DISCIPLE:
AN OUTLINE FOR
AN IN-DEPTH
JOURNEY IN FAITH
The Rev. Donald P Owens, Jr., Ph.D.
Disciple: A person who subscribes to the teachings of a master and assists in spreading them.
An Adult Confirmation course designed for those in the University community
and
for those who want an in-depth educational experience
of the Episcopal Church and the Christian Faith
Published by The Episcopal Church Center for
Young Adult and Higher Education Ministries of the Episcopal Church 1996 © Donald P, Owens, Jr., Ph.,D.
All Rights Reserved
1996 © Donald P. Owens, Jr., Ph.D. All Rights Reserved
1
Revised and Indexed 2004
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
Dedication
4
Foreword: The Rt. Rev. W.R. Chilton Powell
5
Preface
7
Acknowledgments
10
Introduction
11
I. The Formation of the Religion of Israel and the First Century Christian Church
14
II. Introduction to the Bible: Its Origins and Development
24
III. History of the Early Church From 30-1000 CE
37
IV. History of the Church in England and the United States
47
V. Introduction to the Liturgy: The Holy Eucharist
59
VI. Introduction to the Liturgy: Holy Baptism
74
VII. The Book of Common Prayer: Its History and Contents
81
VIII . Ceremonies, the Church Year, Architecture, and Vestments
98
IX. An Introduction to Stewardship
110
X. The Government of the Episcopal Church
116
APPENDICES
123
GLOSSARY
135
BIBLIOGRAPHY
147
INDEX
150
3
IN MEMORIAM
Ó˜ äÝ, ¯ Tíèñùðå èåï™, ôá™ôá öå™ãå· äßùêå äc äéêáéïóýíçí, åšóÝâåéáí, ðßóôéí, PãÜðçí,
›ðïìïíÞí, ðñáûðáèßáí. Pãùíßæïõ ô’í êáë’í Pã§íá ôyò ðßóôåùò, dðéëáâï™ ôyò ákùíßïõ
æùyò, åkò {í dêëÞèçò êár ©ìïëüãçóáò ôxí êáëxí ¿ìïëïãßáí díþðéïí ðïëë§í ìáñôýñùí.
1 Timothy 6.11-12
#
The Rt. Rev. Winslow Robert Chilton Powell, Retired
Bishop of Oklahoma (1952-1976)
12 March 1911-31 December 1994
#
4
FOREWORD
There are people of somewhat serious intent who, looking for a spiritual home, make inquiry
about the Episcopal Church and the Anglican Communion. Very often they ask rather simplistic questions
and expect easy answers - with the attitude that one choice or another will not really make all that
difference. Sometimes clergy and other people connected with the church, because invited to do so, give
only simplistic response. The rapid rise of secularism and materialism, and the growing marginalization
of the institutional church pushes sound doctrine and the truth and promise of the Gospel into an arid and
vapid context. Yet, at the same time there hastens a growing interest and response to several systems of
adult education and adult training for lay ministry in the Episcopal Church. One- to three-year night and
weekend courses explore the faith and its many facets and implications.
Many university and college chaplains, alert to this response, do not hesitate to recommend and
use the same intensity of commitment, study, and mental discipline to prepare adults for baptism or
church membership as would be required for college degree studies. An established catechumenate sets
the content and pace of studies.
The author of this book is so committed. The Rev. Donald Owens has been chaplain of Saint
Anselm Canterbury Association at the University of Oklahoma in Norman for 19 years. He has built
patiently and wisely on the positive experience of competent predecessors. Based upon his own
experience and heartened by the response from students, he has gradually developed a teaching method
and a corpus of studies, and this outline of the Faith. The Table of Contents lists 10 chapters requiring 14
lectures. The book itself will prove very useful beyond the lecture method, and will provide sound
answers to an inquirer. Every chapter has insight and depth and is well written. Back of the discipline of
so thorough a study stands discipleship-a call to each student from Jesus of Nazareth, God Incarnate,
Messiah, Savior, and Lord of His Church. His call is two-fold: Come. Come follow me and Go, go into the
world, backed by a promise: I am with you always to the ages of ages. That promise has been kept and
will be kept by the power of the Holy Spirit as Christians discover ministry and pursue it.
A glance at the ten topics presented here shows the promise evident in all of them.
