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Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers
Graduate School
1988
Radioactive fallout monitoring before and after the
1963 nuclear weapons test ban treaty
Robert E. Tarkalson
The University of Montana
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1 S
be
R A D I O A C T I V E FALLOUT MONITORING BEFORE A N D AFTER THE 1963
N U CLEAR WEAPONS TEST BAN TREATY
by
Robert E. Tarkalson
B.S., Weber State College,
1971
B.S., Weber State College,
1976
M.S., University of Montana,
1986
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Science
UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA
1988
Approved by:
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Chairman,
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Dean, Graduate School
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UMI Number: EP39703
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AC K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
Interest
for
this
research
was
sparked
by
Dr
E.W.
P t @ i f f e r . I a m indebted to h i m for his p a t ience d u r i n g m y
search
for a nswers
locating
study,
Dr
in f o r m a t i o n
and
ideas on
His suggestions
issues n eeding
for
further
p r o v e d invaluable.
Wayne
necessary
VanMeter,
Reference
spent
background
r a d i o a c t i vity,
have
to key questions.
for
time
this
to
teach
study
in
a
por t i o n
of
environmental
and nuc l e a r and radiochemistry.
materials
appreciated
for
this
the
topic
w ere
phenomenal.
correspondance
with
I
many
e n v i r o n m e n t a l personnel.
Num e r o u s o rganizations have sent
documents,
volumes,
information
were
journals,
sent
most
by
many
beneficial
U.S.
-
the
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protec t i o n Agency,
H u m a n Services,
Hardy,
booklets.
G o v e rnment
Department
and
of
Energy,
D epartment of Hea l t h and
Department of Energy
G u idance
Compliance,
C onversatio n s
(DOE), Office of
and
Edw a r d
Jr. , Dir e c t o r En v i r o n m e n t a l Studies Division,
a l s o enli ghtning.
11
The
o rganizatio n s
and D epartment of Commerce.
w i t h Carl G. Welty,
Environmental
and
P.
were
TABLE OF CONTENTS
pa ge
A C K N O W L E DGE M E N T S
LIST OF FIGURES
I.
.........................................
.......................................................
1
.....................................
1
.........................................
1
.............................
2
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM
PURPOSE STATEMENT
SCOPE
............................................
BACKGROUND
II.
v
........................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES
TEXT
ii
2
......................................
2
H I S T O R Y OF U.S. O F F I C I A L R A DIOACTIVE
F A L L O U T M O N I T O R I N G SYSTEMS ......................
9
A.
E A R L Y M O N I T O R I N G SYSTEMS - BEFORE 1963
..
...........................
First A t t e m p t s
St r o n t i u m - 9 0 of Great Concern
9
9
.........
10
H i g h Incidence of Strontium-90 in N D
.. 11
P ublic H e a l t h Service Rep o r t in 1959
.. 13
B. C U R R E N T M O N I T O R I N G SYSTEMS - A F T E R 1963
Systems U p d a t e d
. 14
..........................
14
EML
D i e t a r y S t r ontium-90
....................
15
H u m a n Bone and Strontium-9 0 ............
17
W o r l d w i d e D e p o s i t i o n of St r o n t i u m - 9 0
111
.. 2 0
pa ge
EPA
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection A g e n c y
.......
1. Dri n k i n g W a t e r and Surface W a t e r
28
3. M i l k P r o g r a m ........................
29
..................
C O N S I D E R A T I O N OF C URRENT EFFORTS
A.
1980 's Bring N e w Programs
.............. 39
39
B. F o r u m Special Rep o r t - Documents,
Studies, Personal T e s t i m o n y ............
45
......................
Sci e n t i s t s Search for A n swers
M e d i c a l Studies
Ot h e r V i e w p o i n t s
V.
36
..............
Personal Te s t i m o n y
IV.
. 26
2. A i r P r o g r a m .........................
The Cherno byl A c c i d e n t
III.
24
.........
48
..........................
50
.........................
51
C O N C L U S I O N S A N D R E C O M M E NDATIONS
G L O S S A R Y OF TERMS
46
..............
53
...............................
54
VI.
REFERENCES
.......................................
58
VII.
APPENDICES
.......................................
61
A. H i s t o r i c a l O v e r v i e w - Age n c i e s
R e s p o n s i b l e for R a d i o a c t i v e Fallout
.....
61
B. R a d i a t i o n - External & Internal/
U n i t s / S o u r c e s ...............................
65
C. R a d i a t i o n Pr o t e c t i o n Standards
71
IV
...........
LIST OF FIGURES
pa ge
1. P r o d u c t i o n of Sr90 by n u c l e a r w e a p o n s tests
2.
Sr90 in total d iet
3.
S r90 in liqu i d w h o l e m i l k in N e w Y o r k C ity
4.
S r90 in adult v e r t e b r a e
5.
F a l l o u t s a m p l i n g stations
6.
Annual
7.
C u m m u l a t i v e Sr90 d e p osits in N/S h e m i s h p e r e s
8.
D r i n k i n g w a t e r s a mpling sites
9.
S u r f a c e w a t e r s a m p l i n g sites
...
...............................
....
..........................
.......................
fis s i o n y i e l d tests in N/S h e m i s p h e r e s
6
18
18
21
23
. 23
.. 27
..................
27
....................
30
10.
A i r & p r e c i p i t a t i o n s a m pling sites
............
30
11.
Kr85 in air samples
..............................
31
12.
P a s t e u r i z e d m i l k s a m pling sites.................
31
13.
H3
in Kingston,
33
14.
H3
in s u r f a c e w a t e r Doswell,
15.
1131 & Csl37
16.
Sr90
17.
Csl37
18.
T N ...............................
V A .................
33
in p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k ...............
34
in p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k ........................
34
.......................
35
P h a s e s of O R E R P soil c o l l e c t i o n ................
43
in p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k
L IST OF TABLES
p age
1. Est.
y i e l d s of atmos.
2. A n n o u n c e d U.S.
n u c l e a r w e a p o n s tests
n u c l e a r t e sts
...
6
....................
7
the d iet d u r i n g 1982 ...................
19
3.
S r 9 0 in
4.
S r 9 0 / 8 9 c o m p o s i t e s in p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k
5.
R E E v a l u e s for v a r i o u s t y pes of r a d i a t i o n
6.
G e n e r a l r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n standards
VI
.........
35
.....
69
.........
72
INTRODUCTION
Problem
In
1939,
it
was
discovered
that
energy
the a t o m ' s n u c l e u s c o u ld be released.
numerous
technological
fuels d windled,
supplying
small
the
thoughts
of
within
F rom this d i s c o v e r y
developments
followed.
As
fossil
the fe a s i b i l i t y of n u c l e a r reactors
world
scale
locked
in
with
1942,
this
power
at
was
demonstrated
Hanford,
potential
to
WA.
serve
on
However,
humanity
a
with
came
the
r e a l i t y of a n o t h e r use of n u c l e a r power.
During the month
of
August
history
In
a
194 5 the
concerted
course
effort
of
to
mankind's
consummate
d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t s of W o r l d W a r II,
weapons
Japan.
th e
were
detonated
S i n c e then,
legacy
of
Although
the
power
such
in
o ver
a quick
was
a
manner,
and
and
the
first
it
is
nation
to
conceivable,
the
fact
furthered
by
the
the
development
A s a r e s u l t of the e v e n t s described,
organizations
were
standards
appendix A ) .
agencies
instituted
for
ionizing
and
and
to
States
nuc l e a r
nuc l e a r
a multitude
assisting
radiation
nucl e a r
for m i l i t a r y
stockpiling
monitor,
effects.
eventually,
of
weapons.
governmental
testing
use
United
and
set
fusion
remains,
fission
of
the
Nagasaki,
rad i a t i o n
s o m e n a t i o n s w o u l d h ave u s e d s i m i l a r d e v i c e s
initiated
to
two m a n - m a d e nuc l e a r
Hiroshima
environmental
U.S.
Yet,
end
m u c h of the w o r l d has had to deal wit h
man-made
purposes.
changed.
public
regulate,
and
e x p o s u r e (see
2
P u r p o s e of R e p o r t
The
following
monitoring
research
systems,
with
reviews
an
U.S.
emphasis
on
radiation
t h ose
systems
c u r r e n t l y in service. A l o n g w i t h c u r r e n t pol i c i e s r el a t e d
to
radioactive
radioactivity
are
in
food,
examined.
documentation
te s t imony,
of
fallout,
this
maximum
water
After
of
a
review
are
and
types
of
and the n e c e s s i t i e s of life
recent
conclusions
a mounts
of
available
literature
given
to
and
the
data,
personal
primary
purpose
s t u d y - are w e or aren't we m o n i t o r i n g rad i a t i o n
levels
adequately
United
States
toward
the
is
for
our
protection.
responsible
potential
for
hazards
a
Ultimately,
major
of
the
contribution
environmental
r a d i o a c t i v i t y - p a s t and present.
Scope
This
research
systems
that
radioactive
the
data
have
are
c o n c e r n e d w i t h U.S.
assessed
fallout
fro m
facilities
is m o s t l y
the
e ffects
from n u c l e a r w e a p o n s
low - l e v e l
i n cluded
of
monitoring
atm o s p h e r i c
tests.
However,
r a d i a t i o n v e n t i n g by two n u c l e a r
-
in
particular,
the
Chernobyl
a c cident.
Background
The
Atomic
Site(NTS),
N evada,
Energy
located
conducted
65
C o m m i s s i o n 's(AEG)
miles
atmospheric
northwest
nuclear
Nevada
of
Las
weapons
Test
Vegas,
t e st s
in
3
the
United
States
from
1951-1958.
The
t est
site
was
e s t a b l i s h e d to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h n u c l e a r fission d evice s of
low-yield
th e
—
up
to
efforts
of
the
high-yield
tests
mid-Pacific
Pacific
1962,
50
Pac i f i c
up
to
ocean,
test
Proving
develop
thus
after
complimenting
Ground
a
discontinued
only
-
15 m e g a t o n s (MT)
to
sites
however,
Kilotons(KT)
—
performing
- loc a t e d
hydrogen
bomb.
atmospheric
dispersing
large
r a d i o a c t i v e d e b r i s into the stratosphere,
in the
The
testing
in
amounts
of
tha t w o u l d take
d e c a d e s to fall to the earth's s u r f a c e (16,17).
There
the
several
detonation
These
of
are
effects
of
important
played
radioactive
otherwise
500
important
to
KT
or
the
debris
stratosphere,
to
the
later
If
the
lower
it
is
of
the
stratosphere,
during
the
in the
adequately
injected
the
it
the
placement
cover
debris
large
into
U.S .
the
percent
of
stratosphere,
in
the
is n e a r the equator,
most
into
remain
the
s l o w l y m o ves
upper
by
equatorial
gravity,
sett l i n g
s t r a t o s p h e r e and m o n t h s or years
troposphere
device
a
radionuclides
pushed
equatorial
nuclear
lati t u d e s,
is
then
enters
role
greater,
t r o p o s p h e r e . If the h i g h - y i e l d
of
af t e r
If the d e t o n a t i o n has an a p p r o x i m a t e
debris
most
an
systems
population-exposure.
of
e f fects
a low or h i g h - y i e l d i n g n u c l e a r device.
monitoring
magnitude
atmospheric
is
is
at
temperate
detonated
i n j ected
near
into
latitudes.
the
the
tem p e r a t e
lower
polar
t h e n it is t r a n s p o r t e d into the t r o p o s p h e r e
spring.
The
exchange
between
the
polar
4
stratosphere
is
and
accelerated
tropopause
in
-
separating
the
of
troposphere
the
the
at
late w i n t e r
temperate
and e a r l y
intermediate
st r a t o s p h e r e
discontinuities
transfer
the
radioactive
spring.
atmospheric
and
in the te m p e r a t e
latitudes
troposphere
regions
that
The
layer
-
has
facilitate
fallout d u r i n g w e t seasons,
from
t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e to the t r o p o s p h e r e (1-4,17).
The
geographical
chosen
The
because
desert
had
fallout
population
in
During
eight
the
nuclear
The
the
force
or
north
the
and
radioactive
fallout
very
favorable.
downwind
NTS
All
fallout that was
of
leading
was
a
of
d i r e c t i o n (16).
detonated
of
these
detected
descended
Nevada
with
tests
into
in
states
Tes t
Site.
precipitation
c o n t r o l l e d b y the m e t e o r o l o g y of the areas involved.
states
late
recorded
1950s.
conducted
1962,
The
NTS
and
levels
have
deposition
have
been
P acific
local
to
radionuclides
of
Pro v i n g
fallout
with
sharp
-
Some
during
the
atmospheric
tests
Ground,
194 5-
Besides the U.S.,
i n v olved
contributed
of
of
combination
t o t a l e d 212(16,17,18).
countries
and
by
h igh
100
off-site.
products
the
to
sparse
the n u c l e a r y i e l d
fission
northeast
supposedly
there
atmosphere.
dropping
was
meteorology,
testing,
car r i e d m u c h
t r opos p h e r e ,
nearby
The
in
of
was
Als o
prevailing
years
NTS
safety
dispersals.
atmospheric
energy
the
predictable
the
devices
produced
of
r a d iological
a rea
fan-shaped
locations
from
four other
atmospheric
rises
in
especially,
testing,
worldwide
stront i u m -
5
90(Sr90)
(Fig.
Kingdom(UK),
th e
These
France,
fiv e n a t i o n s
tests
c o u n tries
and
China.
involved
include USSR,
The
est i m a t e d
Sta t e s
t o t a l e d 768,
NTS.
yield
by
in at m o s p h e r i c n u c l e a r w e a p o n s
nuclear
tests
however,
Sin c e
from
July
1945
-
Dec
1961,
of f - s i t e (16) . It
location,
is
more
than
45
i n teresting
and p u r p o s e
of
these
underground
the
conducting
underground
p r o g r a m (Table
have
fallout
given
the
NTS
tests
year,
to
atm o s p h e r i c
is
that
radioactivity.
from
rise
note
2).
nuclear
environmental
radioactive
to
detected
type,
of the n u c l e a r tests since the A E G
initiated
off-site
198 6
540 have b e e n con d u c t e d u n d e r g r o u n d
t e s t s h a v e r e l e a s e d en v i r o n m e n t a l radioactivity,
that
United
f rom 1945-1980 are summar i z e d in Tab l e 1. A n n o u n c e d
United
at
1).
may
pro d u c e
However,
tests
controversy,
presently
of
during
it
the
is
pas t
the
history
1950s
brought
of t h e a t o m i c energy program.
