which power had been centralized under a king
or queen, i.e., France, England, and Spain (p. 339)
New Testament the second part of the Christian Bible, it
provides a record of Jesus’ life and teachings (p. 172)
nirvana in Buddhism, ultimate reality, the end of the self
and a reunion with the Great World Soul (p. 78)
nomad a person who moves from place to place (p. 23)
nun a woman who separates herself from ordinary
human society in order to dedicate herself to God;
nuns live in convents headed by abbesses (p. 288)
O
occupied held by a foreign power (p. 957)
oligarchy “the rule of the few,” a form of government in
which a small group of people exercises controls
(pp. 118, 801)
oracle in ancient Greece, a sacred shrine where a god or
goddess was said to reveal the future through a priest
or priestess (p. 128)
ordeal a means of determining guilt in Germanic law,
based on the idea of divine intervention: if the accused
person was unharmed after a physical trial, he or she
was presumed innocent (p. 287)
organic evolution–prehistory
organic evolution the principle set forth by Darwin that
every plant or animal has evolved, or changed, over a
long period of time from earlier, simpler forms of life
to more complex forms (p. 608)
orthodoxy traditional beliefs, especially in religion (p. 469)
ostracism in ancient Athens, the process for temporarily
banning ambitious politicians from the city by popular vote (p. 123)
ozone layer a thin layer of gas in the upper atmosphere
that shields Earth from the sun’s ultraviolet rays
(p. 970)
P
Glossary
1009
Glossary
Paleolithic Age from the Greek for “Old Stone,” the early
period of human history, from approximately
2,500,000 to 10,000 B.C., during which humans used
simple stone tools; sometimes called the Old Stone
Age (p. 22)
Pan-Africanism the unity of all black Africans, regardless of
national boundaries (pp. 788, 923)
Pan-Arabism Arab unity, regardless of national boundaries
(p. 931)
partisan a resistance fighter in World War II (p. 822)
pasha an appointed official in the Ottoman Empire who
collected taxes, maintained law and order, and was
directly responsible to the sultan’s court (p. 459)
pastoral nomad a person who domesticates animals for
food and clothing and moves along regular migratory
routes to provide a steady source of nourishment for
those animals (p. 55)
paterfamilias in the Roman social structure, the dominant
male head of the household, which also included his
wife, sons and their wives and children, unmarried
daughters, and slaves (p. 165)
patriarch the head of the Eastern Orthodox Church, originally appointed by the Byzantine emperor (p. 305)
patriarchal dominated by men (p. 41)
patrician great landowners, they formed the ruling class in
the Roman Republic (p. 152)
patrilineal tracing lineage through the father (p. 237)
peacekeeping force a military force drawn from neutral
members of the United Nations to settle conflicts and
supervise truces (p. 975)
peninsular a person born on the Iberian Peninsula; typically, a Spanish or Portuguese official who resided
temporarily in Latin America for political and economic gain and then returned to Europe (p. 672)
per capita per person (p. 943)
perestroika Mikhail Gorbachev’s plan to reform the Soviet
Union by restructuring its economy (p. 877)
permanent revolution an atmosphere of constant revolutionary fervor favored by Mao Zedong to enable
China to overcome the past and achieve the final stage
of communism (p. 942)
phalanx a wall of shields created by foot soldiers marching
close together in a rectangular formation (p. 116)
pharaoh the most common of the various titles for ancient
Egyptian monarchs; the term originally meant “great
house” or “palace” (p. 47)
philosophe French for “philosopher”; applied to all intellectuals—i.e., writers, journalists, economists, and
social reformers—during the Enlightenment (p. 519)
philosophy an organized system of thought, from the
Greek for “love of wisdom” (p. 130)
photomontage a picture made of a combination of photographs (p. 774)
pilgrim a person who travels to a shrine or other holy
place (p. 85)
plague an epidemic disease (p. 176)
planned economy an economic system directed by government agencies (p. 726)
plantation a large agricultural estate (p. 416)
plateau a relatively high, flat land area (p. 225)
plebeian in the Roman Republic, a social class made up of
minor landholders, craftspeople, merchants, and
small farmers (p. 152)
plebiscite a popular vote (p. 600)
pogrom organized persecution or massacre of a minority
group, especially Jews (p. 639)
policy of containment a plan to keep something, such as
communism, within its existing geographical boundaries and prevent further aggressive moves (p. 850)
polis the early Greek city-state, consisting of a city or town
and its surrounding territory (p. 115)
Politburo a seven-member committee that became the
leading policy-making body of the Communist Party
in Russia (p. 761)
polytheistic having many gods (p. 42)
pop art an artistic movement that emerged in the early
