Indian Political Science Association
EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN INDIA
Author(s): Jugal Kishore Misra
Source: The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 67, No. 4 (OCT. - DEC., 2006), pp. 867-878
Published by: Indian Political Science Association
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The IndianJournalofPoliticalScience
Vol.LXV1I,No. 4, Oct-Dec.,2006
EMPOWERMENT
OF WOMEN
IN INDIA
JugalKishoreMisra
thedynamics
of
Despitethebestefforts
oftheexponents
ofsocialmovement
theory,
totheIndian
inIndiahasnotbeen(re)visited
tolendspecificity
empowerment
ofwomen
'
a gender
toengender
So theIndian
efforts
mainstreaming
strategies.
post-feminist
gender
'
needtobe
critical
women,
subalternship,
ofcontinued
symbols
justsociety
byempowering
aim
thattheprincipal
itis mooted
thisbackdrop,
scanners.
postfeminist
Against
putunder
inIndiaas an open-ended
process
ofwomen
empowerment
ofthispaperis to(re)defme
and
inall institutions
discrimination
at thefelicitating
(i) abolition
ofgender-based
aiming
inpolicyanddecisionand(ii)participation
structures
ofwomen
oftheIndiasociety
andpubliclevelsofassorted
atprivate
activities,
byall dyadic
qualified
making
processes
andpoetics
relations
matter,
mind,
of lack
gender
politics,
ofknowledge,
politics
among
anddesire.
1.
oftheProblem
Statement
oftheIndianwomen,
tothecommonplace
Withreference
paradoxofverysocialinterpretation
and
itcan be submitted
thattheactivitiesof mostof theIndianwomen,by and largeinferiorized
the
Indian
which
becauseoftheinvidiousdistinctions
havebeenmostlycircumscribed
devalorized,
thenon-essentialist
allude
to witha viewto re-specifying
often
MCPs (Male Chauvinist
Prigs)very
does layintheculture
oftheIndianwomen.Thoughthenation'sidentify
nuancesofthewomanliness
theIndianmalesupremacists
initswomanhood,
andmorespecifically
have,verysmugly,
denigrated
fromthelackofselfand
'femaleexclusiveness'.So mostoftheIndianwomenhavebeensuffering
sexistdiscrimination,
invisibility,
genderinequity,
disadvantage,
disprivilege,
space,disempowerment,
overtheyears,their
and reification.
ization,devalorizaiton
Concomitantly,
asymmetries,
marginal
of the'welfarists'
of
the
has
been
populistgimmicks
development/empowerment neglectedinspite
of social
of theexponents
and postfeminisms.
andadvocatesof feminisms
Despitethebestefforts
to lend
ofwomeninIndiahasnotbeen(re)visited
ofempowerment
thedynamics
movement
theory,
to
efforts
So
the
Indian
totheIndiangendermainstreaming
engender
post-feminist
strategies.
specificity
needto
of
continued
critical
'a gender-just
women,
subalternship,
symbols
society'byempowering
scanners.
be putunderpostfeminist
1.1.
AimofthisPaper
Againstthisbackdrop,it is mootedthattheprincipalaim of thispaper is to (re)define
ofwomeninIndiaas an open-ended
(i) abolitionof
processaimingatthefelicitating
empowerment
oftheIndiasocietyand(ii) participation
andstructures
inall institutions
discrimination
gender-based
ofwomeninpolicyanddecision-making
processesatprivateandpubliclevelsofassortedactivities,
relations
all
politicsof knowledge,genderpolitics,and
amongmind,matter,
qualifiedby dyadic
poeticsof lackanddesire.
1.2.
ScopeofthePaper
of womenin India in thecontextof the
The scope of thepaperis limitedto empowerment
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The IndianJournalofPoliticalScience
868
women
ofIndiawhichaimsat"empowering
approachoftheTenthFive-YearPlanoftheGovernment
of
into
action
and
for
Women
the
National
survival,
ensuring
Policy Empowerment
through
translating
and development
ofwomenandchildren
through
rightsbasedapproach."
protection,
1.3.
Adopted
Methodology
toolstopostulate
Sincetheliterature
on womenanddevelopment
usingMarxistandFeminist
ofwomen,
thispapermakeselaborate
classandgenderformulations,
hashelpedexplaintheoppression
useofintensive
readinginthefieldsofgenderdisparities,
politicsofgender-justice
changes,poetics
ofchange.
of"mousing"ofwomen(Indian)androlesofwomenas instruments
1.4.
ofthePaper
Configuration
thispapercomprises
ninenodesofanalysis.After
a diachronic
therefore,
Naturally
attempting
of
the
of
in
of
the
Indian
women
terms
some
of
the
indices/
indicators
which
study
plight
indebilitating
haveblighted
theirempowerment,
itstudiesthecanonicity
ofwomenempowerment
vis-à-vis'woman
power'.HencethenextnodeofthispaperlocatestheIndianwomenintheveryhuboftheiractivities,
thatis thestate.The lastnodesdeal withsomeofthedefining
nuances,as logisticsof
parameters,
ofwomeninIndiawithreference
totheanatomy
economic,
social,andfamilial
political,
empowerment
in
oftheconceptofwomenempowerment,
actualised thefifth
section.