As
noted
about
to
by
Barry
an e x p a n s i o n
try
to
meet
of the
the n e eds
B y t h e e n d of 1958,
exploded
changes
in
C o m m o n e r (1-1) ,
the
r a d i o a c t i v e m o n i t o r i n g systems
of a glo b a l
atmosphere
in r a d i o a c t i v e
not
seriousness
nuclear
and
adequate
of the
tests.
d e t ona t e d ,
It
but
p o l l u t i o n problem.
t h e r e h a d b e e n 2 00 U.S.
with
levels
a n d p l a n t and animal tissues.
were
the
for
appeared
a f ter
tremendously
of air,
water,
The U.S.
detecting
radioactive
n u c l e a r bombs
harmful
soil,
milk,
m o n i t o r i n g systems
the
extent
and
fallout p r o d u c e d by these
the
b o mbs
that,
a
c o uld
lack
of
be
produced
scient i f i c
20
en
o
3
o
o
CT*
<D
1945
1950
1955
1970
1965
I960
Production of ^ S r by nuclear weapons tests, 1952-1963.
FIGURE
1
(17)
E s t im a t e d Y ie l d s o f A t m o s p h e r ic N u c l e a r W e a p o n s T e s t s ®
Estimated yield
(M T )
Period
United States
USSR
United Kingdom
France
China
Total
1945-1962
1949-1962
1952-1953
1960-1974
1964-1980
No. of
tests
Fission
Total
193
142
21
45
22
423
72
111
11
11
13
218
139
358
17
12
21
547
«From UNSCEAR (1982).
TABLE
1
(17)
TABLE 2 (18)
ANNOUNCED U N I T C n
TOTALS BY
PR E-TMFATr
CY 1 9 1 5
CY 1 9 1 6
CY I 9 i ;
CY 1 9 1 0
CY 1 9 1 9
CY 1 9 5 0
CY 195 1
CY 1 9 5 ?
CY 1 9 5 3
CY 1 9 5 1
CY 1 9 5 5
CY 1 9 5 6
CY 1 9 5 7
CY 1 9 5 0
CY 1 9 5 9
CY I 9 6 0
CY 1961
CY 1 9 6 ?
CY 1 9 6 3
PME TREATY
P O ST - T R E A T Y
CY 1 9 6 3
CY 1 9 6 1
CY 1 9 6 5
CY 1 9 6 6
CY 1 9 6 7
CY I 9 6 0
CY 1 9 6 9
CY 1 9 7 0
CY 1971
CY 1 9 7 ?
CY 1 9 7 3
CY 1 97 1
CY
CY
1975
1976
CY 1 9 7 7
CY 1 9 7 0
CY 1 9 7 9
CY 1 9 0 0
CY 19 0 1
CY 1 9 0 ?
CY 1 9 0 3
CY | 9 R 1
CY 1 9 0 5
CY 1 9 0 6
POST-TREATY
YEAR
TOTALS BY
U .S .
U S /U K
3
?
TUNNEL
SHAFT
CRATER
TOTAL UG
16
to
II
6
IB
10
3?
77
TOTALS BY LO C A T IO N
U .S .
50
181
9
U S /U K
551
19
AI RR UR ST
RAT LOON
TOWER
AI ROROP
ROCKET
SURFACE
BARGE
19
10
96
?9
331
?
?
11
?9
?8
10
?B
33
?9
30
1?
m
9
7
16
15
1?
1?
11
11
16
10
11
1?
IS
1?
137
TOTAL
760
U . S . US /U K
1
1?
11
?3
?1
PA C IFIC
1 06
NTS UNOERGROUNO
510
NTS ATMOSPHERIC
100
TOTAL
NTS
TOTAL
S.
610
19
19
? l?
UW
A T L A N T IC
3
5
768
TOTAL
PA C IFIC
JOHNSTON I S L . AREA
ENEWE TAK
B IK IN I
CH RIS TM AS I S L . AREA
TOTAL
1
?5
56
61
1?
?B
36
TOTAL ATMOS.
TESTS
TYPE
3
19
1
1
CENTRAL NEVADA
AMC HITKA
ALAMOGORDO
JAPAN
CARL SHAD
H A TT IE S BU R G
FARMINGTON
GRAND VALLEY
R IF IE
FALLON
BOMBING RANGE
TOTAL
OTHER
1
3
I
?
1
?
1
1
1
1
5
19
TOTALS BY D E T E C T I O N OF
760
TOTAL
R A D IO A C T IV IT Y
19
1
1
?
\
3
1
1
1
?
1
1
17
NO R A O I O A C T I V I T Y DETECTED
130
H IS
D E T E C T I O N ON S I T E
NTS
BOMB INC. RANGE
TOTAL
D E T E C T I O N OFF S I T E
NTS
BOMBING RANGE
total
TOTAL
STATE S NUCLEAR
TOTALS BY PURPOSE
ONLY
93
1
91
136
1
110
total
COMBAT
SAFETY E X P E R .
ST OR AG E- TR A NS P .
VELA UN IFOR M
PLOWSHARE
WEAPONS RELATED
WEAPONS EFFEC TS
J O I N T US -U K
?
3 1
1
/
?/
606
total
7U7
89
19
19
8
expertise
to deal
with
the t h o u sands of p r o b l e m s cre a t e d
w a s e v i d e n t (1-1,1-2 ) .
A
unilateral
President
States,
testing
Eisenhower,
USSR,
atmospheric
and
on
the
testing
moratorium
Nov
United
of
1,
declared
1958(18).
Kingdom
nuclear
was
The
agre e d to
weapons.
The
Union,
the U n i t e d
States,
a L i m i t e d T e s t Ban Treatytests
in
the
The
nuclear
1961,
atmospheric
conducted
T h e U.S.
provide
nuclear
all
nuclear
hea l t h
c o n ti n u e d
1963, w h e n the Soviet
in
Soviet
outer
Union
signed
radiation.
The
United
tests u n d e r g r o u n d
o f f i cials
space
and
exp l o d e d
significantly
radioactive monitoring
public
all
This treaty b a n n e d all nuc l e a r
atmosphere,
in
stop
and the U n i t e d Kingdom,
u n d e r w a t e r ( 16 , 17 ,18 ) .
devices
United
moratorium
w a s b r o k e n in S e p t e m b e r 1961. U S S R and the U.S.
a t m o s p h e r i c t e s t i n g until A u g u s t 5,
by
50
increa s i n g
States
since J u l y
has
1962.
systems w e r e e x p e c t e d to
with
the
necessary
data
t o a s s e s s the e ffects of environmental r a d i o a c t i v i t y that
c o u l d in a n y w a y thr e a t e n p u b l i c h e a l t h
9
H I S T O R Y O F U.S. O F F I C I A L R A D I O A C T I V E F A L L O U T M O N I T O R I N G
SYSTEMS
A.
E a r l y M o n i t o r i n g S y stems - Before 19 63
First Att e m p t s
The
AEC
ins t i t u t e d
the
first
monitoring
a s s e s s a t m o s p h e r i c r a d i o a c t i v e fallout.
(Project
ASHCAN)
electrostatic
precipitator
t o 1 0 0 , 000 feet.
found
in
balloons
were
filters
the
form
of
In
1957,
monitoring
information
radioactivity,
The
on
planes
meridian
jets
latitude.
By
66
to
the
had
Isotopes
interpretation.
the
to
and 1956
aloft
heights
the
of
system
with
50,000
N
in
Naval
U.S.
technical
Air
electrostatic
to
high-altitude
60
Force
filters.
along
latitude
the
Research
gathered
u s ing
with
dust
U.S.
a tmosphere
degrees
1959
(Project HASP)
sent
equ i p p e d
monitored
west,
sent
radioactive
Laboratory(NRL)
U-2
In 1953,
to
For the first time fission p r o d u c t s were
s t r a t o s p h e r e (1-4,17).
Lockheed
systems
the
7 0th
deg r e e s
sam p l i n g
S
program
collected
o ver 14 00 samples that w ere
Inc.
ra d i o c h e m i c a l
for
Results
of
ASHCAN,
analyses
HASP,
and
and
others,
s h o w e d 1) t h e l o n g - l i v e d r a d i o i s o t o p e stront i u m - 9 0
is not
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h a l t i t u d e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in
air,
2)
banded
because
of leaks
(especially
residence
t ime
of
in
Sr90
into the tropopause,
the
temperate
h e a v y moisture,
eddy
turbulence,
c u rrents,
and
latitudes)
in the s t r a t o s p h e r e
B e c a u s e of t h e jet stream,
wind
fallout is
is cut
and
short.
e quatorial and
t h ere
is
a
rapid
10
d e s c e n t of d e b r i s w h i c h dec r e a s e s the h a l f - r e s i d e n c e time
t r e m e n d o u s l y , 3) a l m o s t dou b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of Sr90 had
b e e n d e p o s i t e d on the ground,
north
latitudes
com p a r e d
to
worldwide,
the
south
in the 4 0 degr e e
latitude
regions,
a n d 4) b y 1960 the s t r a t o s p h e r i c r e s e r v o i r c o n t a i n e d Sr90
equivalent
explosion
late
to
and
the
remaining
way
as
the
ground
UK,
produced
e n e r g y due
1958
1957,
that
U.S.
detonations
stratospheric
was
30
MT
of
up
to
fission
1959(1-4).
c ontent
deposited
a d o u b l e haz a r d
for total
coming
the m o n i t o r i n g
USSR
about
to the U S S R series of e x p l osion s
in the past,
and
by
in
the
next
two
systems of the A E C
nuclear
tests
put
If
the
all
same
levels
decades.
Up
on
to
showed the U.S.,
into the tr o p o s p h e r e
s t r a t o s p h e r e 3.6 megacuries(MCi)
in
and
of S r 9 0 (1-6).
S t r o n t i u m - 9 0 of Great Concern
Many
studies
in t h e
Those
137
up
to
radioactive
of
it's
particles.
it
is
on
Because
intake.
radioactive
s t r o n t i u m - 9 0 ( S r 9 0 ) , cesium-
iodine-131
in
fallout
b o n e (1-2,17).
selectively
calcium
and
it
is
taken
r a d i o nucl i d e s
from n u c l e a r w e a p o n s testing.
included
radionuclide
effects
n u merous
c a r b o n - 1 4 ( C 1 4 ) ,
2 3 8 / 2 3 9 (Pu238/239) ,
hazardous
showed
fallout
importance
(Csl37),
1958
Sr90
chemically
up
by
Therefore,
strontium-calcium
the
when
ratio
plutonium-
(1131).
was
The
Sr90
emits
human
because
ionizing
sim i l a r
to
skeleton
used
of
beta
calcium,
discussing
is
most
with
Sr90
-
and
a
is
11
e x p r e s s e d as cur i e s of Sr90 p e r g r a m of c a l c i u m (Cl Sr 9 0 / g
Ca) . O n e p i c o c u r i e ( s e e glossary)
of
calcium(ipci
Sr90/g
Ca)
of s t r o n t i u m — 90 p e r g r a m
is
defined
as
the
s t r on t i u m
u n i t (SU).
The
monitoring
results
iRÜk,
of
systems
Sr90
diet,
of
the
absorption
in
AEC(1950s)
the
leafy vegetables,
eaten
content
of
m i l k (1-6).
ratio
in
dietary
daily
the
by
the
plant,
human
bone
calcium.
h ave
will
Since
the
it's c a l c i u m from milk,
to
study.
bone
Also,
cancers
lactating
observed
cow.
about
Experiments
amount
0.9
percent
shown
the
as
U.S.
to
on
net
on
the
cal c i u m
up
in
the
Sr90/calcium
source
of
gets
most
population
has
linked
ex c e s s i v e
l e u k e m i a (1-1,19,24) .
in
passed
the
ends
a n i m a l s s e e m to filter the Sr90
r a t i o (OR)
cows
is about 0.1 p e r c e n t of
D e p ending
vary
via
the
the
of
it is the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t source
research
and
chain,
e t c . The
t o h u m a n s p e r l i ter of m i l k sold,
Sr90
food
measured
passing
from
a v e r a g e s a b o u t 0.18 - 0.20(12,17).
diet
Sr90
Even
though
from milk,
to
to
human
the
bone,
The p r o b l e m of Sr90 in
h u m a n b o n e w i ll be d i s c u s s e d later.
H i g h I n c i d e n c e of S t r o n t i u m - 9 0
During
1955-1958,
tests
were
D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u lture(USDA)
Lab(HASL)
following
L a k e City,
of
the
cities:
UT;
Los
AEC,
and Mandan,
conducted
ND.
by
the
U.S.
and the H e a l t h and Safety
using
Angeles,
in N o r t h Dakota
CA;
collections
Rapid
City,
from
the
SD;
Salt
Of p a r t i c u l a r note w a s the
12
high
incidence
1958,
about
milk
in
of
42
t his
Sr90
mCi
same
permissible
at
Sr90
c it y
limit
at
Mandan,
per
square
tested
that
ND,
mile.
20-32
time
in the
pCi
was
soil
The
pow d e r e d
Sr90/g
80
pCi
June
Ca.
The
Sr90/liter
iRiik(1— 8). A curie is a m e a s u r e of r a d i o a c t i v i t y equal to
e x a c t l y 3.70 x 10^^
F r o m 1951-1958,
the NTS was r e s p o n s i b l e for m u c h of the
radioactive
fallout
the
All
site.
dispersed
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d (1-7).
e ndured
100
amounts
a t m o s p h e r e (16,18).