1960s; pop artists took images from popular culture
and transformed them into works of fine art (p. 892)
pope the bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic
Church (p. 287)
porcelain a ceramic made of fine clay baked at very high
temperatures (pp. 257, 494)
postmodernism an artistic movement that emerged in the
1980s; its artists do not expect rationality in the world
and are comfortable with many “truths.” (p. 893)
praetor an official of the Roman Republic in charge of
enforcing civil law (p. 152)
predestination the belief that God has determined in
advance who will be saved (the elect) and who will be
damned (the reprobate) (p. 396)
prefecture in the Japanese Meiji Restoration, a territory
governed by its former daimyo lord (p. 699)
prehistory the period before writing was developed (p. 19)
principle of intervention–scholar-gentry
principle of intervention idea that great powers have the
right to send armies into countries where there are
revolutions to restore legitimate governments (p. 591)
privatization the sale of government-owned companies to
private firms (p. 907)
procurator in the Roman Empire, an official in charge of a
province (p. 170)
proletariat the working class (p. 619)
S
propaganda ideas spread to influence
public opinion for or
against a cause (p. 721)
protectorate a political unit that depends on another government for its protection (p. 649)
provincial local; of or relating to a province (p. 691)
psychoanalysis a method by which a therapist and patient
probe deeply into the patient’s memory; by making
the patient’s conscious mind aware of repressed
thoughts, healing can take place (p. 637)
Ptolemaic system the geocentric model of the universe that
prevailed in the Middle Ages; named after the
astronomer Ptolemy, who lived in Alexandria during
the second century A.D. (p. 513)
puddling process in which coke derived from coal is used
to burn away impurities in crude iron to produce high
quality iron (p. 583)
pueblo a multistoried structure of the Anasazi that could
house up to 250 people (p. 350)
Glossary
Q
queue the braided pigtail that was traditionally worn by
Chinese males (p. 488)
quipu a system of knotted strings used by the Inca people
for keeping records (p. 362)
Quran the holy scriptures of the religion of Islam (p. 193)
R
raja an Aryan leader or prince (p. 74)
rationalism a system of thought expounded by René
Descartes based on the belief that reason is the chief
source of knowledge (p. 517)
real wages the actual purchasing power of income
(p. 863)
realism mid-nineteenth century movement that rejected
romanticism and sought to portray lower- and middleclass life as it actually was (p. 608)
redistribution of wealth the shifting of wealth from a rich
minority to a poor majority (p. 797)
regime the government in power (p. 99)
Reichstag the German parliament (p. 767)
reincarnation the rebirth of an individual’s soul in a different form after death (p. 77)
relic bones or other objects connected with saints; considered worthy of worship by the faithful (p. 328)
1010
Glossary
relics of feudalism obligations of peasants to noble landlords that survived into the modern era (p. 548)
reparation payment made to the victors by the vanquished to cover the costs of a war (p. 742)
republic a form of government in which the leader is not a
king and certain citizens have the right to vote (p. 151)
revisionist a Marxist who rejected the revolutionary
approach, believing instead in evolution by democratic means to achieve the goal of socialism (p. 619)
ritual a ceremony or rite (p. 128)
rococo an artistic style that replaced baroque in the 1730s;
it was highly secular, emphasizing grace, charm, and
gentle action (p. 527)
romanticism an intellectual movement that emerged at the
end of the eighteenth century in reaction to the ideas
of the Enlightenment; it stressed feelings, emotion,
and imagination as sources of knowing (p. 605)
S
sacrament Christian rites (p. 325)
salon the elegant drawing rooms of great urban houses
where, in the eighteenth century, writers, artists, aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middleclass people gathered to discuss the ideas of the
philosophes, helping to spread the ideas of the
Enlightenment (p. 524)
salvation the state of being saved (that is, going to heaven)
through faith alone or through faith and good works
(p. 390)
samurai “those who serve,” Japanese warriors similar to
the knights of medieval Europe (p. 265)
sanction a restriction intended to enforce international law
(p. 813)
sans-culottes “without breeches,” members of the Paris
Commune who considered themselves ordinary patriots (in other words, they wore long trousers instead of
fine knee-length breeches) (p. 553)
Sanskrit the first writing system of the Aryans, developed
around 1000 B.C. (p. 74)
satellite state a country that is economically and politically dependent on another country (p. 850)
satrap “protector of the Kingdom,” the governor of a
province (satrapy) of the Persian Empire under Darius
(p. 63)