1.5
PlightoftheWomeninIndia
If in thepantheonof theIndianicons,thereare a fewpowerfuland empoweredfeminine
ofandrocentrist
andpaternalist
iconicfigures
(divya)shaktislikeDurgaandKali,therearehundreds
of India
history
havingsole sovereignsway.Hencethepsycho-socio-politico-economico-cultural
teemswithfiguration
Deniedofher
ofwomanas theoneplaying
secondfiddletoherlord/themaster.
own ontology/ autonomy,
beingand becoming,she is at besta shadow,an imageof domestic
concentration
doulus,a prisonerof thecomfortable
camp,in otherwordsof the 'house'. Hence
GoddessLaxmiis fatedtobe drivenoutofHerMaster'sTemplejustbecauseshehasdaredtobe kind
and munificent
to Shriya,an untouchable
woman.Re-reading
themetaphor
of Laxmiwithout
any
reference
tothedialecticsofdedoxification,
be
if
itcan saidthat GoddessLaxmicanbe victimised,
no
mortal
womenofIndiacanbe andis immune
from
and
So
patrilineal,
patrifocal, patricist
hegemony. a
fireto proveherfidelity,
Sita,evenafterbeingliterally
pushedintoa pyramid
acquiscesto livewith
andforherLordRamonlyto be disownedagainwhenshe is inthefamily
way.Hencea Draupadi
suffers
theignominy
ofthepolyandry
thrusted
uponherandtheplightofbeingpawnedbyoneofher
a publicstage-show
thatis onsettostriphernaked
Lordsandmasters
tofacetheultimate
humiliation,
YetLaxmiand
intheverydarbarthatliterally
tunesofherpriggish
dancestotheorgiastic
oppressor.
Sitaarenotunitary
selves.Bothofthemareschizoidpersonalities.
Victim-turned-victimizer,
theyhave
the
have
been
forced
to
lose.
So
it
can
be
said
"sometimes
a
woman's
lifealso
regained space they
tellsthestoryof a nation"Hence Indianmythology
has bothvalorisedand devalorisedwoman.
That'swhytheJungian
Anima,inthecontextof India,is an enigma,a riddle,at once a victimina
and
worldand a towering
phallocentric logocentric
figureof gender-engendered
poweroperating
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ofWomeninIndia
Empowerment
869
ina post-phallocentric
and
andtoherabsolutepotencyandsatisfaction,
volitionandaspiration
freely
sheisAristotle's
worldofalterity.
So ifinonekindoftheIndianliterature,
Incomplete
post-logocentric
a humansoul,and a bunchof
human',St. ThomasAquinas's'imperfect
man',Jung'sEroswithout
as a
'O's to be used/abusedby'M' (man),inotherkindoftheIndianliterature
she is (re)presented
humanbeinghavingthepredilection
and potentiality
to elevateherwomanhoodto devi-hoodvia
hasbeen
human-hood.
So itcan be summedup thattheIndianattitude
andresponsetowoman-hood
/
Ye
tadhan
IfTulsidastheIndianmystic
Nari
sab
ambivalent.
hassaid,"Dhol,Ganwar,
Shudra,Pashu,
keadhikari
Satys
(Drum,rogue,salve,animalandwomen,theydeservebeatingandcondemnation),
essentialism
whilereclaiming
theidentity
oftheIndianwoman,has gonebeyond
PrakashMohanty,
to the
to expound"theepistemicstatusof (her)culturalidentity"
(2001:36). Hencewithreference
positionof womenin Hinducivilizationitcan be summedup thattheIndianwomanis mostlya
subaltern.
So NirulaSinghhas aptlyconcluded;
inyouthto herhusband,whenherLordis
In childhood(she) mustbe subjectto herfather,
dead,tohersons.(So) a womanmustneverbe independent
(1984 : XIV).
Thatis whytheIndianwomanis mostlyinditedand indicted.HenceMarinaPintohas been
muchdisturbed
to infer:
and
accordedto themas deitiesinreligionandmythology
Despitethehonourandreverence
taleto tell
intheTajmahal,thegroundrealitieshavea different
tributes
paid to themas personfied
(1995:10).
/symptoms
a dispassionate
Thatis whythispaperattempts
analysisoftheindices/indicators
oftheplightoftheIndianwomeninthesecondnodalsection.
1.6.
IndicesofthePlightoftheIndianWomen:a DiagnosticStudy
as a
womencametobe categorised
theperiodofSmritis,
As thestatusofwomendeteriorated
during
in
women
ofthe
master.
a
a domestic
inintellect,
weakersex,inferior
chattel, property
Consequently
Indiahavebeensubalterned.