In
radioactivity
found
1957,
in the U.S.
areas
debris
extremely
in
n o r t heas t
de t o n a t i o n s
of
Central
T h e r e w e r e l o c a l i z e d "hot spots"
some places
many
atm o s p h e r i c
various
were
by
the
levels
Dakota
of
milk.
in v a r i o u s regions.
When
had readings of 5 S U (5 pCi Sr9 0/g
Ca) , s p o t t y areas in N o r t h Dakota had 33 SU.
North
Dakota
peaked
1963,
had
a l l - t i m e hig h of
an
NTS,
into
high
North
at
of
at
48
SU
in milk,
In M a y 1959,
and the
105 S U (19) .
Sprin g
Although,
of
the
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n on Radiol o g i c a l Protection(ICRP)
r ec o m m e n d a t i o n
for
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (MPC),
was
experts
limits
"hot
were
were
spots"
could measure
SU,
recommending
kept
in
maximum
80-100
10
SU
the same (100
some
a high
SU,
as
SU) ,
2 00 SU,
some
it
is
in
and a m e a n
c r e a t i n g a Sr9 0 h a z a r d for youth.
gov e r n m e n t
M P C (1-3,19) . If
farm co m m u n i t i e s
of
permissible
the
concei v a b l e
North
Dakota
of about
10 0
13
P u b l i c H e a l t h Service(PHS^
The
and
PHS,
through
W e l far e ( H E W )
January
Utah,
established
measured
the
1959
Illinois,
Ca l i f o r nia,
in air,
Ohio,
North
and
across
on
in
Edu c a t i o n
milk,
from
Georgia,
Dakota,
New
Y ork,
Missouri.
Using
these
the
and food.
Council
Health,
following states:
Washington,
water,
of
radioactivity
in the
stations
National
Depart m e n t
rep o r t e d
1 9 5 9 —J u n e
Texas,
the
Report in 1959
U.S.,
radiation
was
The M P C re c o m m e n d e d by
Radiation
Protection
and
M e a s u r e m e n t s (NCRP)
for w a t e r and m i l k for Sr90 was 80 pCi
Sr90/liter
for
milk
radioisotopes were
a n d Sr90.
except
18.6
January
for;
1131,
Sr89,
ranged from 4.3 SU
in M i s s o u r i (1-7).
stations
averaging
34.6/11.2
SU,
reason
for
due
a
to
tested
exposure.
Five
known
Bal40,
Cel37,
All of these sco r e d only a fraction of the MPC,
Sr90.
SU
lifetime
A pril's
37.3
SU,
respectively.
the
shift
jump
in
in
wind
register
April
May/June
scientists
and M a y
patterns,
readings
report showed M i s s o u r i
with
The
in C a l i f o r n i a to
on
con c l u d e d
the
readings
was
milk
which
in
weapons
ave r a g i n g
turn
tes t
ca u s e d
changes
in
sites.
Ho w e v e r ,
all readings r e m a i n e d b e l o w the N a tional Council
o n R a d i a t i o n P r o t e c t i o n and M e a s u r e m e n t s ( N C R P ) (1-8,1-9).
14
B- C u r r e n t M o n i t o r i n g Systems - A f t e r 1963
The
1963
atomic
Nuclear
Weapons
energy program
monitor
and
including
from
control
systems
Test
less
Ban
Treaty
s e n s i t i v i t y and analyses,
the
sophi s t i c a t e d systems to
radiation,
with
changed
into
updated
new
efforts,
coverage,
greater
and new a g e n c i e s .
Svstems Uodatqd
In
1963,
the
Environmental
Measurements
L a b o r a t o r y (EML) , u n d e r the dir e c t i o n of the A E C and later
the
DOE,
effects
took
o ver
the
NRL
effort
to
monitor
from the a t m o s p h e r i c test years
program,
now
called
P r o g r a m (SASP) , has
the
(1946-1962).
Surface
kept m a n y
of
its
radia t i o n
Air
original
This
Sampling
NRL
sites,
b u t is c o n s t a n t l y addi n g or d e l e t i n g sites on a p e r m a n e n t
or
temporary
Meridian
West
Program.
basis.
The
- cal l e d
These
test
sites
EML's
added
present
sampling
sites
network
l a t i t u d e (10,17).
the
collection
and
ext e n d s
h elp
In
of
to
elevation,
localized
71
1982,
along
80th M e r i d i a n
p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s of latitude,
over-ocean
run
the
Air
Samp l i n g
investigate
N
to 9 0
to
assess
The
degree s
a new system was d e v e l o p e d
samples
the
near coastlines,
contamination.
d egrees
80th
S
for
atmospheric
radioactivity.
T h e n e w eq u i p m e n t si m p l i f i e d r a diochem i c a l
analysis
by
imp r o v i n g
collects
filter
surface
air
at
filtering
s a mples
specified
of
m a t e r i a l s (20).
atmospheric
sites
in
SASP
aerosols
in
the N o r t h e r n
and
15
Southern
H e m i spheres.
several
nuclides
filters
are
and
gamma-ray
and
by
Selected
the
samples
trace
routinely
germanium
Cel44
The
elements.
analyzed
spectrometry
Analytical
filters
are
are
then
Monthly
by
for
h igh
Be7,
Chemistry
sent
to
analyzed
for
composite
resol u t i o n
Zr95,
D i v ision
contractor
Csl37,
of
EML.
labs
for
r a d i o c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s of Sr90 and P u 2 3 9/24 0. The results
of
measurements
during
of
1981-1983,
the
of
tropospheric
ra d i o a c t i v e
concentrations,
debris
from
w e a p o n s tes t s s h o w a c o n t i n u e d decrease.
But,
a
Sr90,
springtime
PU239/240
the
peak
were
Northern
in
still
and
concentrations
discernable.
Southern
of
The
Hemisphere
l i m i t s of d e t e c t i o n (for 1983)
nuclear
d u r i n g 1983
Csl37
and
radionuclides
approached
in
lower
by EML's a p p a r a t u s (10).
D i e t a r y Stron t i u m - 9 0
Strontium-90
from
1960
in the U.S.
through
diet has b e e n m o n i t o r e d by E M L
1982 .
The
USDA
developed
c o n s u m p t i o n s t a t i s t i c s w i t h a series of surveys,
in
1936.
fallout
of
in
originally
dietary
food
these
1988 (20).
tested
used
measurements
1965-1966
use
HASL
data
Sr90
has
1960,
York
included,
intake
with
1955
consumption
Since
New
the
of
USDA
data
sta t i s t i c s
wer e
continued
to
but
Sr90
San
was
has
sta r t i n g
correlate
c o n t e n t of h u m a n bone.
representative
and
to
food
the
food
Francisco.
excluded
been
updated
in
estimated
and
pre s e n t -
items
Chicago
1967.
by
In
wer e
was
Total
anal y s e s
16
from v a r i o u s
for
these
been
used
through
for
years,
foods
to
the
and estimates
graphed(Fig.
study
food
sampling
from
included;
vegetables,
fruit,
from
Sr90
in
the
York
and
producing
lo w e r
diet
been
been
annual
Francisco
less
and
its
eggs.
since
The
1960
food categories
those
of
in New
Results
in
San
in N e w York because
deposition
the
general
products,
and
intake
believed
in
fallout
The
grain
fluctuated.
than
is
Sr90
has
foods were used
fish,
annual
fallout
rainfall
with
meat,
have
less
region,
products,
and major
Francisco
have
has
that
of
categories.
last,
show
total
San
Francisco
there
EML
information
Nineteen
food
dairy
and
This
mechanisms
to man.
five
categories
results
2) .
transfer
chain
of average consump t i o n
to
be
regions
f o o d (11,17).The
in
due
that
graph
its
food
main l y
supply
shows
to
San
several
l a r g e v a r i a t i o n s because of the nuclear t esting timetable
of
the
"super
strontium-90
moratorium
recorded
testing
Sr90
in
1967,
d e clined
in
however,
maintained
the
decline
in
Sr90
because
uptake
the
soil
bec a m e
of
Max i m u m
following
1961-1962.
duri n g
U.S.).
because
1959-1960.
1963-1964
period
intake
powers"(USSR,
1963-1964
French
the
most
was
a
and
Chinese
intake
through
intake
became
more
the
cumulative
the dominant
of
Sr90
active
fast
treaty
were
n uc l e a r
decline
in
and it leveled out in 1966-
die t a r y
from
1960-1961
nuclear
levels
the
There
During
testing
1968.
gradual
deposits
in
1966
The
rapid
after
1967,
of
Sr90
in
factor c o n t r i b u t i n g to Sr90
17
in levels
milk
in f o o d ( F i g . 2).
and
dairy
contributors
to
products
Sr90
l i q u i d w h ole m i l k
of
the
of
Strontium-90
1982
sampling
s ho w
were
intake.
the
The
in N e w
is shown
York
products
to Sr90
and
and
intake
in early years
most
Sr90
for New York City,
pro g r a m
d a iry
contributors
Data show that
to
Ca
important
ratios
for
since the beginning
in Fig.
3.
The
results
San Francisco diets
vegetables
(Table 3).
as
the
for
primary
The annual
intake
of Sr90 in 1982 averaged 5.4 pCi/day for New York and 2.6
pCi/day
for
San
Francisco.
Gradual
reductions
were
a n t i c i p a t e d for 1983(11).
Human Bone and Strontium-90
Studies
incre a s es
in
in
the
late
1950s
strontium-90
to
levels
s pecimens
reading
recorded
Correlations
North
and
of
Welfare
data
done
3
in
year
with
with
Canada's
provided
a
1958.
old
Dr J.L.
The
child,
highest
2.6
SU.
environmental
data
samples
a
few
Department
results
bone.
showed
assayed Sr90 in human
Dakota
from
bone
was
time.
North
was
of
Dakota
period
from
1960s
in human
K u l p ( 1 9 ) , a researcher for the AEG,
bone
early
from
a
of
over
National
study
in
short
Health
in 1963,
from
S o u t h e r n Can a d i a n provinces to the north of North Dakota.
The s t u d y showed bones taken at autopsy from specimens of
s eve r a l
children
S U (19).
B ecause
much
higher
2
years
old
strontium-90
in North
Dakota
and
younger
levels
during
in
containe d
milk
the years
have
8
been
of highest
,/1 1
ffw rooK
V
'* o m
pnN runNciro
f
W
d
♦
-
«
71* 7g* 13 74* X * 76* 71* 79*
YEAR
figure 2
(1 1 ).
90
Sr
In t o t a l
diet
50
30n;
o
o
20
—
o
CL,
0
—
1960
1965
1970
YEAR
Strontlw-fO li
FIGURE 3 (11)
1975
1900
1985
TABLE 3 (11)
STlOKTimi-JO IN "TO DIET DCIINO l > «
S oi FroieLooo
Now York C U T
Olot Cêtotory
DAitT ptooacn
k#/r*
iCâ/r*
200
21$.0
% of Toorlf
Itttko of Ct
**Sf/k;
2.2
pCi
^Sf / y
% of Toorlr
Imtoko of ^ S r
m s t VTOETAStES
CANNED VEBETABLES
tOOT VESETABLES
POTATOES
Dll BEANS
41
22
10
21
2
11,7
4.4
2.8
2.8
2.1
29
11
21
8 8
5.4
2.4
2.2
15.9
44
24
11
2
2
79
10
15
8
1
270 8
INTAIE
•Pro. 0. S. D«
It of Airieiltara (19*7).
77
9
40
12
84
119
21
7
2
1.9
2.3
2.9
1.2
0.8
121
132
$9
7
2
25
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.7
23
$
10
1
<1
■
21
3
8
1
1
5
2
10
TEAILI IKTACE
2$
18
0.4
0.2
0.$
0.2
0.2
12.$
$.0
8.7
7.$
1.$
116
$4
28
79
34
1.2
0.8
1.4
132
12
48
20
NEAT
POOLTIT
EOCS
F U S B FISI
SICLL FISI
2.4
2.9
2.8
2.1
7.9
11
2.0
4.3
$.2
2.4
0.$
32.7
$.3
10.2
0.(
1.1
11
422
119
24
88
48
2
B A m T PtOOOCTS
FU3UI
THOtE CIAIN PIODOCrS
NACAJtONi
IICE
200
2$
1$
1.1
1.7
9.4
0.(
2.2
» of Yearly
Imtoko of W s r
21
9
FIESH F i n n
CANNED F l O n
FMIT jvia
»Sr/y
1.0
$41
58
_pci
WSr/ki
1978 pCl
967 pCl
5.4 pCl/| Co
3,4 pCi/doy
2.6 pCl/g Co
2.$ pCl/doy
20
fallout,
those
it
seems
r e s i de nts
1957-1966
likely
hav i n g
might
that
lived
show
mor e
bone
studies
hot
spot
areas
in
considerable
from
during
radiostrontium
increases.
Sr90
in h u man
hav e
added
to
t ook
place
in
bones
our
in the U.S.
knowledge
New
York
of
and
for
1967
h eal th
San
through
risk.
Francisco.
1982
The studies
EML
used
98
s p e c im ens of v er t e b r a e from individuals w h o died suddenly
with
normal
area.
When
a v er age
metabolism
Sr90
for
to
Ca
ratios
.95 and
1 9 8 2 (Fig.
are a ls o shown.
va lu e s
were
long
residents
E M L analyzed the bone samples,
in N e w York,
were
and
(pCi/gCa)
the
they found the
for adult vertebrae
.64 for San Francisco.
4).
of
These figures
The average for 1963 t hrough
1981
One reason given for hig her concent rat ion
in N ew York com pared to San Francisco bone is that
N e w Y o r k had g r e a t e r d ietary Sr90 intake on a general per
capita
consumption.
children's
Sr90
to
higher
bones
Ca ratios
in
because
New
S t r o n t i u m - 90
wer e
similar
adult
bones.
in
However,
for youn g adults tended to be slightly
York
du rin g
the
the
period
of
du r i n g
to
concentr ati ons
first
few years
grea tes t
Sr90
of
1980,
deposition,
the y o u t h w e r e c h i l d r e n (12).