The first chapter outlining the foundations of the religion of Israel and of the Christian Church
reveals complicated ethnic and national impact. The religion of the Law and the Prophets makes way for
Covenant and for monotheism. The impact of Christ-Messiah ushers in a new age, a challenge to
universal response. The introduction to the Bible is a complicated and honest look at the evolution, collection and meaning of the textual material.
General church history and English church history tell us much of who we are and where we have
been-for better or for worse-including the glory of world mission and building universities, chaplaincies,
5
and hospitals wrapped in British colonialism, and the destruction of native cultures.
The introduction to the Eucharist places the Breaking of Bread at the center of primitive and
contemporary Christian worship. Holy Baptism is presented as a full initiatory rite, and the Baptismal
Covenant a description of our relationship to God, to one another, and to humankind, with an accent on
penitence, conversion, ministry, and the exercise of forgiveness, mercy, compassion, and justice. The
Great Vigil of Easter is a mighty summary of deliverance Gospel, death to life, a total Catholic liturgy.
Other chapters present sound material well written and clear in meaning.
Discussion of Christianity's seven General or Ecumenical Councils is important because the
human mind, functioning as it does, wonders, experiments, and sometimes embraces error and ever
dangerous conclusions in the 20'h century as in earlier days. Bad choices of thought patterns do damage. A
vacuum in theological understanding often invites weird "isms," and dangerous commitments and
practices. These make up the Appendices B, while Appendices A provides a list of the canons of the
Bible.
The Glossary, Appendices, and Index help make this book a useable study for the private reader.
There is a further implication in setting forth this basic venture in Christian study. A student who
makes a suitable response to most of this material can very well apply the same habit and response to an
ever richer and more inclusive appreciation of the Christian impact upon human affairs, and add his or her
individual commitment to true worship of God, and service to people.
During the last 90 years a rich deposit of long lost liturgical material, texts and forms for worship
has been discovered (or re-discovered). These enrichments push the center of liturgical revisions and
enrichment to a period including the first seven centuries, as over and against previous weight of
Medieval influence. Thus new revisions are really much older than Prayer Book forms gathered into the
First Book of Common Prayer of 1549 by Thomas Cranmer and repeated in subsequent revisions of the
Prayer Book until 1979. This authentic old material was put to use in this latest (1979) revision. Much of
this revision has ecumenical influence through the use of English texts and translations for both Catholic
and Protestant worship.
This outline provides a sound basis for lectures by chaplains and parish priests, and a valuable
textbook for serious and mature seekers for Christ and his church.
The Rt. Rev. W.R. Chilton Powell Advent 1994
6
PREFACE
This work has evolved from 20 years experience as the Episcopal Chaplain at the University of
Oklahoma. It is an attempt to answer the myriad of questions that have been raised in these years by
students, faculty, and staff. I feel that the same level of scholarship and investigation that is required and
expected in the university should also prevail in the study of the church. The same seriousness that tackles
the pressing problems of science, philosophy, history, medicine, and the diverse disciplines of the
academic world should also be applied to the religious questions. Because of the socio-religious milieu
that makes up the backbone of this state, a milieu that is also pervasive throughout the culture of the
United States, there are many questions that are raised at the very outset about the Episcopal Church. One
of the professors at the University of Oklahoma College of Medicine was discussing religious issues with
his colleagues when one asked him what church he belonged to, to which he replied, "Episcopal." After a
long pause the colleague responded in all seriousness, "One of those fringe churches." Hence, when one
encounters the Episcopal Church in Oklahoma, it is an encounter with a strange and suspicious religious
community.
In fact, we Episcopalians are quite outside the religious norm in many parts of the United States.
There are some who are very uncomfortable with this notion of being outside the religious norm, and
attempt to cover their uneasiness by saying that we are really more similar than dissimilar to the other
religious bodies around us. The fact of the matter is that we are more dissimilar than similar! This is said
with a deep respect for the integrity of both groups! Therefore, there are many questions that are raised by
those who seek to know more about the Episcopal expression of the Faith.
The discussion of the Bible and the Eucharist form the nucleus around which the rest of the work
has evolved. In Oklahoma, it seems, these are the two subjects that are utmost in people's minds as they
first encounter the Episcopal Church. They want to know what we think about the Bible and what the
Eucharist means to us.