Misprizedas 'thechiefmenialof thehousehold',theIndianwoman
a lot.So theIndianwomenarenottheequalsofIndianmen.In hisbidto reachtheaforesaid
suffers
controlof resources,
of property,
conclusionForbeshas takeninto'indices' likeownership
wages
the
forward
into
consideration.
sex
ratio
or
medical
to
access
food
care,
Carrying
consumed,
earned,
suchas
Pintohaslaidemphasisonthe'indicators'offemalesubordination
study,
toposofdiagnostic
violence
and
incomeinequalities,
(bothphysical
ofwork(s)done,feticide,
invisibility
inequality,
gender
Indian
that
concluded
have
scholars
most
ofthe
So
and
women,
andemotional,
spousal non-spousal).
used and unused)
and merit(bothdiscoveredand undiscovered,
inspiteof theirnumeralstrength
50
constitute
women
andunmerited
undeserved
suffer
percentofIndia's
Although
disempowerment.
consumed
two-thirds
oftheworkandproduce50 percentofthefoodcommodities
perform
population,
orwealth
and 10 percentoftheproperty
oftheremuneration
theyearnonlyonethird
bythecountry,
of
'feminization
with
to
have
women
Indian
In otherwords
ofthecountry.
poverty'andthe
grapple
onwhat
andCarolineGielnik,whileharping
Thatis why,Eve Warren
'backwardness'.
concommitant
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The IndianJournalofPoliticalScience
870
from
womenhaveinferred:
"Therearemanywaysinwhichwomenarediscouraged
"disempowers"
In
masterminded
their
(1995:10).
bythe
diagnostic
report,
sex-specific
stereotypes,
empowerment"
androcentrists
tomarginalize
womenofIndiaheadthelist.Henceinany"review
ofthedisabilities
and
ratio
on women'inIndia,India'sdifferential
sex
Sen 1990 : 61-6) petrifies
constraints
the
(Amartya
advocatesofgenderparity.Hencethedesiredmarch'towardequality'(gendered)is thwarted.
Sonbrideburning,
reification
dowrymurders,
preference,
spousalviolence,orgyofrapeandmolestation,
ofwomanas anobjectofsexualgratification
andsexsegregation
indicatethatIndianwomen,evenin
thefirst
decadeofthe2 1stcentury,
stillhavea longwaytogo toattaingender
justice.Withreference
totheforegoing,
itis concludedthattheplight
ofwomeninIndiais reallynotyetover.Hence,inIndia
is
not
still
considered
at
to man-power.
That is why,in
woman-power
par and complementary
continuation
ofthisdiagnosticstudyoftheplightofwomenin India,woman-power
is (re)assessed.
1.7
inIndia: AnElegyofDevalorization
Woman-power
Feminine
anddiscredited
tilltheIndianNationalCongresswas
capacitieshavebeenstultified
revitalized
byM.K. Gandhi.TheGandhianconceptof"ShaktiinmodernIndia"envisagedinduction
ofwomenintothestruggle
forliberation.
ThusGandhijiinitiated
"theprocessofliberation
ofIndian
woman"and ratified
the
"double
routine
of
the
women
in India,
woman-power.
workday"
Despite
womeninIndiado mostofthehouseholdwork.Theirlowpaying
status",
despitetheir"wage-earning
and/orzero-paying
in
andsubsistence
the
informal
sectorsindicatehowwomen'sworkinIndia
jobs
doesstillsuffer
fromlackofrecognition.
Inthiscontext
thereport
oftheCommittee
ontheStatusof
WomeninIndiais noteworthy.
Tiredofbeingrelegated
to"thefootnotesandappendicesofacademic
the
awakened
women
of
Indian
have
tried
to
valorizetheirwomen-power
so thattheycan
discourse",
situatethedialecticsoftheirwomanpowerinthemaintext,
andhypertext
on /
metatext,
legitimately
aboutwomenempowerment
as envisaged,
andsanctioned
warranted,
byState.Againstthisbackdrop
ofdevalorization
ofwomanpower,relation
between
Stateandempowerment
ofwomenis (re)defined
inthesectionto come.
1.8.
TheoriesonWomenand State
Mac Kinnon( 1989) andWatson( 1990),amonga galaxyofpoliticaltheorists
havedelveddeep
intothepoliticsofrelationship
between
womenandtheState.As itiscommonly
knowntherelationship
womenfosterwiththeState(as understood
and definedbyTheda Skoupal; 1979) reflects
tension
betweencentralizing
and decentralizing
tendencies
embeddedwithintheIndianStateitself.State
inrelation
totherolesplayedbyandthepowersgained,acquired,consolidated,
functions,
specifically
and
sustained,
harnessed, perpetuated
by womeneitheras (i) thebenevolentfatherstate,(ii) the
autocratic
father
WhentheStateis a
state,(iii) theneutral
State,and(iv) a complexhybridized
entity.
benevolent
it
acts
as
a
to
friend
women.
When
it
is
an
autocratic
father
father,
State,it(re)(in)forces
societal
relations.