W o r l d w i d e D epo sition of S trontium-90
EML
has
stations
atmospheric
o perated
since
a
1957
n u cl ear
worldwide
to
weapon s
measure
tests.
netw ork
Sr90
From
of
sampling
fallout
an
from
es t a b l i s h e d
21
t.% .
9,9
f.r
I.« NÇM tOnK
K ».f|
o.n
o.n
/
-I rr
4
I
enw F w v fc ie c o
a.4
0.91
b tï
k k k k r
ttm
• • H r !• # A # I $ # # g * # & * * # vlffc # # ^ # * 1# $ # * # # ) mmi & # # #
(••114 l l * « K
FIGURE 4 ( 1 2 )
fp«|a|t
22
total
of
66 test
Northern
Th e
H emi sp h e r e
method
involved
used
stainless
d rai ns
th r o u g h
However,
containers,
to
Radiochemical
als o
be
such
tests,
used
for
of
ion
newly
leakage
analyses
of
un der
Reynolds
samples
on
the
r e s i n (13).
included heavy
of
samples
closure
shipment
this
wit h
and
to
EML.
pro gra m
may
commercial
labs,
Eng ine eri ng
Co.,
n etwork
of
stations
and
one esti mat e has been made each year of w orldwide
totals
are
taken
w h i ch
the
sampling
within
worldwide
bequerels
S r9 0
per
N
and
side
to th e poles.
be
d ep osi t i o n
material.
60
of
for
Sr90.
degrees
sites
seen
is
10
of
are
each
latitude
located
quarter.
figured
The
in
and
Average
units
of
The
degrees
these
S
bands
are
latitude.
latitudes
for
taken
up
to
C alc ulations
Sr90
is
70
for
extrapolated
The total annual estimated fission yield in
atmosphere
Southern
can
deposits
square m e t e r - 1 Bq = 1 dis intégrât ion/sec
radioactive
degrees
a ccu mulative
deposition
quarterly
the
debris
positive
in
contract
calculation
either
test
types
during
Electrical
Based
Both
developed
and
of
in the
Hemisphere.
exchange
for trace metals
deposition
b a nd s
Sout her n
weapo ns
collection.
p revent
I n c . ( R E E C o ) (20).
the
located
or plastic pot or a funnel which
column
p e r f or med
as,
in
39 are
samples by ex pos ing them to a steep-
a
in
5),
measuring
steel,
pots
shipped
27
for
the me tho d
polyethylene
(Fig.
and
co lle c t i n g
walled
are
sites,
from
H emi sp h e r e
1951-1985
are
given
for
in
Fig
the
6.
N o rth ern
The
and
cumul ati ve
'o'^
R
t a j
v - >
v ^ p —
I)
'
?
Finnnr
5
(13).
Fallout
Smmplino
Station*
100
100
0-1970
1965
IQ51'1PAS
I960
A
0
- A n n u m I E^tln'otai T l a o l o n
- Annual Catlmat«4 F l a alon
Y l« Id - A t w o o p h m r Ic
FIGURR
6
(13)
1975
1900
1905
Ta«îta-Nor th»*rn I l n m j a p K m r m
T « a t « - S o u t h * r n M«?ml « p h m r «
24
deposit
of
Sr90
for
1955-1984
in
the
N or t h e r n
and 0.1 PBq
on
since
PBq
the
MCi).
of
the
was
the
During
equaling
co ndu cte d
16.5
39 tests
1962
-
mo s t
0.008
was
0.3
Peta
MegaCuries(MCi),
earth
during
lowest
1984
total
fallout
Total
was
yearly
p rog ram
in
recent
China,
in
was
the U.S.
MT
of
conducted
fission
yi eld ing
test year
38
yield,
60.5 MT.
The
in h i sto ry was
pe rformed
by
the
People's
198 0 at
the
Lop
Nor
Octo ber
Test
latitude 40 d egrees N (13).
has
Sr90
1984
the
1962
a t m os phe ric weapons
It
De position of Sr90
global
a ctive
site,
Hemisphere
The wo rld wid e cumulative d eposit decreased
USSR
of
7.
for
most
Republic
Sou thern
in the Sou thern Hemisphere.
started
tests
the
and
equals
This
(9.6 MCi).
atmospheric
while
PBq
surface
EML
the mid-1950s.
357
0.3
the
(0.011
de po s i t
to
-
Hemi sph ere
(0.003 MCi)
deposition
PBq
North ern
are com pared in Fig.
Bequerels(PBq)
0.4
in the
been
sp eculated
injected
weapons
into
testi ng
the
was
that
by
1970,
atmosphere,
d e p o s ite d
on
most
during
the
all
the
of
the
period
earth's
of
surface.
W o r l d w i d e d e p o s i t i o n of Sr9 0 reached a p e a k of about 12.5
MC i
by
late
diminishing
decay;
1967.
at
however,
a
Since
rate
this
then,
of
has
Sr90
2.5%/year
been
deposits
due
to
p ar t i a l l y
have
been
radiation
offset
by
mi s s i o n
to
o c c a s i o n a l tests by China and F r a n c e (17).
Environm ent al P r ote cti on AaencvfEPA)
Th e
EPA
was
establis hed
in
1970
w it h
a
25
ensure
the
public
EPA,
he alt h
and
environmental
quality.
Throu gh
a n e w system for mon ito r i n g the nation's
levels
of r a d i o a c t i v i t y in the environm ent was initiated,
called
the
Environmental
S y s t e m (E R A M S ).
O f fic e
of
Radiation
ERAMS
came
Radiation
Ambient
under
the
Programs (GRP) ,
Monitoring
direct ion
of
and
over
took
EPA's
the
p r e v i o u s l y m o n i t o r i n g network set up by the U nit ed States
Public
H eal t h
monitoring
Service(PHS).
radionuclides
precipitation,
ERAMS
has
locations,
and
and
of
local
ERAMS
and
and
the
an alyses
them
for
are
program,
then
viz.,
responsible
air
and
network
specific
drinking
by
ORP's
released
EPA's
E n v i r o nme nta l R a d i a t i o n Data,
to
the
Eastern
State
tests
for
for
analysis.
involved
quarterly
and
Environmental
AL,
groups
test
number
sampling
Mongomery,
water.
changing
radionuclides.
collect
for
particulates,
increasing
to
Facility(EERF),
data
in
PHS
agencies
send
is
surface
g e n e r all y
h eal t h
Radiation
These
milk,
modified
fr equ enc y
ERAMS
in
the
publications-
and Radiological Q u ali ty of
the E n v i r o n m e n t in the U . S . (14).
ERAMS
the U.S.
to
has
and
assess
gathered
trends
baseline
established
its
and
by
in
sampling
stations t hroughout
territ ori es to facilitate ORP's ability
control
ERAMS
is
long-lived
radiation
information
268
aids
radiation
used
in
developing
to
d ete rmi ne
radio nuc lid es
levels
in
to
doses
the
man.
Data
environmental
and
establishes
environment.
nu merical
limits
This
of
26
permissible
e x p o s u r e (14,17).
large
c o n t a mi nat ion can be derive d
by
scale
monitoring
ex p o s u r e
and
so
from
allows
that
public
upon
pathways
major
other
and
p riv ate
request.
states
in
sources.
can
the
is
and
ERAMS
are
also
all
population
follows
supplied
in
m a jor
trends
in the U.S.,
Resear che rs
also
of
from ERAMS data
tests
p erformed
in
a sse ssment
significant
followed.
sector
U.S.
t e rm
to gath er
be
Sampl ing
short
for
countries
rad iat ion
A
and
the
information
most
of
po p u l a t e d
the
50
areas.
ERAMS has 4 sampling programs.
1.
The
water
Drinking Wat e r and Surface Wat er
program
provides
data
levels in the nation's rivers,
supplies.
sites
Dri nking
(Fig.
8) ,
centers
or
sam ple s
are
annually
for
90,
w a t er
w h ich
near
a n a lyz ed
gamma,
radium-226/228,
samples
include
are
either
nucl ear
quart erl y
gross
ambient
radiation
streams and dr inking water
grab
selected
on
alpha,
iodine-131,
taken
major
at
population
facilities.
for
gross
These
tritium(H3)
beta,
78
and
strontium-
plutonium-238/239/240,
an d u r a n i u m - 2 3 4 / 2 3 5 / 2 3 8 (14). Surface w a t e r sampling comes
from
58
sites
downstream
that
to
are
(Fig.
from
pres ent
o p e r ati ng
or
large populations.
quarterly
activity.
for
9) , again
H3
or
po tential
in most
future
and
nucl ear
sources
Surfa ce w a t e r
annu all y
p o p u lat ed
of
areas,
facilities
dr ink ing
wate r
samples are analyzed
for
s pecific
gamma
T rit i u m c o n cen tra tio ns are d e t e r m i n e d by liquid
27
1075
1055
i051-1005
3 ; gel::!:: î:iz:\ï
:;:S l: îi::
FIGURE
7
D r in k in g wmter sampling s it n s
FIGURE
8
(14)
(13)
Z::g:::r:
28
sc int i l l a t i o n
health
counting
ana lyses
of
are
distil led
made
on
samples.
an
Dose
individual
and
not
on
p o p u l a t i o n exposure.
2.
The
air
program
precipitation
radiation.
10) , of w hi c h
EERF,
der i v e d
rainfall
these
filters
meter,
beta
in
Gross
and
and
on
beta
A
gross
water
2 3 8 , 239 ,24 0
67
submit
samples.
showing
cubic
of
impact
all
sampling
analyses
p r eci pit ati on
exceeds
10
pCi
u ra n i u m
234,235,
of
sites
results to
filters pe r week.
precipita tio n
are
is
counts
of
levels
submit test
gamma-scan
beta
and
potential
from two air particulate
occurs.
particulate
environmental
4 3 routinely
re gularly
filter
national
on
consists
(Fig.
airborne
assess
sources
It
Twenty-two
tests
to
contributing
Air Program
samples
p erf orm ed
p erformed
g re ate r
samples
as
on
than
if
per
liter.
and
238
1
the
on
all
pCi/
gross
Plutonium
analyses
are
p e r f o r m e d on samples w h i c h exceed 2 pCi/lit er gross alpha
(15- Rep o r t
49) . Kr ypton-85
atmosphere
by
radioactivity,
nuclear
and
locations
collect
co m m e r c i a l
air
shipped
separated
to
and
from
w e apo ns
dry
released
tests.
co mpressed
where
counted
is
facilities
suppliers,
EERF
(Kr85)
in a
dealing
Twelve
air
annually.
These
Krypton-85
is
liquid
into
the
with
sampling
samples
samples
from
are
c ryogenically
s ci nti lla tio n
La t e s t results for Kr85 w er e for 1976 and 1978
system.
(Fig.
11).
29
Th e
total
air
sampling
approximately
34
has
percent
been
of
e stimated
the
air
p r e c i p i t a t i o n exposure of the U.S.
pasteurized
stations
(Fig.
c o ns ume d
States.
by
Pr oducts
the
The
p o p u l a t i o n (14).
m a j or
the
Branch,
p r og ram
consists
80
of
percent
pop ulation
centers
65
sampling
of
of
the
the
milk
United
program
EPA,
Milk
is
ORP,
a
cooperative
and
Sanitation
the
Dairy
Section,
sampling
and
Food
Lipids
and
Drug
(F DA) . The pri mar y function of ERAMS is to
rel iable
radionuclide
trends.
M i l k Program
cov ering
milk
b et wee n
Administration
obta in
12) ,
and
This is estimated to cover 41 percent of the U.S.
population.
program
m i lk
cover
pa rti cul ate
3.
Th e
to
mo nit o r i n g
data
concentrations
relative
and
to
determine
current
long-term
The co nsu mpt io n of fresh m ilk by a large segment
of the general pop ula t i o n makes possible an evaluation of
the
types
and
radionuclides.
spectral
137,
amounts
Monthly
analyses,
for
an d potassium-40.
determined
by
beta
of
biologically
samples
are
iodine-131,
total
analyzed,
are
analyzed.
EPA
stable
data
1127,
show
C14,
gamma
cesium-
and strontium-90
strontium
are
precipit ate
w h i c h has been c hem ica lly separated by exchange.
y e a r l y H 3 , 1129,
by
barium-140,
Strontium-89
co unt ing
important
At least
p l u t o n i u m and uran ium
several
important
findings.
For e xa m p l e a recent assessment of surface w a t e r sampling
at Kingston,
Tenn ess ee pr oduc ed
a dose and heal th
impact
30
FIGURE 9 ( 1 4 ) .
FIGURE
10(^1/^'),
Surface water sampling sites
F and precipitation sampling s it e s
31
e
f-j
«V
t»
*0
©8-®®
oo
OO
Y Ê nn
Krypton 05 in a ir san^jlcs
FIGURE
FIGURE
12
(Id)
11
(M )
Pasteurized milk sampling s i t e s
oo
OO
32
calculation
safe
for
over
a
for
13n
i ngestion
4
y e ar
Ci/1,
(Fig.
H3
concentrations,
13).
period
the
Dosewell,
downstream
from the North Ana nuclear station
T his g ra p h
represents
concentrations.
Water
EPA's
Regulations
concentrations
8 pCi/1;
National
Interim
the
of radionuclides:
H3,
5 p C i / 1 (14,15-Report 49).
in
and
atmospheric
1976-1977
the U.S.
fallout
(Fig.15).
Sr90
and
17) .
Envir onm ent al
Sr89
had
1985
t hro ugh
of
milk
regions,
1987
m a ny
up
peaked
Radiation
1987.
from
milk
Chinese
the
Ten
the
15 pCi/1,
and
milk
fo l l o w e d
test
in
nuclear weapons
tests
in
from
1964-1965
(ERD)
low
with
analyzed
(Fig.