satrapy one of the 20 provinces into which Darius divided
the Persian Empire (p. 63)
savanna broad grassland dotted with small trees and
shrubs (p. 225)
schism the separation between the two great branches of
Christianity that occurred when the Roman Pope Leo
IX and the Byzantine patriarch Michael Cerularius
excommunicated each other in 1054 (p. 305)
scholar-gentry in China, a group of people who controlled
much of the land and produced most of the candidates
for the civil service (p. 252)
scholasticism–Thatcherism
socialism a system in which society, usually in the form
of the government, owns and controls the means of
production (p. 588)
Socratic method the method of teaching used by the Greek
philosopher Socrates, it employs a question-andanswer format to lead pupils to see things for themselves by using their own reason (p. 130)
soviet a Russian council composed of representatives
from the workers and soldiers (p. 734)
sphere of influence an area in which a foreign power has
been granted exclusive rights and privileges, such as
trading rights and mining privileges (p. 687)
stalemate the condition that exists when neither of two
opposing sides is able to make significant gains
(p. 956)
state capitalism an economic system in which the central
government plays an active role in the economy, establishing price and wage policies and subsidizing vital
industries (p. 958)
stateless society a group of independent villages organized
into clans and led by a local ruler or clan head without
any central government (p. 234)
Stoicism a school of thought developed by the teacher
Zeno in Hellenistic Athens; it says that happiness can
be achieved only when people gain inner peace by living in harmony with the will of God, and that people
should bear whatever life offers (p. 143)
subsistence farming the practice of growing just enough
crops for personal use, not for sale (p. 232)
sultan “holder of power,” the military and political head
of state under the Seljuk Turks and the Ottomans
(pp. 201, 460)
Sunni a Muslim group that accepts only the descendants
of the Umayyads as the true rulers of Islam (p. 199)
surrealism artistic movement that seeks to depict the
world of the unconscious (p. 774)
suttee the Hindu custom of cremating a widow on her
husband’s funeral pyre (p. 475)
Swahili a mixed African-Arabic culture that developed
along the east coast of Africa; also, the major language
used in that area, combining Bantu with Arabic words
and phrases (p. 233)
systematic agriculture the keeping of animals and the
growing of food on a regular basis (p. 28)
T
taille an annual direct tax, usually on land or property,
that provided a regular source of income for the
French monarchy (p. 339)
tepee a circular tent made by stretching buffalo skins over
wooden poles (p. 349)
Thatcherism the economic policy of British Prime Minister
Margaret Thatcher, which limited social welfare and
restricted union power (p. 886)
Glossary
1011
Glossary
scholasticism a medieval philosophical and theological
system that tried to reconcile faith and reason (p. 330)
scientific method a systematic procedure for collecting and
analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of
science in the modern world (p. 517)
secede withdraw (p. 603)
secular worldly (p. 375)
secularization indifference to or rejection of religion or religious consideration (p. 607)
self-strengthening a policy promoted by reformers toward
the end of the Qing dynasty under which China
would adopt Western technology while keeping its
Confucian values and institutions (p. 686)
Senate in the Roman Republic, a select group of about 300
patricians who served for life; originally formed to
advise government officials, it came to have the force
of law by the third century B.C. (p. 152)
separation of powers a form of government in which the
executive, legislative, and judicial branches limit and
control each other through a system of checks and balances (p. 520)
sepoy an Indian soldier hired by the British East India
Company to protect the company’s interests in the
region (p. 666)
serf in medieval Europe, a peasant legally bound to the
land who had to provide labor services, pay rents, and
be subject to the lord’s control (p. 317)
shah king (used in Persia and Iran) (p. 469)
shari’ah a law code drawn up by Muslim scholars after
Muhammad’s death; it provided believers with a set
of practical laws to regulate their daily lives (p. 194)
sheikh the ruler of an Arabic tribe, chosen from one of the
leading families by a council of elders (p. 191)
Shiite a Muslim group that accepts only the descendants
of Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali as the true rulers of
Islam (p. 199)
Shining Path a radical guerrilla group in Peru with ties to
Communist China (p. 913)
Shinto “the Sacred Way” or “the Way of the Gods,” the
Japanese state religion; among its doctrines are
the divinity of the emperor and the sacredness of the
Japanese nation (p. 266)
shogun “general,” a powerful military leader in Japan
(p. 265)
shogunate the Japanese system of centralized government