If
the
state
is
it
to bothwomenand
neutral,
capitalist
providesequal opportunities
mentodefine,
theirneedsanddesires.IftheStateis something
ofeverything
ofthe
explore,andfulfill
aforesaid
threekindsofState,itauthors
andimposescontradictory
is neither
policies.Woman-power
norharmonized
inandbyanyofthefourkindsoftheState,explainedabove.However,
recognized
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ofWomeninIndia
Empowerment
871
actualactualization
of engendering
of theStatethatrespondsto thepleads and demandsof the
fortheircherishedempowerment
womeninferiorized,
and subalterned
devalorized,marginalized,
facilitates
allocationof"an enhancedshareofpower".As Indiahaswokenuptcthevariouscategories
of humiliation,
tortures
and individual
and massassaultto whichwomenare subjected,
atrocities,
to engender
theStateof
has beenratified
and implemented
manyan Act/Rule/Plan/Programme
India.Consequently
variouswomenempowerment
specificpoliciesand planshavebeenexecuted.
to
shift
from'development'
therefore
the
FiveYear
Plan
(1992-1997) marksa definite
Naturally
Eighth
ofwomen.Special Marriage
Act,1954;HinduMarriageAct,1955;HinduSuccession
'empowerment'
& Guardianship
Act,1956;
Act,1956;HinduMinority
Act,1956;HinduAdoptionandMaintenance
Benefit
1961
&
Prohibition
Immortal
Traffic
Prevention
1956;
Act,
Act,
1984;Maternity
Act,
Dowry
1961; MedicalTermination
ofPregnancy
Act,1978;
Act,197 1; ChildMarriageRestraint
(Amendment)
of
ofWomen(Prohibition)
Act,1986;Commission
FamilyCourtAct,1984;IndecentRepresentation
Plan
for
1
National
1
National
Plan
of
Action
The
Sati(Prevention)
Women, 976;
Act, 987;
Perspective
forWomen,1990;SupporttoTraining
forWomen,1988;Shramashakti,
1988;NationalCommission
MahilaKosh; Mahila SamridhiYojana;
forWomen,1987; Rashtriya
and Employment
Programme
IndiraAwaasYojana; JawaharRozgarYojana; Streeshakti
Mission;DWCRA; TRYSEM; National
the73rdand74thConstitutional
RuralHealthMission;NationalRuralEmployment
Guarantee-Scheme;
Amendment
Actsof 1993andthesupportserviceslaunchedandeffectualized
bytheGovt,ofIndia
of
oftheStateof Indiato facilitate
to desireandpreparedness
bearampletestimony
empowerment
to thethrust
laidon
oftheIndianHR. Withreference
efflorescence
womeninIndiafortheultimate
witha view
is anatomized
ofwomenbythestateofIndia,theconceptofempowerment
empowerment
tofacilitating
a holisticstudyofwomenempowerment,
perse, inIndia.
1.9
(re)specified
Empowerment
It suggestsmorethanittells.To Warrenand Gielnik,
is myriad-nuanced.
"Empowerment"
forwomen,whoarefrequently
is a difficult
particularly
concepttoacceptinpractice,
"empowerment
... to generatemoreoftheconditions
responsible
encouraged andthuslearn notto be ultimately
in(their)livesthatgive(them)satisfaction"
(1995 : 3). Hencethosewhoacquire,gain,consolidate,
earnedby themselvescapacitatethemselvesto seek
harness,and perpetuatepowerdeservingly
as "a
considerstheternempowerment
happinessintheirlives.Developingthistopos,Nisar-ul-Haq
notion
:
1
1
So
need"
for
some
or
for
forparticipation, speakingout,
3). Haq's
(2005
meeting
synonym
is a processof
Hence
over".
to"
and
not
of empowerment
empowerment
"power
implies"power
of and controlover,thepoliticalforcesaroundme as a meansof improving
gainingunderstanding
skill
location/situation,
insociety.So thisrequiresawarenessofone's socio-political
one'sstanding
thatenableschange,andworking
change.It involvesclaimingparity,
jointlyineffecting
acquisition
114).Hence
: Nisar-u-Haqtoprovideit"(Hall Margaret
forothers
equity"insteadofwaiting
equality,
women'sStateof mind,and gainingaccessto the
"itcan be usedforsocial mobilization,
changing
is a collective
/Nisar-ulHaq ; 114). Thatiswhy,empowerment
basesofsocialpower"(JohnFriedman
to
confidence
and
of
entail(re) generation courage
processdoes,therefore,
process.Theempowering
ofa
of anydesiredgoal and sustenance
of collectivepursuit
takeon challenges,contextualization
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The IndianJournalofPoliticalScience
872
ofgreater
results
detrimental
totheattainment
morepowerful
structures,
challengeto discriminatory
of
Henceactionforgenderequalitydoeslargelydependonempowerment
and(more)positiveresults.
Womenempowerment
women,thatis "equitableaccessto resources,
power,anddecision-making".
decision
at
the
institutional
and all levelsof
a
of
household,
making
requires realignment power,
of powerto
in nature,empowerment
is a dynamicprocessaimingat transfer
society.Participatory
and disadvantaged
So it
women,dispriveleged
variouslyin anyandrocentric
politicalconstruct.
and
abilities
for
a
better
in
with
connotes
of
skills
say negotiation existing
development
"development
Ramesh
has
inferred
:
Viswanath
veryinsightfully
systems".
delivery
womengaining
control
andpowerovertheirownlives.
"Theempowerment
ofwomenconcerns
It involvesawarenessraising,
of
accessto and
buildingself-confidence,
expansion choices,increased
control
overresources.
shouldcomefrom
womenempower
themselves.
within;
(2003:5).