16,
Sr90
and
show
levels
regional
states
samples
Sr90,
nuclear
Data
at
for
from
October
composite
samples
each
for
of
Jan
EPA's
10
1987-March
(Table 4).
from ERAMS tests
for Oct
1985-Mar 1987,
s a m p l i n g stations for radionuclides were:
water
H 3 , 0.1-5.8
nCi/1,
0-23
the
fluctuations
show
The r e sul ts
U.S.
from
limits
Sh ort-term increases
pasteurized
During
March
m ade
in
Csl37
14).
Drinking
20,000 pCi/1;
50 pCi/1; gross alpha,
Csl37
site,
(Fig.
Primary
following
Ra226/228,
1131
VA
increased long-term trend in H3
allow
gross beta,
being
T r iti um steadily increased
near
an
as
3)
nCi/1,
Pa s t e u r i z e d
pCi/1,
1131,
particulates,
Precipitation,
2)
milk
Drinking
Csl37,
0-136 pCi/1,
gr oss
beta
w a t er
0.01-66
Sr90,
0.01-5.8
at
1) surface
H 3 , 0.01-5.6
pCi/1,
Bal40,
0-5.5 pCi/1,
4) Air
pCi/m^
, and
5)
2
gross beta 0.01-6.59 nCi/m
, H 3 , 0.01-1.4
33
o
o
®
‘9
' « ' C ‘= 79.»,‘=«9,,, '981
Kingston, TN
FIGURE 13 ( 1 4 )
ë
Vo
N. o
VJ
^ 2
10 7 5 * 1 0 7 0J A M
JAM
M-3 In surface water at Ooswell, VA
FIGURE
14
(14)
34
VP
o
JRM
JAM
JflM
jnn
1 - 1 3 1 a n d C s - 1 3 7 ( p C l / L l t e r ) In
p a steu rized m ilk-network averages
FIGURE 15 (14)
Srt-OO p C i / l l t v r
IN rASTCUni7E0 MILK
o
I9 b 3 1966 I9 b 9 1972 I9'75 19*78 19b I 19ÏÏ9
Sr-90 in pasteurized
FIGURE
16
(14)
milk
35
1 c# 137 rCi/Lit«i IN rnsTEunizco
hilk
n
I9ÏÏ3 19'66 19(59 19'72 19*75 l o V o
C«'I3Z
19ÜI
I n p a î l e u r l i e d mille
FIGURE 17 ( 1 4 )
TA0LB 4 (15)
6TnONT!UM-90
AND « T W 0 N T I U f l - a 9
epA
90
neoioN
p c i/1
0 .0
2.1
1.1
2.0
1.9
1.5
2,3
1.4
0.0
0.4
I
11
M I
IV
V
VI
VI I
V III
IX
X
n -
AffiMA
c % T r N r « . % r "
PASTRURtZRD N ILK
neaioNAt. c o n p o s it e s
J ANU AR Y -
'
IN
MARCH 1 9 0 7 .
Or
i
0.9
0 .5
1.2
0 .9
0 .0
0 .0
1.0
0.4
0.0
0.4
* ’ or
p C l/1
2
1
1
1
2
2
COUNTTNN BRROR
A rm oxm m TM
t i.r
19&ÎT
36
nCi/1
and
- these
figures were the m ax i m u m mont hly averages,
included
the
Chernobyl
accident,
April
1986
(15-
R e po rts 44-49).
The Chernobyl Accident
The
reactor
St a t i o n
in
accident
the
at
USSR,
w o r l d w i d e concern.
the
April
The
bui l d i n g s
followi ng
hous ing
the
into the
combustion
the
accident,
atmosphere.
26,
1986,
N uclear
Power
caused
great
accident was caused by procedural
errors that led to 2 explosions;
the
Chernobyl
35 fires were started in
reactors.
radioactive
For
about
emissions
2
weeks
were
sent
The combination of high temperature
and dry w eat her conditions in the area spread
ra dio a c t i v e debris to great heights. A f ter the explosion,
the
plum e
went
north
and
northwest,
then
south
across
N o r t h e r n Europe.
It reached the Unite d States on May 4th,
at
Olympia,
Portland,
Id aho falls,
on M a y
7th.
OR,
W A on Ma y 5th,
ID on M a y 6th,
EPA,
and Boise,
Bismark,
ND and
ID and Lansing,
w ith FDA assistance,
MI
increased sampling
c o l l e c t i o n and analyses procedure of air particulates and
s a mp les
month
in
of
pr eci p i t a t i o n
to twice per week.
fission
products
in
and
milk
tests,
Because of the general
the
air,
increased
fr e q u e n c y started the first week of May,
to
norm al
when
background
sampling
airborne
levels
for
from once
activity
the
third
week
tritium
was
disco nti nue d
interest
sampling
and was returned
reached
in
each
of
that
June.
after
of
the
However,
May
16
for
37
lac k of ac tiv ity above normal.
to
the
public
Chernobyl
in
Sept
accident
1986,
EPA's results in responses
were
and
first
contained
released
raw
data
to
the
from
the
ERAMS p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k and air pa rticulate networks
R e p o r t 46).
at
Generally,
various
accident,
was
U.S.
e l e vat ed
the data indicate slight increases
sampling
from Oct
sites,
1985-March
du rin g
(15-
this
during
1987.
interim
H3
from
the
Chernobyl
in drinking water
a
normal
high
of
0.6 nCi/1 to 5.6 nCi/1. A ir particulates showed the gross
be t a
high
g r o ss
nCi/m
of
beta
2
. The
increases
(15-
3
3
5.8 pCi/m
. The
2
0.50 nCi/m
, rose to 6.59
increased
p a ste uri zed
Csl37,
were
significant
Sr90
pC i/m
in precipitation,
increases:
and
1.8
went
slight,
increase
m il k
from
17
had
pCi/1
from a
assessments
44-49).
for
the
to
most
significant
to 66 pCi/1,
23 pCi/1,
31 pCi/1
Dose
U.S.
the
27 pCi/1
had averages of 2.6 pCi/1
Reports
to
high to
Bal40
1131 had a
136 pCi/1,
increase to 5.5 pCi/1
calculations
population
that
and
milk
resulted
from
the a c ci den t are still being e v a l u a t e d (15).
In re spo nse
to the Chernobyl
nuclear accident,
the EPA
has issued a R a d i a tio n H ealth Effects Question and Answer
pamphlet
that
radionuclides
includes
emitted
n o rma l
e x p osu re
water
standards,
from
a
Chernobyl,
from radiation
and
listing
possible
consideration
in the U.S.,
long-term
of
health
of
EPA drinking
effects
from
r a d i a t i o n (21). The Chernobyl accident has been deemed the
w o r s t that ever occurred to any reactor. A first to yield
38
radiation
casualties
residents
-
and
environment.
su mma r i z e d
The
United
Atomic
gathered
widespread
Since
Organization(WHO)
Pr ote c t i v e
- requiring evacuation of near - by
Guid es( PAG *s ) ,
from
Nations
accumulated
Scientific
Radiation(UNSCEAR),
by
accident,
the
of
World
the
Health
has helped various countries by issuing
A cti o n
data
the
contamination
numerous
and
by
mo nitoring
Committee
has
mon itoring
coordinating
been
activities.
on
Effects
given
networks,
the
and
p r e s e n t i n g interpretations in future r e p o r t s (17).
of
data
will
be
39
CONSIDER ATI ON OF CURRENT EFFORTS
A.
It
has
the
bee n
1980's Bring N ew Programs
difficult
relationship
low-level
ra diation
important
to
firsth and
with
that
resolve
might
exist
questions
between
and health effects.
consider
exper ien ce
environme nta l
1977,
to
new
that
shed
ra dioactivity
exposure
Therefore,
literature,
may
involving
new
produced
it is
programs
light
on
by
to
or
coping
man.
Since
the U n i t e d States government has been involved with
l i t iga tio ns
against
Department
the NTS
of
the
Department
of
Energy
and
the
Defense by residents of states surrounding
and m i l ita ry personnel that had observed on-site
atmospheric
claimed
nuc lea r
exc ess ive
e f fec ts
to
animals.
them
Some
tests
from
1951-1958.
radiation
and
of
in
the
some
The
residents
exposure
caused
incidents,
death
mi litary
personnel
who
harmful
to
their
had
been
i n volved died
and
family members were left to testify on
their
The
outcomes
mixed.
AEC,
behalf.
In
one
case,
denying
ruled
the
off-site
at
fault
population.
these
decisions
negli gen ce
AEC
of
As
in
for
of
law suits have been
were made
c ond ucting
not
1985,
in favor of the
the
provi din g
about
tests,
protection
4,000
r a d i a t i o n injury were pending against the U.S.
by
those
working
S i t e (16,17).
It
is
or
living
conceivable
near
the
that
but
claims
to
for
government
Nevada
personal
Test
injury
c l a i m s will be ongoing for some years to come.
P r es sur e
was
being
put
on
DOE
by
the
news
media
and
40
U.S.
co n g r e s s m e n to make information available for public
scrutiny.
In
Ma r c h
Office(NVO)
were
disseminate
fallout
1979,
DOE
di rected
historical
and he alt h
to
data
effects
would
to
p la y
assist
a
special
g i v e n directive.
Inc(REECo),
and
DOE
at
a
role
Nevada
"collect,
related
Operations
preserve,
to
and
radioactive
To
NVO recruited almost a dozen
project.
to
help
Each of the agencies
NVO
accomplish
their
Reynolds Electrical and Engineering C o . ,
prime
NTS,
p e r f o r m the data
this
in the
the
from nuclear t e s t i n g " (22).
c o m p l e t e this enormous task,
a g e nci es
and
contractor(since
was
establish
the
co llection and archive
they est abl ish ed
C e n t e r ( C I C ) , that
to
mid-1950)
for
AEC
capability
functions.
to
To do
DOE*s Coordination and Information
was
formally
opened
to
the
public
in
J u l y 1981(22,23).
CIC's purpose is to provide the public,
the
governmental
news
groups,
s ite
media,
and
individuals
r a dio act ive
f o l l owi ng
is
a
w ith
fallout
list
of
units,
data
and
other
interested
documents
on
from nuclear weap ons tests.
task
offThe
groups that offered special
e x p e r t i s e in the project:
1. Nevada Ope rat ion s - Project Manager.
2. R E EC o - Soil analysis and CIC management.
3. Law rence Livermore National Laboratory(LLNL)
-
M a ke s field in situ measurements.
4. Los Alamo s National Laboratory(LANL)
- Modeling
and e sti mating external radiation.
5. C o lor ado State University(CSU)
- Radioecology,
41
analyze the ingestion of radionuclides from
fallout through the food chain.
6- Desert Rese arc h I n s t i t u t e ( D R I ) - Selection of
sites with EML,
statistics and data management.
{The following determine where fallout occurred.)
7- En vironmental Protection Agency(EPA)
8. Environmental Me asurement Systems Lab(EMSL)
9- National Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin(NCAA)
10. W e a t h e r Service Nuclear Support Office(WSNSO)
The
age nci es
be ca m e
known
involved
as
the
with
this
Off-Site
enormous
R adiation
undertaking
Exposure
Review
P r o j e c t ( O R E R P ) . U nd e r the directi on of NVO, this body had
2 objectives.
dat a
and
secondly,
The first was to c onti nuously make relevant
information
reconstruct,
available
to
the
public,
insofar as possible,
estimates
and
of
the e x p os ure s to the off-site public from n uclear testing
at the NTS,
and the doses to these individuals resulting
from the e x p o s u r e s (1-1,22).
In A u g u s t
t hey w e r e
1980,
1979,
the Dose Ass essment Steering Group,
called,
as sembled to oversee ORERP.
as
As of July
this g r ou p was formally renamed the Dose Assessment
Advisory
G r o u p (DAAG) .
representatives,
disciplines,
Members
chosen
and
state
from
and
of
DAAG
numerous
public
possessed
by
these
i n c lud ed
experience,
professional
14
scientific
sources.
qualifications
working
included
The
representatives
expertise,
and
42
an
understanding
fields
we r e
functions,
support
ex p o s u r e
and
committee,
and
give
open
directives
of
sciences.
to
the
in
to
DAAG
DAAG
oversee
through
the
All
the public.
committed
one objective:
history
relationships
and biological
announced
advisory
that
d isc iplinary
of radiological
meetings
an
of
is
ORERP
recommendations
to reconstruct the radiation
general
population
surrounding
the N e v a d a Test Site as the result of the 1950s and early
1960s
nuc l e a r
designated
of
wea pon s
tests.
3 geographical
study
that
U.S.A. ( Fig
l o cations
w o uld
18).
of
ensure
regions;
eventually
Phase
lowest
To
III was
priority
this
goal,
DAAG
each would be a phase
cover
the
continental
rated as having the most
for
radionuclide
activity.
However,
DAAG encouraged the ORERP to complete the Phase
III
as a last potential source of offsite radiation
area
from
a t m o sph eri c
printed
du e
the
to
as
of
DAAG
Jun e
years.
1988.
influence
plutonium
170
before
and
2)
isotope
Two
over
s t o c h a s t i c (linear
assessment,
gave
test
w ork
important
ORERP
has
not
been
accomplishments
include
hypothesis)
1)
following
approach
to
dose
facilitating the declassification of
ratios
and
r e c om men dat ion s that
submitting
This
their
final
other
documents.
The
DAAG
improved ORER P efficiency,
report
the
last
day
of
A u g u s t 1987(22).
U p d a t e d and current environmental information on Nevada
Test
Site
picture
of
is
of
the
vital
effects
importance
of
in
forming an accurate
radioactive
fallout
from past
PHASES OF THE ORERP SOIL COLLECTION
CESIUM ACTIVITY • PRELIMINARY
(mCI/km^
«T
t.t
OH
«0
It)
).l
XT
MVCRTOM
e*
■K3 SMOKY VAtirr
\
11
DO
t . | » IC O T T M tu rf
\
SAM n U M O S C O
VT
RAWJMt
n
T— ^-- 11.»
e 11)
_
3.1
PHASE III
PHASE
WIOMTA
I
m
31
LONO M A C M
122
# 3.S/4.3/10
w
ALtUOUCrautI
PHASE
1.4
comms CNMST1
L 41
\ 0.1^
PLUTONIUM ACTIVITY • PRELIMINARY
(mCl/km^)
FIGURE 18 (22)
w
44
and
present
revised
weapons
yearly
include
1)
w i th
United
"Announced
do c u m e n t
will
be
from
Service.