The Eucharist is probably the first service an inquirer attends in the Episcopal Church.
Episcopalians are not always aware of the difficulties that are inherent for many in our worship and life.
First there is the use of a Prayer Book which is very foreign to many Protestants and people not familiar
with the Catholic tradition that is part of the Anglican heritage. There are the ceremonies of the Eucharist
which seem baffling to the newcomer. Because Episcopalians use so much body language in our
celebrations, they can seem very threatening as well as intimidating to many among the uninitiated.
Then there is the use of the Bible in the Episcopal Church. Although Bible based preaching is not
as central to our heritage as it is to that of many of the mainstream Protestant churches, the timeless words
of the Bible are integrated into the very fabric of our Prayer Book worship. In fact, on close examination,
7
one can find that in any given service of the Episcopal Church there is more Scripture read and used than
in most of the Protestant or Pietistic Churches. All of this only provokes more questions.
Finally, we must be reminded that our vocabulary is not a common one. There is a whole manner
of speaking in the Episcopal Church that is quite different from many of the more familiar religious
bodies. Over the past 20 years it has been a regular experience to try to explicate the Faith as the
Episcopal Church understands and practices it to bright minds who have many questions. The popular
piety of the church, regardless of what persuasion, does not seem to provide the depth of answers that
they are looking for, nor are the answers adequate to satisfy their needs. They want something else,
something deeper and more lasting. The span of knowledge is from one extreme to another. The
Episcopal Church and its Anglican tradition offer a depth for those who are inquiring and searching. The
problem seems to be a lack of knowledge about the Episcopal Church even among its own members.
A great deal of time in this study is spent on history. This is based on the sound theological
understanding that history is the arena of God's activity. Through the recalling of history and events of
history we are able to track the hand of God if we know where and how to look. This is the sacred history
(or Heilsgeschichte. as German theologians call it) of the people of God. It is the perceiving that there is
more than meets the eye in the historical events of the life of a people. In short, it is the ability to see that
God is at work behind and within the events of history. To completely spiritualize the experience of God
is to remove that experience from the realm of the material/physical world, and hence from everyday
human experience. The only avenue through which God is known to operate in the tradition is through the
physical/material world. This is the fundamental theology of the Incarnation! To say less than this is to
call into question the impact and efficacy of the Incarnation.
History is also the corporate memory of a people. The history of a people contains their identity
in the same way as the history of a family with its traditions, stories, and customs inform their identity. In
order to become part of a people one must know its history with all its traditions, stories, and customs. In
today's world, and paJ1icularly in the United States, our educational system has neglected all kinds of
history to our greater detriment. This is nowhere more evident than in the Christian religion as it has
moved into the latter part of the 20th century. There abounds a profound ignorance about the history of
the Christian Church. Part of this has its foundations in the pietistic theology of the 18th and 19th
centuries. This theology has become the predominant religious framework of popular Christianity. Hence,
the average person on the street knows little about the history of the church. This has produced some very
interesting ways of thinking and gives rise to some downright shocking questions. I had a graduate
student ask me if Jesus lived before or after Martin Luther!
The need to spend much time and space on history becomes somewhat evident. It serves not only
to inform a person of the proper chronological order of events, but also assists in forming the identity of a
8
person. This is accomplished as the person appropriates the history, forming personal identity. This
identity of what it is to be Anglican and a historical people is part of the purpose of the extensive study of
history and its informing nature.
There are suggested readings following each chapter. By the end of the study one should have an
extensive bibliography on the church, liturgy, and, specifically, the church of the Anglican/Episcopal
tradition at their disposal.
9
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to express my deep appreciation to those who have made this work possible. I thank the
many people who have gone through confirmation/inquirers classes and those who have asked questions
and wanted to discuss not only the Christian Faith, but the history and life of the Anglican Communion
and the Episcopal Church. I wish to express the deep sense of gratitude I have for the Rt. Rev. Chilton
Powell for his encouragement, criticisms, interest, suggestions, and time. I am in a special debt to him for
the Foreword to this book that he wrote shortly before his death on December 31, 1994. This is a special
gift from a very special friend and bishop.