under a shogun, who exercised actual power while the
emperor was reduced to a figurehead (p. 265)
Silk Road a route between the Roman Empire and China,
so called because silk was China’s most valuable
product (p. 83)
social contract the concept proposed by Rousseau that an
entire society agrees to be governed by its general
will, and all individuals should be forced to abide by
the general will since it represents what is best for the
entire community (p. 522)
Glossary
theocracy–ziggurat
theocracy government by divine authority (p. 39)
theology the study of religion and God (p. 330)
Theravada “the teachings of the elders,” a school of
Buddhism that developed in India; its followers view
Buddhism as a way of life, not a religion centered on
individual salvation (p. 268)
total war a war that involves the complete mobilization of
resources and people, affecting the lives of all citizens
in the warring countries, even those remote from the
battlefields (p. 726)
totalitarian state a government that aims to control the
political, economic, social, intellectual, and cultural
lives of its citizens (p. 759)
tournament under feudalism, a series of martial activities
such as jousts designed to keep knights busy during
peacetime and help them prepare for war (p. 295)
trade embargo a policy prohibiting trade with a particular
country (p. 907)
trading society a group of people who depend primarily
on trade for income (p. 277)
tragedy a form of drama that portrays a conflict between
the protagonist and a superior force and having a protagonist who is brought to ruin or extreme sorrow,
especially as a result of a fatal flaw (p. 129)
trench warfare fighting from ditches protected by barbed
wire, as in World War I (p. 722)
triangular trade a pattern of trade that connected Europe,
Africa and Asia, and the American continents; typically, manufactured goods from Europe were sent to
Africa, where they were exchanged for slaves, who
were sent to the Americas, where they were
exchanged for raw materials that were then sent to
Europe (p. 416)
tribute goods or money paid by conquered peoples to
their conquerors (p. 356)
triumvirate a government by three people with equal
power (p. 157)
urban society a system in which cities are the center of
political, economic, and social life (p. 375)
U
yoga a method of training developed by the Hindus that
is supposed to lead to oneness with God (p. 77)
ulema a group of religious advisers to the Ottoman sultan;
this group administered the legal system and schools
for educating Muslims (p. 461)
uncertainty principle the idea put forth by Heisenberg in
1927 that the behavior of subatomic particles is uncertain, suggesting that all of the physical laws governing
the universe are based in uncertainty (p. 775)
universal law of gravitation one of the three rules of motion
governing the planetary bodies set forth by Sir Isaac
Newton in his Principia; it explains that planetary bodies do not go off in straight lines but instead continue
in elliptical orbits about the sun because every object
in the universe is attracted to every other object by a
force called gravity (p. 514)
universal male suffrage the right of all males to vote in elections (p. 592)
1012
Glossary
V
vassal under feudalism, a man who served a lord in a military capacity (p. 293)
vernacular the language of everyday speech in a particular
region (p. 331)
viceroy a governor who ruled as a representative of a
monarch (p. 667)
vizier a high government official in ancient Egypt or in
Muslim countries (p. 48, 200)
W
war communism in World War I Russia, government control of banks and most industries, the seizing of grain
from peasants, and the centralization of state administration under Communist control (p. 737)
war of attrition a war based on wearing the other side
down by constant attacks and heavy losses, such as
World War I (p. 724)
welfare state a state in which the government takes
responsibility for providing citizens with services such
as health care (p. 862)
wergild “money for a man,” the value of a person in
money, depending on social status; in Germanic
society, a fine paid by a wrongdoer to the family of the
person he or she had injured or killed (p. 287)
witchcraft the practice of magic by people supposedly in
league with the devil (p. 435)
women’s liberation movement the renewed feminist movement of the late 1960s, which demanded political and
economic equality with men (p. 867)
Y
Z
zaibatsu in the Japanese economy, a large financial and
industrial corporation (p. 789)
zamindar a local official in Mogul India who received a
plot of farmland for temporary use in return for collecting taxes for the central government (p. 474)
Zen a sect of Buddhism that became popular with
Japanese aristocrats and became part of the samurai’s
code of behavior; under Zen Buddhism, there are different paths to enlightenment (p. 266)
ziggurat a massive stepped tower on which was built a
temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of a
Sumerian city (p. 39)