United
available
1961
obtained
States
R e l e ase d
throu gh
through
Nuclear
States
2)
Test
the
National
added.
They
Onsite
Area
Areas,"
Tests."
and
A
entitled,
These
and
"Radiological
Continental
documents
Technical
3)
fourth
for publication,
from Announced U.S.
1987"(27).
and
are
"Radiation Monitoring
Nuclear
1988,
3 reports
information
is being reviewed
in June
1988,
Effluent
for the NTS,"
of value
Ef f l uen ts
As of
pertinent
" R adi olo gic al
M o n i t o r i n g Rep ort
Around
testing.
Tests
can
be
Information
45
B. Forum Special R e p o r t (24)
Studies.
C ur r e n t
ca u s e d
and
literature
the
state
including - Documents.
Personal Testimony
made
available
scientific
community
officials'
past
radioac tiv e
fallout.
researcher
for
newspaper,
brings
unresolved
"The
to
Fargo
practices
Forum,"
new
in
a
public
staff
with
writer
North
government
theories,
has
government
dealing
a Fargo,
informative
issues,
the
question
Springer,
forth
past
investigations,
Pat
to
and
Dakota
reports,
studies
and
and a search to answer questions from the
a t m o s p h e r i c rad ioactive fallout y e a r s (24). High radiation
levels
in
U.S.
matter
of
record
an d
Dakota,
residents
exposures
to
radioactivity
health
from
harmful
guidelines
learned
of
that
these
the
of
Since
biological
the
in
when
ongoing
and
these
wit hin
1963,
a
environmental
that
were
true
However,
government
public
they
limits.
the
forms
are
reports
especially
questioned
many
food
G overnment
was
areas
the
because
and
and Minnesota.
NTS,
advised
MFC
this
various
the
m il k
1950s-1960s.
Dakota,
in
o ff ici als
not
water,
confirm
South
living
air,
d uring
documentation
North
w ere
soil,
state
levels
established
scientists
effects
of
have
low-level
r a d i a t i o n m a y be more harmful than p rev iously considered,
because
of
experiments
r e lat ionships.
years
were
response
to
The
based
MPC
guidelines
upon
ra dia tio n
regarding
a
exposure
in
threshold
effects
b e low
the
-
response
open-air
hypot hes is
a certain
test
-
no
exposure.
46
U s i n g those guidelines,
s ystems
would
safety.
numerical results from monitoring
be less
Presently,
protective
for
that
ap p r o a c h
- any
res pon se
(linear h y p o t h e s i s ) . Therefore,
radiation
considered
at
of
the
guidelines
exposure
n ow
should use
reflected
exposure
a
for
the
value judgement
exposure.
lowest
the
no matter how low,
in
e x p o s u r e (16,17,22).
permissible
risks
safe
are
health
it is gen era lly accepted by government
programs
standards
public
-
Ra diation
practical
stochastic
may elicit a
lower radiation
tighter
Limits
general
fo r
protection
gained
limits
low
as
on
maximum
population
benefits
level (as
limits
are
versus
are
kept
reasonably
a c h i e v a b l e - A L A R A ) (20).
Personal Testimonv
Du ring the NTS *s 1957
Operation
t hat
are
Plumbbob),
direct
th ese tests.
series of nuclear weapons t e s t s (
several
results
of
ranches
the
Near Belle Fourche,
reported
radioactive
incidents
fallout
from
SO, on the Floyd Fischel
r a n c h , 3 3 calves died from mucosal disease - deteriorated
intestines,
been
res ul tin g
detected
background,
officials
in
hemorrhaging.
at levels
that summer.
i nvestigated
of
2.5-2500
rain
times
had
normal
When government and state health
the
radioactivity
areas,
2
years
after
the
levels
sli g h t l y
above
normal
chemist
Fallout
and A E C consu lta nt
fallout,
they
background.
in
hay
found
storage
radiation
J ohn Willard,
living in that area,
a
admitted
47
"hot s p o t s ” - areas of abnormally high radiation - in the
Belle
Fourche
period.
them
U po n
to
finding
NTS
r e a din gs
dumped.
high
invalid
Willard
city
were
Reports
The
and
a
did
amateur
students living in that area,
counter
readings
health
offic ial s
ra d i a t i o n
during
levels,
the
he
time
reported
believed
publicize
of
fire
processed
his
them.
hydrants
to
from that area
prospectors
and
geology
confirm unbelievable geiger
episodes
assured
those
that
was
it
that
levels,
not
flushing
had mil k
from
during
government
and
ordered
streets
common
radiation
officials.
were
However,
wash
location
of
f a l l o u t . Public
questioning
no
health
the
threat
high
to
the
public.
Another
incident
suddenly
died
shrinkage
of
occurred
from
flesh,
in Minnesota,
weight
loss,
and paralysis.
severe
records
background
of
a
radiation
y ear
Clifford
Monicker,
Radiation
Research
t hat
radiation
ate,
c o u ld
higher
very
after
a
graduate
Project,
levels
on
easily
e a r l i e r that year.
deliberately
w it h h e l d
levels
the
in
the
have
92
sheep
diarrhea,
AEC officials refused
c l a i m e d damages for the dead livestock,
had
when
even though,
100
fallout.
student
times
One
they
normal
researcher,
work ing
on
the
Knoxville
TN,
commented
veg eta tio n
the
livestock
been
thousands
of
times
It appears that the government
information
about
fallout
S a u t e r *s farm to avoid unwanted p u b l i c i t y (24).
on
Joe
48
S cientists Search For Answers
From
1957-1965,
E.W.
P fe i f f e r ,
U n i v e r s i t y of North Dakota biologist,
the u n u s u a l l y high Sr90 "hot spots"
N o r t h Dakota.
possible
fallout,
state
from
consistently
ra dio a c t i v e
the
around
the
is
and
Sr90
that
radioactive
North
were within
nation's
highest
of
Of
Sr90
This
limits
Pfeiffer
North
Dakota
levels
of
particular
interest,
from
to
ranch
later become
After
Dakota
- to what they
why
ranch,
known
considering
as
several
he concluded North Dakota's environment or
be
a maj o r key
and
m ore
ecology,
a
No w
at
of
experts
investigate
a
the
retired
Un iversity
have
the
had
However,
he
effects
high
on
human
in
the
zoology
Bert Pfeiffer has not lost hope
determine
s tro nti um
team
should
d e p t h (19,24).
env iro nmentalist
to
in finding a solution to
suggested
the M a n d a n M il k Mystery.
radioactive
Some
reasons
Mystery.
at Missoula,
po s s i b l e
Pfeiffer
g o v e r n m e n t (24 ) .
Dakota.
Pfeiffer
in
atmospheric
milk.
levels
N orth
soil,
professor
solving
logical
Milk
problem.
phenomenon
in regions of Central
overreacting
the
in
Mandan,
Montana,
by
d i f f ere nt
weather,
of
str on tiu m
m e t e o r o l o g y may
it
amounts
the
Mandan
was concerned about
testing.
he was
scored
possibilities,
the
felt
for
from
weapons
acceptable
searched
were
risks
NTS
h a rml ess
deemed
(former)
by using available government data,
health
officia ls
called
a
In two published a r t i c l e s (1-3,19),
i n formed the public,
of
then
of
in
is not sure
levels
health
in
of
the
49
North
says
Dakota
of
AEC
1959.
for
is
residents
on
Not
ri s k
it
It
may
be
too
late
to
find
out.
He
a step in the right di rection would be intense bone
studie s
the
area.
12
North
m u ch
b on e
k n o wn
from that location.
Dakotans
evidence
ca ncer
that
was
or
were
bone
conducted
found
leukemia
cancer
Bone studies by
to
from
support
a
at that time.
1958health
However,
typically
requires
15-20
scientist,
W illiam Dando,
y e a rs to de ve l o p s y m p t o m s (24).
A University
t r i ed
to
find
phenomena,
wa s
by
North
f all out
Pfeiffer's
study.
Department
might
have
spots"
rain
USSR,
m ay
of
duplicated
have
been
Satellite
data
analysis
venting
health
Dakotans
effects
from
Dando had hopes that,
C h e r no byl
stu d y
disaster,
of
he
long-term
from nuc l e a r
through
sound
testing
in
after
fallout.
was
review
studies.
to
"nuclear
g ro w
of
from
have
to
out
cloud
the
fallout
of
modify
given
the
cover
Chernobyl
(in effect)
not
of
up
on
1950s
and
through a grant to study the
could apply that knowledge toward
scientific
Nevada
other
due
appear
N o rth
project
Dando theorizes the
that
the
the
Agriculture
clouds
d uri ng
meteorological
However,
shows that r adioactive nuclides
lingering
Da kot a
U.S.
it
clouds.
weather.
1960s.
proposed
"hot
-
the
plant,
a
a
to
it has not been studied,
Dakota
di str a i l s "
the
a
bec a u s e
Even though,
over
answers
with
denied
panel,
of North Dakota
a
effects
on
humans
in
North
His intent is to establish,
evidence,
m a jo r
proof,
that
c ont rib uti on
to
nuclear
health
50
problems,
So m e
loss of livestock,
scientists
po s s i b i l i t i e s
and
USSR
coul d
Scientists
fallout
have
Ernest
Pittsburgh,
has
n o rt h-c ent ral
linked
Pacific
into
high er
states,
the
state.
the n u cl ear
the
these
He
at
in the Dakotas
that
areas.
the
worldwide
nuclear
A
and
radiation
University
infant death
speculated
other
Proving Ground
especially
Hanford
several
theorized
Sternglass,
pla in
from
Washington
from
on
Sr90 levels
have
funneled
physicist,
release s
speculated
for the unusual
Minnesota.
ra d i o a c t i v e
have
and hum an d e a t h s (24).
rates
North
plant
of
in the
Dakota,
in
radioactive
to
eastern
gases
from
reactor d rifted eastward with the prevailing
wi nd s
into
North
rises
of Sr90
Dakota,
in milk,
and
was
responsible
for
sharp
leading to u nusually high numbers
of infant d e a t h s (24).
Medical Studies
Me dic al
death
1960s.
rates
atomic
that
has
Dakota.
done
radioactive
found
in
are
bomb
relationships
have
have
rates
mortality
South
wit h
They
le u k emi a
states
doctors
attacks.
been
regional
to
not
that
in
though
been
linking
from the
patterns
adjoining
Evidence
found
Even
have
fallout
several
similar
studies
in Japan
of
and
increased
following
unusual
some
proven,
1950s
central-northern
Minnesota,
in
of
leukemia
and
the
leukemia
North
studies
and
causal
correlations
have
b e en e s t a b l i s h e d to suggest a high p r oba bil ity that open-
51
ai r t e s t i n g before the nuclear test ban treaty of 1963 is
responsible.
stu die s
Some
have
disease
no
links
specialists
showing
have
argued
statistical
these
validity
for
e p i d e m i c - l i k e patterns of h igher leukemia death rates
in
the
30
studies.
However,
the
medical
doctors
have
had
yea rs of study w it h significant populations to make their
figures reliable.
University
is
confirm
the
fallout,
and
The m e di cal
the
a medical doctor and
of Utah profe sso r and researcher,
ab s o l u t e l y
in mind.
Dr. Victo r Archer,
ne cessary
relationships
is
prese ntl y
doctors*
They
nuclear
to
conduct
it
studies
to
bone
between
overseeing
believes
bone
cancer
such
a
and
s t u d y (24).
studies were done with future needs
feel society should know the outcomes
t esting
program,
to
date,
in
the
from
United
States.
Other Viewpoints
How
the
effects
of
environmental
radiation
have
been
de a l t w i t h in the past and present by the U.S. government
is
controversial.
" E n v iro nme nta l
surveys
and
to
g ro u p s
plants
of
investigate
in
the
U.S.,
on the
Basically, the
the
working
in
nonscient ifi c
energy
conducted
the attitudes
p l a n t s w ere not safe, whereas,
those
Eisenbud
Radioactivity, **
safe?"
majority
Merril
a
series
"Are
of
nuclear
indicated
community
thought
that the
nuclear
scientists in general,
related
of
of various segments
question
study
author
fields,
answered
and
in the
52
a f f i r m a t i v e (17).
Edward
P.
Division,
c on c e r n
coal
systems,
a dequate
ra dio a c t i v e
of
Jr. , Director,
De partment
monitoring
pu b l i c
Hardy,
combustion,
Energy,
have been,
pr otection
fallout.
are
of
the
He
NY,
the
believes
pesticides,
believes
and still
from
toxicity
Environmental
of
are,
harmful
Studies
the
U.S.
giving the
effects
of
that
problematic
areas
other
pollutants,
viz.,
and
other
noxious
ar t i f i c i a l l y introduced into the e n v i r o n m e n t (25).
agents
53
CONCLUSIONS A N D RECOMMENDATIONS
The
to
cu r r e n t
be
radioactive moni tor ing
adequate
assessing
for
U.S.
citizens
environmental
systems have proven
- on
the
radioactivity
in
whole
the
-
for
nation's
air, water,
food,
and other necessities of life. There is
ample p r o of
that
radioactive mo nitoring systems have the
technology
to
m e asu re
r adi onu cli des
h e al t h
in
the
protection.
several
respects;
collect
nee ded
limits
for
es t a b l i s h m e n t
proven
in b on e
c o ul d
of
to
more
to
medical
studies,
conduc t
evident
help
assess
systems
in
public
in
working
together
to
m axi mum
permissible
exposure.