I owe a special debt and depth of gratitude to Timothy G. Scott. He read the manuscript, making
editorial corrections and changes, as well as contributing ideas, thoughts, and raising questions; all this
being done in the midst of a life already full and over-flowing with many other projects, interests, and
work. I am indebted to the Rev. Arlene Fowler, the Rev. Ernest Maddon, the Rev. Mary Hileman, and the
Rev. David Krause who have put the drafts to use in the field, both in parish settings and in university
chaplaincies. Such trial use provides an immeasurably valuable confirmation of the project.
I wish to extend a special note of thanks and gratitude to the Episcopal Seminary of the
Southwest. I extend special thanks to the Very Reverend Durstan R. McDonald, Dean of the Seminary;
the Rev. William M. Bennett, Provost of the Seminary, the Rev. Charles J. Cook, Coordinator of the
Visiting Fellows Program, and to the faculty, staff, and student body for providing me, through the
Visiting Fellows Program of the Seminary, the opportunity to do research and work on this manuscript.
I am indebted to the staff of the National Archives of the Episcopal Church housed at the
Seminary, in particular to Mr. Mark Duffy, Archivist of the Episcopal Church, and assistant archivists
Mr. Donald W. Firsching and Ms. Kristina Southwell. They were more than helpful in my research in the
Archives. I owe a debt of gratitude to Thorn Chu, Coordinator of Young Adult and Higher Education
Ministries at the Episcopal Church Center for setting in motion the publication of this work. His
encouragement and support in this project have been greatly appreciated.
In particular I am most indebted to Barbara J. Owens, my beloved wife, who has once again been
most giving of time, of great patience, and encouragement while I worked away on yet another book and
project. She has kept me going when I thought it was more than I wanted to do. She has encouraged me to
take advantage of research opportunities when I thought I did not have time.
10
INTRODUCTION
This book has been designed to be used in the academy. The level of instruction is on the junior
level in the university or college setting. It is assumed that those who would use this material are
intending to be serious students of the history, beliefs, and tradition of the Episcopal Church. The purpose
of this material is the formation of committed adult members of the Episcopal Church and Anglican
Communion.
This course of instruction is designed to provide a foundational knowledge of the
Anglican/Episcopal Church in particular and the Church Catholic in general. It is assumed that the person
embarking on this study has some knowledge of general world history from ancient time to the present. It
is also assumed that the person has some knowledge of the Christian Faith or at least some knowledge of
the biblical story of Israel and of Jesus. It is understood that in some instances this may not be the case. In
such instances it is impol1ant to make up the deficit information as soon as possible before much of this
will make sense. History is essential to any understanding that leads to the appropriation of that history in
the formation of a particular identity. The appropriation of the history of a particular people is essential
for the forming of a person's new identity as a part of that people. One must appropriate unto him/her self
the corporate memory in order for one to see one's self or be seen by others as a member of a particular
group. The formation of the Christian identity must begin with the rudimentary knowledge of the people
of Israel and their origins. Thus the first level of instruction must deal with a person knowing the general
story of the church and its origins. In this course one is entering the formation of becoming Christian as
the primary and foundational level of the experience. In short, there is a sense of experiencing conversion.
In today's world this may well be from a secular religious outlook to a Christian religious outlook. In
other words changing the primary lens through which we see and interpret life. In particular we are
forming members of the Episcopal Church or Anglican Communion. This means that the par1icular
hermeneutic is Anglican.
The way the questions of life and the meaning of life are framed in the Christian context are
constructed in Anglican terms. Therefore, Reason, Tradition, and Scripture are held up and held in
tension as the primary tools of research. Once this Anglican Church has been properly positioned in the
history of the church a perspective begins to take shape. Noting in today's world that church history,
following the insight that the conquerors write the history, is written primarily from the Protestant or
Roman Catholic perspective. Hence, church history is seen primarily as the history of the Church in the
West, and that all non-Roman Catholic communities broke off from the Roman Catholic Church. This
point of view has little understanding of the impact of isolation on the Western Church's perspective of
herself. From the Protestant point of view, all Western, non-Roman communities have their origin in the
11
act of breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church.