Empowerment
So itisa gendermainstreaming
strategy
fostering
genderequality.I.K. Charihastheperspicuity
todefineempowerment
as "a multi-dimensional
ora groupof
processwhichenablestheindividuals
individuals
torealizetheirfullidentity
andpowersinall spheresoflife"(2005 :3). Probingfurther,
he
has stipulated
that "it consistsof greateraccess to knowledgeand resources,
in
greaterautonomy
toplantheirlives,orhavegreater
over
decisionmakingtoenablethemtohavegreater
control
ability
circumstances
thatinfluence
theirlivesandfreethemfromtheshacklesimposedonthembycustom,
womenempowerment
is emancipatory,
and
Hence
andconducive
belief, practice(p.3).
ameliorative,
of self-reliance,
to acquirement
and genderequality.So
self-esteem,
self-confidence,
self-worth,
has multipledimensions
thatare inter-related,
viz., social,economic,political,and
empowerment
Hence
it
has
four
:
capability
development.
components
(0
it beginswithand is supportedby economicindependence,
whichimpliesaccess to and
controloverproduction
resources;
(ii)
knowledgeand awareness;
(iii)
and
self-image;
(iv)
autonomy.
Hencewomenempowerment
is anessentialelement
tosustained
andsustainable
development.
a welfarist
it
Thisis why,itdoesnothavemerely
is
a
agenda; really psycho-socio-politico-economiccultural
for
the
total
offeminine
stratagem
qualitymanagement
capacities,latentand/ormanifest.
Withreference
totheforegoing
itcanbe asseverated
thatthepoliticsofwomenempowerment
and
is
the
sacrosanct
dovetailedby Parsons(1991);
qualifies
qualifiedby
empowerment
theory,
(198 1); Simon( 1990); Staples( 1991); SwiftandLevin( 1989); andKarl( 1995). Henceitis
Rappaport
to
"a socialworkbuzzword"(Dodd andGutierrz),
is reallyan
prudent concludethatempowerment,
term.Relatedantithetically
topaternalism,
itsuggests
(Swift-1984),anddisempowerment,
ubiquitous
ofpeopleintheirowndevelopment,
forsocialchange(KahnandBender,1985),
participation
self-help
and
utilizaiton
of
ofindividual
and
recognition
1984),maximization
existing
competencies
(Rappaport,
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ofWomeninIndia
Empowerment
873
collective
(Barton,1984),criticalaccumen(Kiefer,1981),skill
strengths
(Biegel,1984),self-efficacy
ofcommunity
1983),andenhancement
capacity(Mayer,
(Biegel 1984),self-esteem
(Pinderhughes,
is theprocess
1984). Hence one can notbutagreewithAlbertBanduraforwhomempowerment
which
an
individual
to
which
individuals
defined
as
the
perceivesthat
gainefficacy,
degree
through
withtheidentity
is congruent
heòrshecontrolshisorherenvironment.
Thuswomenempowerment
womenmakemeaningful
thatis groundedintheassumption
that"empowered
empowerment
theory
. (C.M.
forthemselves
that
choose
effective
activities
andundertake
commitments
they
goal-oriented
Hall: 1990,69-85).
can be andis viewedintermsofwelfare,
Hencetheprocessofwomenempowerment
access,
with
and
control.
related
conscientization,
ownership
capacitybuilding,
Symbiotically
participation,
followscertainsequencesandstages,
women'sempowerment
mediation
andself-worth,
andcontrol,
and expansionoftheorbitof actionand interaction,
extension
immansculation,
namelyresistance,
invitesscholarstostudy
So theholisticnatureofwomen'sempowerment
andultimate
consolidation.
One can also takethe
ofempowerment.
indicators
andquantitative
itintermsofboththequalitative
likeinterdependency
HD1
GDI
and
indicators
and
Measure),
helpofGEM (TheGenderEmpowerment
ways(Durkheim1966), ViolenceAgainstWomenIndex
amongmenand womenin constructive
1988) andthePersistent
(Holter,1984) toassessthequalityofwomen
Partiarchy
Syndrome
(Hindberg
inIndia.
empowerment
featuresof different
typesof
backdrop,paradigmatic
Againsttheabove statedtheoretical
inIndiaaretobe scrutinized.
women'sempowerment
orcollectively
do index,individually
andfamilial
Sinceeconomical,
social,political
empowerment
in India,eachone ofthemis critiquedinthefour
ofwomenempowerment
dimensions
themultiple
exordium.
which
follow
this
sections
ofWomeninIndia
1.10 EconomicEmpowerment
Scholars(withprovenscholarshipis the domainof genderstudies)have suggestedthat
However
economicenhancement.
in Indiancan be possibleonlythrough
women'sempowerment
note.Intheirconsidered
opinion,
SayedAfzalPeerzadeandPremaParandehavesoundeda cautionary
1
1
women"
in
are
effective
"notalltheschemesofeconomicempowerment
(2005- ). So the
empowering
so that
and improvised
ofWomen(2001) hasto be re-scrutinized
NationalPolicyforEmpowerment
ofwomeninIndia.
intherealsenseofthetermcanqualifytheeconomicempowerment
sustainability
outlets.Hencean
and
the
to
be
Inotherwords,schemesshould updated plug digressive debilitating
in
approachwheretwoor moreschemesarecombinedand convergedand implemented
integrated
andNon-Governmental
betweenGovernmental
Agencies,as perthetenetsofthe
jointcollaboration
realize
thedesireddreamofeconomic
the
rot
and
to
stem
is
(PPP) expected
partnership
public-private
ofwomeninIndia.PeerzadeorParandehave,therefore
opined:
empowerment
resultsintheareaofwomenempowerment
wonderful
is likelytodeliver
"... (such)combination
....(2005:11).