The
could
correlations
of
have
milk,
There seems to be a
on behalf of the EPA to assist
was previ ous ly done by the
intensive
of
differ
locations
and human bone.
experts
as
the
radiation
Sr90
levels
assist
set
sampling
the
to
they are
environmental
valuable
for
is
however,
data
sensitivity
environment,
It
total d i e t a r y intake,
n eed
with
bone
studies
as
PHS.
suggested,
EPA
in
areas of the U n i t e d States that had unusually high levels
of
radioactive
strontium
c e n t r a l - n o r t h e r n states.
in
the
past
-
especially
the
54
G L O S S A R Y O F TERMS
1. C u r i e (Ci)
- a unit used to represent the activity of 1
g of pure radium. One curie decays at a rate of 3.70 x
10
_
10
atoms pe r second.
2. Beauerel(Bal
- a recently def ine d SI unit of activity,
eq ual s one d i s i n t e g r a t i o n per second;
1 Bq = 1 decay/s
1 Ci = 3.70 X 10
3.
The
curie and
10
Bq
its s ubm ultiples are the most commonly
use d units of activity,
such as m i l l i c u r i e ( m C i ) , and
m i c r o c u r i e ( u C i ) , however,
oth er combinations can be
u s e d for both curies and bequerels,
viz.,
P e t a b e q u e r e l s ( P B q ) ,M e g a c u r i e s ( M C i ) , n a n o c u r i e s ( n C i ) ,
and f e m t o c u r i e s (f c i ).
Prefixes for powers of ten
E
P
T
G
M
k
c
m
P
n
P
f
a
cxa
pela
fera
g'ga
nicga
kilo
cent!
milli
micro
nano
pico
fcmio
alio
10"
10"
10"
10*
10*
10’
10’
10 ’
10*
10*
10"
10 "
10"
55
4. Ion izi ng r adiation - E lectromagnetic radiation
rays or x rays)
particles,
or particulate radiation
beta particles,
neutrons,
(gamma
(alpha
etc)
p r o d u c i n g ele ctrically charged particles,
capable of
directly or
in directly in its passage through matter.
5. E x p os ure - A measure of the ionization produced in air
by X or gamma radiation.
The special unit of exposure
is the roentgen.
6. R a d i o a c t i v i t y - The property of unstable nuclei of
atoms to emit particles or rays in the process of
b e c o m i n g stable.
7. Ra d i o a c t i v e particles - includes alpha and beta
p a r t i c l e s and gamma rays. The most p enetrating to the
skin are gamma rays.
Beta particles are high speed
e l e c tro ns emi tte d from radioactive atoms. Alpha
p a r t i c l e s are large particles that cannot penetrate
the skin,
8.
but are harmful
if inhaled.
F a llo ut - The descent of airborne particles
c o n t a m i n a t e d w i th radioactive material.
9 . B a c k g r o u n d Rad iat ion - Radiation that naturally occurs
in the env iro nme nt from radioactive elements in the
su n l i g h t and the earth's crust - u sually a low-level
56
radiation.
10. H o t s p o t - an area of u nusually high radioactive
fallout.
11. KT - a Kiloton.
The energy of a nuclear explosion
t hat is equivalent to an explosion of 1000 tons of
TNT.
A M eg a t o n
(MT) wou ld produce one million
e qu i v a l e n t tons of TNT energy.
12-
Dose - A measure of energy absorbed in tissue by the
action of ionizing radiation on tissue.
13. Rad - R a d iat ion absorbed dose.
This unit describes
actual exposure received by an individual.
A dose of
1 rad means the absorption of 100 ergs of radiation
en erg y per gra m of absorbing material.
14. R o e n t g e n - A special unit of exposure(radiation
dosage)
to radioact ivit y that is measured by the
n u m b e r of ions pr odu ced as radiation passes through
d r y air.
rays)
It is that amount of radiation(gamma or x-
that will produce one electrostatic unit of
c h a r g e ( p o s i t i v e or negative)
pe r cubic centimeter of
a i r at standard temperature and pressure.
15. R e m - R o e n t g e n equivalent man. A unit of biological
57
dose of r adiation or of dose equivalent,
wh ich is
equal to the product of the number of rads absorbed
and the "quality factor" of the radiation.
16. S tro nt i u m - 9 0 - A hazardous radioactive element with a
h a l f - l i f e of 28 years.
The bones are susceptible to
its r a d i o ac tiv ity through absorption with calcium.
E x c ess ive amounts have been linked to bone cancer and
leukemia.
17. Ce sium-137 - Has a half-life of about 30 years and is
ab so rbe d w i th potassium.
The muscles are sensitive to
its radioactivity.
18.
Iodine-131 - Can be absorbed through the skin,
and dig est ive tract,
lungs
but concentrates in the thyroid.
A c u t e or p r o l on ged exposures may lead to thyroid
cancer.
19. O b s e r v e d Rat i o - A met hod used to calculate the
t r a n s f e r of a radionuclide in the food chain by using
an elem ent similar in nature that is absorbed with
it.
58
REFERENCES
(References 1-1 through
1-9)
Fallout From Nuclear Weapons Tests. (1959-1960).
H e ar ing s before the special subcommitte on
radiation, 86th Congress. U.S. Government
Office, Washington, D.C.
1-1.
Commoner,B.
(May 1958):
"The Fallout Problem." vol 3.
2572-2577.
1-2.
Commoner,B. "The Hazard of Fallout - Nuclear
Bomb Test Policy Should Be Decided." vol 3.
(Dec 1958): 2161-2170.
1-3.
P f e i f f e r ,E.W. "Some Aspects of Radioactive
Fallout in North Dakota." vol 3. (Autumn
1958): 2153-2161.
1-4.
S h e l t o n , Dr Frank H. "Statement of Dr Frank
H. Shelton, technical director Armed Forces
W e ap ons Project." vol 1: 762-779.
1-5.
Comar, Dr C.L. "Statement of Dr C.L. Comar,
Cornell Univ." vol 2: 1290-1291, vol 1:
2124-2125.
1-6.
"Strontium 90 Burden:
846-855.
1-7.
Press Releases, HEW-J80. "Report on
R a d i o act ivit y in M i l k . " vol 1: 197-210.
1-8.
Press Releases, HEW-K70. "Report on
Ra dio a c t i v i t y in Milk.": vol 1: 211-213.
1-9.
Press Releases, HEW-L6. "Report on
Ra d i o a c t i v i t y in Milk." vol 1: 227-229.
Atmosphere" vol 1:
10.
Feely,H.W. and others. Annual Report of the
Su r f a c e A i r Sam pling Program. Dept, of Energy,
EMIi-4 40. Springfield, VA: U.S. Government
P r i n t i n g O f f i c e . , Mar 1985.
11.
Klusek,C.S. Strontium-90 in the U.S. Diet. Dept,
of Energy, EML-4 29. Oak Ridge, T N : Government
P r i n t i n g Office, Jul 1984.
12.
K l u s e k , C . S . Strontium-90 in Human Bones in the
U . S . . 1987. Dept, of Energy, EML-4 35.
Springfield, VA: U.S. Gov. Printing Office,
N o v 1984.
59
13.
Larsen,R.J. and others. W orl dwi de Deposition of
Sr90 T hro ugh 1984. DOE/EML-4 57. Springfield, VA:
U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Oct 1986.
14.
Broadway,J.A. and others. Analytical Capability
of the Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring
System. EPA/ORP-520. Montgomery, AL: U.S.
EPA/ORP.
15.
P e t k o ,C.M. and others. Environmental Radiation
D a t a . Reports: no. 44-45, Oct 1985-Mar 86;
no. 46, Apr 1986-June 1986; no. 47, July 1986Sept 1986 ; no. 48, Oct 86-Dec 86; no. 49, Jan
1987-Mar 1987. Montgomery, AL: U.S. EPA/ORP.
16.
Friesen,H.N. and others. A Perspective On
A t m o s p h e r i c Nu c l e a r Tests in Nevada. Las Vegas,
NV: U.S. DOE/Nevada Operations.
17. E i s en bud Merril. Environmental Radioactivity.
Orlando, FL: Aaca dem ic Press, Inc.
18. Of f i c e of Public Affairs - U.S. Dept, of Energy/
Nevada Oper ati ons Office. Announced United States
Nu c l e a r Tests J uly 1945-Dec 1986. Springfield,
VA: U.S. Dept of Commerce.
19.
P f e i f f e r ,E.W. "Mandan M ilk Mystery." Scientist
and Citizen, vol VII no. 10 (Sept 1965): 1-5.
20. Volchok,H.L. and others. 1983 E M L Procedures
M a n n u a l . N ew York, NY: EML, 1983.
21. E nv iro nme nta l Protection Agency. Radiation Health
Effe cts Ou estions and Answers in Response to the
Ch ern oby l N u cl ear Accident. Montgomery, AL: U.S.
EPA/EERF, 1987-1988.
22.
D e par tme nt of Energy. Dose A s se ssm ent Advisory
G r o u p . Final Report. Las Vegas, N V : U.S.
G o v e r n m e n t Printing Office, May 1987.
23.
De p a r t m e n t of Energy, DOE/NV Coordination and
In fo rma tio n Center. Las Vegas, NV: U.S.
G o v e r n m e n t Printing Office, Sept 1987.
24.
Springer, Pat. "Forgotten Fallout - A Forum
Special Report." The Fargo Forum Nort h Dakota
N e w s p a p e r 1 (May 1988): 1— 8.
25. Hardy,E.P. Jr. Director Environmental Studies
Division, EML, N e w York. Interview by Telephone,
24 Feb. 1988.
60
26. V a n Heuvelen, Allen. Phvsics - A General
I n t r o d u c t i o n . Boston, MA: Little Brown and C o . , 1982
27. Randolph,K.K. Public Affairs Officer, Las Vegas,
NV. L etter w i t h Environmental information, April
18, 1988.
28. Corley,J.P. and others. A Guide For:
E n v i r onm ent al Radiological Surveillance At U.S.
D e p a rt men t of Energy Installations. Richland, WA:
P aci fic No rth wes t Laboratories, 1981.
29.
F r i e d l a n d e r ,G. and others. Nuclear and
R a d i o c h e m i s t r v . N e w York, NY: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1966.
30. Denham, R.E. and others. A Guide for:
Envi ron men tal Radiological Surveillance At U.S.
De p a r t m e n t of Energy Installations. Attachment 2,
R e v i s i o n 1. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest
Laboratories, 1985.
61
A p p e n d i x A : H istorical O v e rvi ew - Agenc ies Responsible
for Radioac tive Fallout in the
E n v i r o n m e n t (10,14,16,17,25,3 0)
S i nc e the be g i n n i n g of nuclear energy in 1945,
of ficial
with
rad ioa cti ve
seemingly
protection
to
activities,
c o mmo n
to
endless
individual
and
pur p o s e
compliment
ba l a n c e
m onit ori ng
the
each
s ystem
have
acronyms
-
workers,
government
general
these
systems
to
others*
could
work
-
evolved-
give
population.
organizations
numerous
It
research
seems
best
with
health
a
the
serve,
check
is
and
- by h elping the world's population to be
p r o t e c t e d from harmful radiation exposures.
O f f i cia l G o v e r n m e n t Agencies
The
first
energy
o rganization
program
D i s t r i c t (MED) . In
newly
was
the
194 6 the
established
responsible
Manhattan
progra m was
United
States
C o m m i s s i o n ( A E C ) . Circums tan ces
nuclear
testing
-
the
first
1949 and the K orean conflict,
a
fusion
bomb.
development
Grounds
devices.
Test
-
of
an
These
S ite (NTS)
testing,
Two
the
test
-
a
U SSR
atomic
Engineering
transferred
Atomic
to
a
Energy
nuclear
detonation
in
1950 - and plans to develop
sites
h ydrogen
were
bomb:
test
c ontinued
continental
from 1951-present.
the
led to a push for ongoing
off -continental
tests
for
established
for
1)
Proving
site
from
test
Pacific
for
large
1946-1958,
site
for
the
yield
2) Nevada
low-yield
62
F rom
1957-1962
program
was
information
this
Laboratory(HASL)
analyzed
these
Measurements
EML
AEC
and
ope rated
transferred
in
to
ERDA
a
with
Ja n
the
in
functions
U.S.
diet,
and
1977,
and
human
contractor
EML
has
The AEC
functions
were
and
Development
of
Energy (DOE)
Department
Oct
program.
Sampling
analyses.
Research
The
NRL
Air
its
Safety
contractors
to the present.
and
Energy
the
HASL
gather
Environmental
Surface
1963
1975,
and
the
over
data
since
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (ERDA) .
succeeded
took
to
radioactivity.
private
1963,
deposition.
assist
abolished
and
Since
in
network
Health
strontium-90
worldwide
continuously
was
u n der
the
Laboratory(NRL)
atmospheric
the
studies
laboratories
sampling
on
Laboratory(EML)
Program(SASP),
and
a
interim
samples.
conducts
bones,
Naval R esearch
initiated with
t ech no l o g i c a l
During
the U.S.
is
p resently
in
ch a r g e of the atomic energy program.
I n d e p e n d e n t G ov ern men t Agen cie s
The
U .S .
Public
Department
maintained
1950s,
of
a
Health
Health
separate
coinciding
in
Service(PHS)
Education,
m on ito rin g
time
with
m o n i t o r e d rad ioa c t i v i t y in water,
th e
En vir o n m e n t a l
and
during
system.
m i l k and food.
P rotection Agency(EPA)
the
W elfare (HEW) ,
n etwork
NRL*s
under
was
The
the
PHS
In 197 0,
established
to r e s e a r c h the effects of pol lut ion and help prevent it.
In
1973,
E P A *s
Office
of
Rad iat ion
Programs(ORP),
63
instituted
Radiation
took
new
Amb i e n t
over
ERAMS
a
the
monitors
Radiation
mo n i t o r i n g
its
and
the
network
in
surface
information
and
to
design
of
air
system
the
PHS.
particulates,
drinking
Eastern
water.
Environmental
F a c i l i t y ( E E R F ) . W he n ERDA was created in 1974,
the N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y Commission(NRC)
provide
Environmental
S y s t e m ( E R A M S ) . This
radionuclides
milk,
submits
called
Mon i t o r i n g
previous
precipitation,
ERAMS
system
hea l t h
and
and
safety
opera tio n
of
was also formed to
for workers,
the
civilian
and
and
regulate
nuclear
the
energy
industry.