However, Anglicans continue to see ourselves and our origins very differently from these
positions. We know ourselves to be a community that was already in existence as that indigenous Celtic
Church, a Christian body that was already ancient by the time of the arrival of the Roman missionaries
sent to Britain by Pope Gregory the Great at the end of the sixth century. This indigenous, albeit small,
Celtic Church had already proclaimed the Good News to Britons, Angles, Saxons, and had Christianized
Wales, Ireland, and Scotland.
A different perspective on Anglicanism emerges as the history takes shape from the pens of
Anglican writers. A church already 600 years old comes under the authority of Rome for a period of 900
years-only once again to emerge as a vital force in the world following the Reformation upheaval of the
16th century. To grasp this is the beginning of the emergence of a new sense of Anglican identity.
Once this history is presented, those peculiar things about us come to the fore for examination.
We can now examine critically our understanding of the Bible and its use and place in the life of the
church; the church's liturgy and the Book of Common Prayer; stewardship of our time, money, and
possessions; our church government and its impact on our understanding of power and authority.
The chapters are arranged in an order that is consistent with the intended formation of the
person's religious identity. The progression of chapters is from the general history of the People of God in
the People of Israel, and the early church into general church history. This provides the over all picture of
the "context" of the Episcopal Church.
The second chapter of the study concerns the Bible, the common standard of the revelation of
God and the "anthropology" of the Judea-Christian tradition. This chapter on the Bible is an attempt to
provide a short, cogent history of the development of the evolution of the Bible. It also provides insights
into the nature of canon.
As the focus is narrowed to examine the peculiar origins and history of the church in England and
in the United States, there is a narrowing of the spectrum under investigation so that the peculiar history
of the Christianizing of England can be gleaned.
The second major part of the study concerns the Anglican liturgy. The Eucharist is the central
repeatable act of the church's worship. The Eucharist is central to all other liturgical acts of the church.
Hence, all the services of the Prayer Book are constructed so that the Eucharist may be part of them. Even
the location of the Eucharist in the Prayer Book is in the center of the book itself, symbolizing its
centrality. It is the service that most visitors experience on a given Sunday. It is for this reason that in this
study it precedes Baptism, the rite of initiation into the church. This part is capped off with the
presentation of the history and examination of the contents of the Book of Common Prayer. A short
description of the Church Year and the description and meaning of the ceremonies of the church's
12
worship concludes this section of the study.
The third section deals with stewardship and with the government of the Episcopal Church. These
are related in that both deal with the way in which we use, conserve, and provide for the spread of the
Good News. The section on stewardship is to provide a foundation that explicates our understanding of
sharing our resources with others. The proper understanding of the government of the church opens the
avenues for service, not only on the local level of parish and mission, but on the provincial, diocesan, and
national levels of the church's life as well. It also provides for a clear understanding of the proper role of
clergy and laity in the life of the church. In short it gives the rules of the game so that we may know how
to govern ourselves.
At the outset it needs to be said that the person who seeks Confirmation/Reception is taking on
adult responsibilities within the life of the church. With this notion firmly in mind it is important that one
realize that the following three things are required and assumed of any one taking on this responsibility: 1.
that a financial commitment is expected of each and every member of the church; 2. that regular
attendance in the worship of the church is expected of every member of the church; and, 3. that an active
participation in one or more aspects of the life of the local parish and beyond is assumed of every member
of the church.
It is hoped that by the time a person has proceeded along this course of education there will be an
awareness that changes have taken place in their identity. In short, that they have begun the formation
which shapes their identity, not only as Christians, but as members of the Episcopal Church and of the
worldwide Anglican Communion. The very nature of the content and organization and content/subject
matter of this study should make evident the Anglican understanding of Reason, Tradition, and Scripture.
It takes all three of these working in harmony to have a healthy church. Tradition without the balance of
the others becomes precious and loosened from the moorings that make it relevant. Scripture apart from
the others becomes tyrannical and overbearing. Reason without the others is rationalism that provides no
balance or sense of wholeness, but only an overbearing, unfeeling, and detached schema.
13
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE FORMATION
OF THE RELIGION OF ISRAEL AND
THE FIRST CENTURY CHRISTIAN CHURCH
No people creates a complete society with a religious system of beliefs and practices with cultic
proscriptions and practice out of nothing. They all borrow from what they have known in the past. No
religion (or anything else we humans do for that matter) comes into being in a vacuum. Not only do we
continue many of the cultic activities and beliefs that we have been accustomed to, but we may also create
others in opposition to the ones we have left behind.