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The IndianJournalofPoliticalScience
874
ForGeraldineForbes,"thekeyto women'sstatusis theireconomicposition"(237). Since
is relatedto"women'sdevelopment
itincludes:
economicempowerment
planstrategies",
a)
employment
generation;
b)
elimination;
poverty
c)
effortsto develop organisationand managerialscale as per canon of bottom-up
system;
management
d)
of entrepreneurship;
development
e)
financialinstitutes;
and
grantof access to relatedsocio-economic
f)
maintenance
of sustainability.
Henceitis submitted
thatwomaninIndiacanbe economically
iftheGovernment
empowered
of Indiachanges"Joblessgrowth"to job-market
orientedgrowth,
tailor-made
forthe
specifically
semi-skilled
womenworkforce
ofIndia.So skill-based
vocational
forwomen
skilled,
educated,
training
shouldbe augmented.
a
brave
it
is
submitted
that
the
entire
amount
of
Daring
suggestion,
expenditure
madebytheGovernment
of Indiato actualizesubsidiesmaybe spenton imparting
skill-based
and
vocationaltraining
to theunemployed
job-oriented
youthof India.
1.11 SocialEmpowerment
Govt,of India is makingcontinuedefforts
to provide"equitablegrowthopportunities
for
women."So one can find/tracepromotion
of incomegenerating
activities
ofthrift
andcreditSelfforwomen.Because of theincreasing
focuson poverty-alleviation
for
Help-Groups
programmes
haveexpanded.This economicempowerment
resultsin
women,women'seconomicopportunities
women'ssocial empowerment.
the
and
ofthethemeofwomen
Consequently meaning significance
in
the
1
are
redefined
of
CED
979-9
î
of
the
UN.
Yet
thePPS indexshows
AW,
empowerment being
light
thatthewomen-folk
tosuffer
ofIndiacontinue
violence,bothpublicandprivate,
undeserving
physical
and emotional,
sexual and asexual in nature.So freshapproachesto social mainstreaming
of the
feminine
have
to
be
made.
In
of
continuation
the
to
women
to
hear
and
gender
policy appoint
judges
as perthetenants
ofGAD
adjudicatecases ofrape,community
policingbywomenmaybe effected
taboos
Social
to deployment
ofwomenas servitors,
(Genderand Development).
pertaining
priests,
master
offuneral
de
facto
head
of
social
units
welfare
as
the
tenets
ofPPP
ceremony,
functioningper
mustbeeradicated.
Thenwomenplaytheir
rolesintheholistic
socialdevelopment.
Elimination
legitimate
ofsocialimpediments
totheequalparticipation
ofmenandwomenintheir
of
common
minimum
pursuit
socialprogrammes
commonroutesina community,
candiscourage
the
through
engendered
properly,
MCPs to considerwomenas objectsofmercy,
and sexualgratification.
Then
pity,sexualtitilation
socialempowerment
ofwomenshallandcanbegetsocialequalityandequity,humanoutlook,gender
balance,justiceand rights-based
sensitivity,
approachesto manifold
psycho-social
problems.
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ofWomeninIndia
Empowerment
875
1.12 PoliticalEmpowerment
ofWomeninIndia
ofpolitics.However,there
WomenofIndiahavereallycomea longwayintheamphitheatre
had not
wouldhavebeenno women'smovement
in IndiaifIndianmenin thenineteenth
century
and Female seclusion.So
botheredabout Sati, Child Marriage,Widowhood,Sex segregation,
freefrommale
tosocialfeminism,
womenofIndiapledgedthemselves
encouraged
bytheliberalists,
outside
notfreefrompatriarchy.
This"newwomenfeltthatwomenhavetheirdestiny
tutelage
though
selves
theirforfeited
theiranatomy.Theyhave rejectedsexualsolipsismof Freudand reinvented
herself
for
ofthefemaleself,nomoreabnegating
(BettyFriedan,
p.269).ThisMaslovianrediscovery
involvedintheIndian
andincompleteness"
herso called"emptiness
(BettyFriedan;p.16) gotherself
were
women
freedom
"some
of
the
Indian
for
liberation.
fighters subjectedtovarious
Though
struggle
andmassassaultintheirso calledhomes,
andindividual
ofhumiliation,
tortures
atrocities,
categories
waveoffeminism
violenceas accidental.So thefirst
maleleadersurgedthemtoconsiderall domestic
from
theBritish
towomeninIndia.After
hadreallyfailedtogivepoliticalempowerment
independence
innationbuildinganda newvaluation
rule,theIndianconstitution
"participation
promised
equality,
of women".Yet womenwerenotempowered.
"Rightsare rarelygivenaway;theymustbe won',
set
Jawaharlal
Nehru.