O t h e r I mportant Committees
Pr ior
and
to
194 5,
s t u die d
e x ternal
most
available
and
internal
prominent
I n t e rn ati ona l
- 1929),
committees
were
data
in
exposure
(still
Comm iss ion
and
exposures
whole
1920s
set
At
were
standards:
for
radiation.
limits
for
Two
the
today)
on Radiological
inquiries
from
to
dosimetry.
NCRP
to
compiled
of
were
the
Protection(ICRP
and the National Council on Radiation Protection
deaths
helped
wh ich
recommending
active
and M e a s u r e m e n t s ( N C R P - 1928).
to
formed
the
which
to
and
early
enforce
onset
of
instrumental
1)
0.1 R/day,
body
external
They were formed in answer
developed
1940s.
These
standards
World
in
from
War
setting
radiation
committees
on
II,
the
two
radiation
ICRP
and
important
for maximu m permis sib le exposure
radiation,
and
2)
0.1
micro
Ci
64
for
maximum
perm iss ibl e
b ody
burden(MPBB)
for
internal
emi tt ers of Ra22 6.
R a d i a t i o n Limits
L e g a l l y only
to
4 official agencies have the force of law
es t a b l i s h
re com mendations
r a d i a t i o n e xposure
limits
are
for
m aximum
in the U nit ed States.
e s tab lis hed
by
an
permissible
These radiation
interagency committee
made
u p of the following:
1) N ucl ear R egu lato ry Commission(NRC)
2) En vironmental Protection Agency(EPA)
3) Federal Drug Administration(FDA)
4)
However,
fro m
the
Department of Transportation(DOT)
these
ICRP
agencies
and
NCRP.
organizations
recommend
those
the
set
by
consider
four
the
recommendations
Generally,
standards
legal
both
that
official
are
of
these
higher
standard
than
setting
agencies.
G o v e r n m e n t Titles For O rganizations Have Changed.
Fo rme r Name
1.
2.
U.S.
Dept,
of Health,
Present Name
Dept,
of Health and
E d u c a t i o n and Welfare(HEW)
Human Services
U.S.
National Weather
W e a t h e r Bureau
Service
3.
A t o m i c Ene r g y Commission(AEC)
N uc lea r Regulatory
Commission(NRC)
65
A p p e n d i x B ; R a d i a tio n Effects/ External & Internal
R a di ati o n / R a d i a t i o n Units/So urc es of
Ra dia tio n
R a d i a t i o n E f f e c t s (26)
I o ni zin g
radiation(pos
s e qu enc e
of events.
changes
in
to pas s
thru the atom
is
used
cells.
to
(dissociation)
dissociation
are
cells,
The
and
whether
radiation,
factors
a
the
effects
by
have
of
from
may
produce
a damaging
of
ionizing energy is used
(ionization) ,while the other
molecules
molecule
free
it
is
radical
has
penetrated
then
separated
mechanism
causes
cells
destroyed.
radiation
in
living
external
radiation
radioactive
considered
through
the
organisms
or
or
internal
material,
many
experience
from
The se factors include:
1. Total amount of ionization produced in the
organism.
D ens ity
the
To determine
e a r l y r adi ati on effects and biological studies.
2.
half
(H^O -> H + O H ) . Finally the atoms
ingested
been
half
the
of w a t e r
displaced
biological
Abo ut
and
neg)
Radiation may cause harmful chemical
excite
(excitation).
or
(concentration/area of material)
of
io nization - called quality of radiation
3 - Dosage rate
4. L o c a liz ati on of the effects
5. Ra tes of admi nis tra tio n and elimination of
66
ra dio act ive material.
Ex ter nal and Internal R a d i a t i o n (17)
The roentgen(R)
exposure
1930
of
radiation
of
the
e r y the ma
maximum
to a flux of radiation.
p e r mis sab le
of
(reddening
The
a medium
maximum
amount
was the first unit used to determine an
exposure
it
took
s k i n ) , from
dose
was
permissable
set
dose
was
set
to
acute
at
at
1/1000
the
produce
erythema
radiation
exposure.
60 OR,
for
From 1920-
and
external
served
as
radiation.
a
The
IC R P / N C R P ac c e p t e d as a tolerance dose O.lR/day for whole
body
external
late
1920s
problem.
radiation
internal
for
X-
exposure
and
was
R ad i a t i o n had been taken
gamma
seen
painters
ca u s e d
showed
b one
disease.
in str umental
burden
micro
in
(MPBB),
Ci.
body
burdens
The
setting
data
the
as
a
re com mendation
the
potential
Subsequently,
the
Studies from these ex-dial
as
low
from
as
0.5
these
maximu m
micro
was
Ci
studies
were
permissible
body
for alpha emitting bone - seekers,
T hi s
In
internally by luminous
dial w o r k e r s in the form of radium-226.
w o r k e r s d e v e l o p e d bone cancer.
rays.
accepted
at 0.1
in 1941,
and
re m a i n s tod a y - 1988.
E v o l u t i o n of Ra d i a t i o n U n i t s (16,17)
As the U.S.
to
i m p r o vis e
broader
nucle ar t esting increased,
a
spectrum
m e an s
of
of
pro tec tin g
ionizing
it was necessary
peo ple
radiation
not
against
a
previously
67
encountered
by
including
neutron
particles.
into
the
biologists,
a tmo sph ere
to
for
(REE) .
The
gam ma
idea
The
of
ray
roentgen.
livi ng
ef f e c t
dos e
of
is
(rem).
early
a
damage
and
alpha
beta
and
Th e
x
ray
REE
is
gives
effectiveness
of
vary
the
ionizing
according
to.
Up
to
quantified
with
the
concept
indicating
exposed
was
in
the
to
194 5,
by
the
radiation
The effective dose of radiation is an
because
it shows
ionizing
reporte d
in
units
unit,
will
the
an effective dose delivered to
of
t erm
new
types
combination
dose
This
factor,
radiation
in
quantity,
a
one
era.
of
used
The
biological
mass
NTS
use
previously
different
a
the
the
protection.
quality
by
by
new units since 1945 to
R/day,
ray
to
radiation
organism.
im por tan t
and
mid-194 0s
relative
caused
a b s o r b e d dose(rad),
a
radiation
radiation
0.1
of
is
d am a g e
kind
of
gamma
REE
radiation.
the
and
the
relative
the
invented several
limits
X-
included
from
particulate
re c o m m e n d e d
U.S.
bombardment,
particulate
A n ew v ari e t y of radionuclides were introduced
B i o l og ist s have
extend
viz.,
indicates
roe ntgen
and
the
radiation.
of
a
roentgen
net
The
n ew
effective
equivalent
relationship
the
biological
ionizing
between
effects
man
the
of
p a r t i c u l a t e radiation.
Ef f e c t i v e dose
For
ray,
the
all
p r a c tic al
(in rem)
purposes,
= dose(rad)
the
dosage
x REE
for x ray,
gamma
and s p ec ifi c beta particle radiation in millirems is
same
for mi lli r o e n t g e n s
p er
unit
of time
- delivers
68
about
and
the
same
rem,
are
io niz ing
biological
used
effect.
today
r adi ati on
to
Both
units,
describe
deli ver ed
to
the
man.
c o n s i d e r i n g oth er pa rticulate radiation,
must
be
c ons ide red
e f f e ct ive
dose
res ult s
in
effective
results
of
an
dose
in
to
1
convert
rad
of
effective
of
an
1
rad
x
ray
dose
of
of
ef fective
rems
alpha
dose
effects
However,
(REE
=
1)
rem.
10
when
roentgens.
The
radiation
However,
particles
of
of
multiples of REE
to
1
roentgen
(REE
rem.
The
=
an
10)
REE
f igured in m u l t ipl es of x- and gamma ray radiation
is
(Table
5) . A l p h a p a r t ic les have an REE of 10 times greater than
X-
and
thru
g a mm a
ma ss e s
atoms.
Beta
fr actions
rays
of
because
atoms
and
particles,
of
t h ei r
alpha
x-
react
particles
with
and
gamma
to
small
energy
move
large
rays
slowly
numbers
deposit
numbers
of
of
large
atoms.
H e a v y n eutrons cause the highest number of ionizations.
So u r c e s of R a d i a t i o n (17,26)
The
sources
divided
into
from
2 br oad
which
ma n
receives
categories
- natural
radiation
are
and man-made.
W r i t e r s h av e dif fered slightly on the amounts each source
contributes.
p lus
or m i n u s
from
medical
products,
mr em/year.
earth's
and
Generally,
10%.
and
crust,
divides
Man -made
dental
n u c lea r
Natural
it
radiation
diet,
50%
to
each,
radiation includes exposures
uses,
p o wer
equally
n ucl ear
fallout,
p r od uct ion
includes
inhalation,
consumer
- totaling
exposures
and
7 5-8 5
from the
cosmic
rays-
69
TABLE
RBE valve$ fo r v a rio vt types o f
5
ra d ia tio n
nntlintion
ItH E
X nnd y rnys
Dctn rnys nnd electrons
Therm al neutrons
Fast nbutrons
Alpha particles
Protons ‘
H eavy ions
1
1
2 .5
10
10
10
20
APPENDIX
B
70
t o t a l i n g 85-130 mrem.
The total combined exposure to man-
m a d e and natural radiation approaches,
for
when
the
general
considering
public.
These
standards
for
figures
165-222 mrem/year,
are
population
the v i c i n i t y of DOE installations.
not
included
exposures
in
71
A p p e n d i x C ; R a d i a tio n Protection S t a n d a r d s (17,21,28)
Setting
ongoing
agreed
ra diation
c o nc ern
u po n
c o ul d
be
the
exposure
since
upper
permitted,
adec[uate
to
meet
the
those
o c cup at ion al
exposure.
e x p o s u r e were
established,
l owered
from
do s e
for
population
Federal
The
R a d i at ion
exposure
and
that
seemed
the
NCRP
levels
of
In
acceptable
levels
of
19 34
but have changed as exposure1954-1960
exposure
was
scientists
devices
ICRP
an
permissible
of
being
were
progressively
to 0.3 rem/week
then 3 rem/13 weeks,
exposure
been
upgraded
from
lifetime
1930
measuring
0.1 R / d ay in 1954,
0.06 R/day),
By
has
radiation
needs.
recomme nde d
levels,
of
the
alternately
response
1920s.
limits
and
standards
and finally,
5
rem/year.
explored,
(approx.
an average
The
and
by
C o u n c i l ( F R C ) , recommended
idea
1960
the
of
the
general
m a x i m u m annual dose for worldwide population exposure not
exceed
d ose
dose
0.5
(0.17
is
effects
to
of
sensitive
the
of
table
6.
rem
This
p o r ti ons
of
for
occupational
radiation
the
30
years
recommended
anticipation
low-level
r a d i ati on
years
of
5
l o wer ing of permissible
due
general
and
rem/year).
one-tenth
constant
been
rem/year
of
and
standards
term
"rem"
was
The
of exposure have
the
biological
radiological
Trends
from
setti ng gu idelines to the present,
The
annual
levels.
unknown
population.
pro tection
m aximum
exposure
levels
cumulative
introduced
in
the
early
are shown
in
the
1945
in
to
72
TABLE
6 (16)
GENERAL RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS
Permissible occupational exposure level
P rio r to 1934
1934-1950
1950-1956
1956-present
( rem* per year)
100
60
15
5
General population standard since May 1960
(rem per person)
Mean annual dose for uncontrolled population
0.17
Maximum annual dose for Individuals
0.5
Mean 30-year cumulative dose
5
* The term "rem” was not used In the early years; the values
shown have been restated as approximate rem equivalents.
APPENDIX C
73
accommodate
Appendix
gamma
a
wider
B) . The
ray
vari ety
dose
r adiation
of
radiation
delivered
will
by
cause
one
about
effects
rem
the
for
same
bi o l o g i c a l effect as one roentgen of exposure.
(see
x-
and
relative
From 1960-
1977 m a x i m u m permiss ibl e concentrations of a radionuclide
in
air
or
"critical
annual
water
organ"
dose
included
5
the
occasional
should
rem/year.
for
public
the
the
for
in
highest
dose
to
the
and should not exceed that
of exposure.
gonads
and
limit
rem/year
for
1985 radiation standards
for
the vicinity
15
The
of
DOE
facilities
for all pathways set at 0.5 rem/year for
exposures
(longer
receive
on
50 years
Revisions
limits
exposures
after
rem/year
protecting
based
in the body,
rated
o t h e r organs.
has d os e
was
an
and
than
0.1
5
annual
rem/year
years).
dose
No
for
individual
equivalent
Background and medical
prolonged
organ
in excess of 5
exposures
are excluded.
R a d i o n u c l i d e s ingested present an internal body burden of
radiation.
The m a x i m u m permissible body burden
b o n e - s e e k i n g radionuclides,
in
1941,
rat e
is
0.1
figured
equal
an
(with
an
in units of curies,
e f f ect ive
"critical
found in air,
014.
Ci
radium-226,
REE
of
The
radionuclides
dose
organ"
10).
At
this
for
for
any
dose
organ
for
whole
important
w a t e r and m i l k - viz,
effective
The
has been calculated to
equivalent
dose
for
established
an annual dose de livered would be about 30 rem.
MPBB,
and
micro
e.g.,
(MPBB)
1131,
75
dose
radionuclides
C137,
equivalent
is
body
KrB5,
for
and
these
m ill ire m/y ear
as
74
compared
to
present,
r e com men ded
of
special
purpose
tha n
millirem/year
he al t h
for
which
15,000
commerce.
water.
25
EP A
The
radionuclides
pCi/1
limits
for
significance
they
for
allows
maximum
are
whole
levels
v a ry
3
permissible
are
dose.
FDA
At
radionuclides
according
activity
of
body
important
taken.
peak
allowable
es t i m a t e s of risk.
for
accepts
to
no
the
more
in
mi l k
entering
pCi/1
for
drinking
concentrations
based
on
of
qualitative