The tribes of Israel, as they came to be called, are no different in the creation of the religion of
Israel. This is on at least two levels. They bring with them presuppositions and assumptions about how
things are to be done. Second, they intentionally change and discard practices and beliefs they wish to be
different.
It is possible to distinguish some of these strands that exist in the new religion from what is
known about the former religious institutions and those religious systems surrounding the seat of origin of
the new. We see them on the negative side of declarative formulas in the religion, in the set creeds that
religion "says" in public worship.
Sacred sites remain sacred, what changes is the cultus that uses them. A good example of this is
the Mosque of Omar and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Today this is an Islamic shrine built on the
ruins of the Jerusalem Temple (with part of the retaining wall of the Temple Mount still standing). The
site in turn had been built on the holy site of the Canaanites. These Canaanites were Jebusites, and their
cultic traditions at the sanctuary "were carried over into the Zion theology of the Old Testament people
of God.'1 We may assume that when the Canaanites took over the spot it was already holy-the site of a
theophany, a place where God appeared to God's people in the ancient past.
There are two positions from which a religious system can be investigated. The first is from
within-as a member of the cultic community and life of the people. Here one sees through the mythic
eyes of the religion-a living and vital religion filled with much wonder and awe--a power that provokes
and answers the deepest and most profound questions of life. The second, is an objective position outside
of the religion. Here observations are made about origins, practices, and observances. It is here that an
1. Kraus, Hans-Joachim. Theology of the Psalms, Fortress Prss, Minneapolis (1992). P. 74.
14
objective appraisal of the cult, mythic framework, and symbology of the religion are examined, producing
a very different picture at times than that seen from within, but no less valid.
Israel, being no different from any other group of people, came into existence over a period of
time. As the nation formed, it brought with it the various traditions, customs, mythic concepts, cultic
practices, and the other characteristics that make up a living community, as it had received them from the
neighboring cultures and from sources deep in its ancient past. It was imperative for Israel's identity that it
be radically different from its neighbors. If Israel was not markedly different from its neighbors, it risked
being absorbed back into the local cultures and religions from which it had grown, losing its distinctive
identity in the region.
The tribes of Israel had a distinct history even before they attained their unique identity. The
tribes came together in two separate units at first. There evolved a confederation of peoples in order to
care for sanctuaries or holy places, and/or for self-defense-and offensive operations against enemies as
well. The pattern that early developed was a confederation of six tribes. They took rounds at the sanctuary
on a lunar month cycle. Some reasons for their coming together were common practices, mythic themes,
and beliefs. They melded together over time and adopted each other's mythic history and the stories and
practices that surrounded them. Eventually Israel evolved as a confederacy of 12 tribes. Hence "outwardly
Israel took the form of an amphictyonic association of tribes similar to the associations that existed
elsewhere in similar historical circumstances."2 They each brought with them their own religious
experiences, mythic systems, and cultic practices.
They were not really tribes but rather clans until the settlement of Canaan and the creation of the
confederacy. Once the land had been settled and the confederacy had come into being, they received the
names that distinguished the areas occupied by each tribe.
There are at least three groups of tribes or clans that ultimately were to make up the confederacy.
These groups included: (1) tribes or clans that were in Egypt and made the Exodus; (2) tribes that were
still semi-nomadic and lived in the steppes; and, (3) those people who were already settled in the land of
Canaan.
The patriarchs and matriarchs form the basis of the people of God, Israel. They are placed in the
Middle Bronze Age [ca. 2000-1500 BCE].3 Abraham, Isaac, Jacob (Israel), Sarah, Rachel, Leah, and
Jacob's 12 sons from whom the 12 tribes took their names make up the patriarchs and matriarchs. There
are a number of questions raised concerning their origins, meaning, and whether or not they are really
historical. The ancestral names of the clans raise a number of questions at the outset. Were they place
2. Noth, Martin. The History of Israel, Harper and Row, New York (1960). p. 110.
3. CE and BCE are designations for Common era also known as AD (Anno Domini) and Before Common Era or BC (Before Christ).
15
names, clan names, or were they even the names of real people? Or is the true origin of these names lost').