ThoughCongress uptheNationalSocial WelfareBoard,marchofthe
quipped
for
to thepoliticalactivismof women,clamouring
Indianwomentowardequalitywas lukewarm
in the
withthewelfarists
In the 1960s,womendissatisfied
participated
politicalempowerment".
in
Youth
Movement
Navanirman
rise
"Naxalbarimovement,
Gujaratand
anti-price demonstrations,
scholars
So veryinsightfully
andChipkomovement".
inMaharastra
Bihar,ruralrevoltinDhuledistrict
to theearly1970swhenwomenof
women'smovement
havetracedtheoriginsofthecontemporary
India"reinvented
revolutions".
to suchpoliticalassaultsmade
ofthewomenelitists
Whatranklesthemostis theindifference
of
Influenced
on thebastionsofthemalepoliticians.
bythecross-currents
bywomenegalitarianists
the
Black Feminismin particular
in generaland of theAfro-American
the2nd wave of feminism
feminists
ofIndiainthelate1970sandearly1980slaunched
manycrusadestocreate"a newatmosphere
took
Thewomenactivists
ofRama-Sitaparadigm".
radicalism
thatmadepossiblea critique
ofcultural
etc.So they
ization,genderdifferences
uptheircudgelsagainstdomesticviolence,politicalmarginal
to gender
theimageof theideal Indianwomanas theone impervious
triedto and did dismantle
thesewomenactivistsclamouredfor
and searchforselfhood.In thecontrary,
equality,autonomy
becamemore
for
their
crusades
Hence
based
politicalempowerment
changes.
rights
gender-related
Dissatisfiedwiththepolitical
well-mounted.
and hencedisturbingly
and morewell-coordinated
of
as passivebeneficiaries
to "bringwomenintodevelopment
oftheauthorities
attempts/intentions
needs
of Indiashouldpayheedto thestrategic
development",
theydemandedthattheGovernment
todevelopment,
ofwomenas humanresource
ofwomen.Keepinginmindtheimportance
contributing
rdofthe
1/3
1992.
the73rdAmendment
womenweregivenpoliticalpowerthrough
Act,
Consequently
forwomeninIndia.
totalmember
ofseatsintheIndianPanchayati
(PRIs) gotreserved
Raj Institutions
/ governance
Thuswomenhave been politicallyempoweredto have space in local development
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The IndianJournalofPoliticalScience
876
of theso-calledpoliticalbig
and littleness
seclusivepractices,
activities.
Stillcasteism,patriarchy,
Orientation
intheIndianPRIs. So Panchayat
affect
theautonomy
ofthefemalefunctionaries
brothers
liketheoneorganized
andReinforcement
forWomenEmpowerment
(POWER) campaigns,
bySahbagi
ineachandeveryPRI ofIndiaso
RendrainUttarPradeshin2003-04shouldbe conducted
Shikshan
can be effectively
eliminated.
Then
thattheimpediments
whichhindertheirpoliticalempowerment
as ingroupsto emergeout of theirsocial boundariesto takeup political
onlytheycan function
maybe speciallydesignedandconductedto beef
Trainingcoursesandworkshops
responsibilities.
and nascenthumanhood.
communicative
their
skills,cognitiveproficiency,
qualities,
up
leadership
to
bytheIndianpoliticalparties.Theyshouldbe encouraged
They,mustbe givenall sortsofsupport
andtoplayactiveroleincampaign
moreefficacious".
takeactiveinterest
issues,tofeeltobe "politically
inIndiacan sharethecentrestageofpolitics
Thenonlythewomen"thebiggestoppressedminority"
inIndianandcan be (re) interpreted
as an indexofpoliticalprominence
ofwomeninIndia.Though
intheworldofpolitics,minimum
Indianwomenaremakingsomesortofprogress
33% ofseatsinthe
Lok
Sabha
and
Sabha
be
Rajya
may reservedforthe
LegislativeAssemblies,LegislativeCouncils,
Indianwomen.Presentincumbents,
dulyelectedwomenmembersof theLegislativeAssemblies,
LegislativeCouncils,Lok Sabha andRajyaSabhashouldnotbe giventheso-calledsoftportfolios.
into"a criticalmass"so as to actas a pressure
to formthemselves
groupinthe
Theymustbe trained
legislature.
1.13 FamilialEmpowerment.
Also knownas theempowerment
thateffectualizes
capacitybuildingin thefamilyset up,
is amenabletoanalysisfrom
theperspective
ofHR improvement.
familial
Henceitis a
empowerment
of
the
in
terms
of
and
and
attitude
perfectibility,
process(and manifestation)
aptitude,
proclivity
ofthewomenpursuers
ofexcellenceinanengenderd
setup.Inmystudiedopinion,
potentiality
family
ladieswithout
Thus
symbolsofbulletswithout
properly
equippedwithIQ areveritable
gunpowder.
canneverbetruly
womenwithout
selfworth
ladies
So
should
and
can
themselves
empowered.
empower
for
women.
Hence
Warren
and
Gielnik
have
that
self-development
byactively
pursuing
argued women
withdevelopedand developingpersonalpowercan maintain
and harnessorganisational
powerfor
:
In
theirultimate
holistic
of
women.
this
the
written
context, poem,
goal
empowerment
byNatasha
andstatedbelowmaybe studiedas a self-explanatory
theorem:
Josefowitz
WhenI'm fullyinchargeofme
I can letyouto be free.
WhenI'm usingmyfullestpotential
I can helpothersdo thesame.
WhenI'm empower'dandstrongandsure
I feelneither
enviousnorthreatened.
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ofWomeninIndia
Empowerment
877
WhenI can growat myownrate
I do notfearyourtakinganything
away.
I do notfearyourovertaking
me.
& Gielnik;p.IX)
(quotedbyWarren
ofwomeninIndiacanbe realizedif
Henceitis averredthatthedesiredholisticempowerment
andbecomeall
herpotential
to fulfill
toherself
eachIndianwomanfeelsthatshehasa responsibility
Inthiscontext
ThenonlyeachwomanofIndiacanhavesatisfaction.
thatsheis capableofbecoming.
isofgreatcriticalvalue.Takingselfesteem,relative
infamily
indexonempowerment
thesatisfaction
sheis goingtogivebirth
ofchildren
thenumber
roleindeciding
ofa ladyinherfamily,
to,
importance
role
inincreasing
herself-dependence, in
roleofemployment
infamily
roleindecisionmaking
matters,
thefamilyincomeand rolein securingtherespectand affection
(love) of herhusband,
increasing
toenhance
ofemployment
relatives
andin-laws,Dr. Sr. Rosa K.D. hasprovedtheimmense
potential
are
setup(2005 : 30). So womenhavingfamilial
ofwomeninthefamily
theemployment
empowerment
of change.Operatingin a gendersupportive
and instruments
familyset up,they
good motivators
experience
genuinecomeuppance.
1.14 Conclusion
ofwomeninIndiahasa specificgoal,a genderspecificgoal. Ithastoeliminate
Empowerment
ofwomeninIndia.To achieve
andultimate
devaluation,
dispensability"
displacement
"marginalization,
so as tobe abletodefeatthetraditional
womenofIndiahavetoswimupstream
empowerment,
genuine
ofthenorm-based
forcesoflogocentrism
society.Sinceeachone ofthemis a vitalagent,theyhave
ofa giventype"(David Knoke: 1990: 236). Thatmeans,theyhave
"all dyadicrelations
toremember
ofwomen,ingeneral,in/of
forthecommoncause: empowerment
withoneanother
toworkattandem
tothepoliticsofconvergence,
India.Hencetheymustrespondwithalacrity
partnership
publicprivate
from
isnotandcannotbeseparate
Sincewomen'sempowerment
empowerment
(PPP),andeco-feminism.
social
and
world
of
causes
the
of nature,
mobility.
peace,eco-preservation,
theyshouldchampion
and
for
a
self-defeated
a
on
find
themselves
Otherwise
self-defeating
plain
fighting darkling
theymay
goal.
cyper-like
EndNotes
1.
inTheNewYorkReview,December
womenaremissing"
Sen,"Morethan100 million
Amartya
20,1990.
2.
Mystique;London; Penguine,1982.
BettyFriedan,The Feminine
3.
ClinicalSociology",inClinicalSociologyReview,
C.M. Hall,"Identity
Through
Empowerment
Vol.8,1990.
4.
: 1990.
: TheStructural
DavidKnoke,PoliticalNetworks
Cambridge
Perspective;
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The IndianJournalofPoliticalScience
878
5.
Dr.Sr.RosaKD, " WomenEmpowerment
& Familysetup"inKurukshetra
Vol.54,No.I,Nov.
2005.
6.
Eve Warren
& CarolineGielnik,
NewDelhi: University
Yourself;
Press,1995.
Empower
7.
Geraldine
ofIndia;Licup,2004,.
Forbes,TheNewCambridge
History
8.
Hall C. Margaret,
Women& Empowerment
: Strategies
forIncreasing
Bristol:
Autonomy;
1992.
Hemisphere,
9.
I.K. Chari,"Editorial"
inKurukshetra,
Vol.54,No.1,Nov.2005.
10.
John
ThePoliticsofAlternative
: Blackwell,
Friedman,
Empowerment:
Development;
Cambridge
1992.QuotedbyNisar-ulHaq Op. cit.
11.
MarinaPinto,"Development
of Womenin India",theKurukshetra,
ThroughEmpowerment
2005.
August,
12.
NirulaSingh: WomenProblems
& their
NewDelhi: APH Publishing
House,1984.
Oppression;
13.
"TheUnitedNationsandtheElimination
ofDiscrimination
Nisar-Ul-Haq,
AgainstWomen"in
2005.
IJPS,volume66,No.1, Jan-March,
14.
"The EpistemicStatusofCulturalIdentity"
in ReclaimingIdentity
SatyaPrakashMohanty,
2001.
(Eds) Paula,M.L. MoyaandMichaelR HamesGarcia.L; OrientLongman,
15.
ofWomen: A Study"inKurukshetra,
SayedAfzalPerzade& PremaParande;"Empowerment
Vol.54,No.I,Nov.2005.
16.
Viswanath
Women"inYojana,Vol.47,No.3,March2003.
Ramesh,"Empowering
This content downloaded from 128.135.12.127 on Thu, 5 Feb 2015 18:35:59 PM
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