Their entrance into Canaan made a deep impact on Israel. There was something natural about
their entering the land and beginning to settle it. This was part of the semi-nomadic migration that brought
a new population to Canaan in the second millennium BCE.
Whatever the answer to the questions that have been posed, the deep and profound importance of
the patriarchs and matriarchs and their stories can not be dismissed or under estimated. Their stories come
through the long history of oral transmission. These are valued more for their theological importance than
for their sociological and historical importance. Through these stories the character of Israel is formed and
portrayed in its formation from the history of the dim past.
The Exodus and the Covenant of Sinai are the most powerful experience in the memory of the
people of God. This experience became the definitive experience that shaped and still shapes the identity
of the people of God. The events of the Exodus and Sinai are founded upon the memory of that portion of
the confederacy whose ancestors experienced this momentous event in their lives, an event so powerful
that it changed their whole way of thinking and experiencing God. The influence of this is so great that it
became the predominant incident in the history of the people of Israel-all 12 tribes. There is no doubt that
this story derived from an actual occurrence in the archaic history of a portion of the people. From this
episode emerged the Covenant with God which placed the people under God's authority. It is grounded in
the historical events of a God who acts in history and calls for the historical renewal of the Covenant
made with the people. This experience becomes substantial and fundamental to the religion which
emerged out of the incident. The pre-Israelite cult of Sinai called its deity by the name YHWH (Yahweh).
The mediator of the Covenant was Moshe (Moses). The theophany on the mountain and giving of the
Law are the decisive events in the pre-Israelite religion. It is this along with the event of Exodus that is
imparted to the confederacy and the religion of Israel.
The location of Sinai is not known. There are a number of mountains and regions that bear the
name and have been declared to be the Holy Mountain. The thought is that the mountain was a volcano
and that YHWH was originally the local god of that volcano.
THE EMERGENCE OF THE NEW RELIGION
There were beliefs that were kept and changed in the emerging religion of Israel. The guiding
principle that was so different from all the previous and surrounding religions was Israel's radical
monotheism. For the first time in the history of the people of the Near East a community arose that
worshipped only one God. This was a radical departure from the rest of the world. (There had been a
16
period in the history of Egypt where this monotheistic tendency had been practiced. Did those ancestral
Israelites lead by Moshe [Moses] bring this with them'?) Here is something NEW!
Israel would devalue the use of magic, and in turn give a deeper and more profound meaning to
the use of sacrifice. The surrounding religious milieu understood their role to be one of manipulating the
deity to provide them with the necessities of life. Hence, the sacred sites were used for fertility rites (the
cult of Aphrodite or Ashteroth, Astertoh), appeasement of the deity (sacrificing of children to Molech),
help and protection from their enemies (some of the Baal cults), etc. Israel's understanding of God (the
God of the Fathers and the God of Sinai) was that God could not be manipulated-magic did not work.
Hence, the Name revealed this: YHWH, the tetragrammaton: I AM.
The cultic use of sacrifice remained a part of Israel's religious observance, but took on a different
meaning from the meaning it had for Israel's neighbors. The sacrifice was part of the covenant, an act of
thanksgiving, and a vehicle to strengthen Israel's bonds with the God of Israel YHWH.
The names of God that played such an important part in the life of Israel were not peculiar to
Israel, but through Israel's specific use of them took, on a different nuance. Israel borrowed names from
the indigenous cults. These names were derived from the Canaanite cults. El was one of the basic names.
This was the generic Semitic name "god". Its root meaning seemed to have been "power." This word in
compound formed the names of God adopted by Israel from the Canaanite cults as designations of its own
God. Could it be that there was no adoption, but that these names were the ancient gods of Canaan and of
those who were to become members of Israel, and they only transferred the name and attributes to the
God of Sinai YHWH? The basic name with adjectives attached gives the following names:
EI-Shaddai: "God, the one of the mountains" (Breasts) or "the big breasted God", i.e., God who
nourishes/provides.
EI-Elyon: "Exalted One"
EI-Olam: "God the everlasting One" or "God of Eternity"
EI-Ro'i: "God who sees me"
From the tribes came not so much a name as a title. The God of the Fathers refers to the
patriarchs and the allegiance that each had to the God of the clan. This becomes embedded in the
tradition as the God of Abraham, the Fear of Isaac, the Mighty One of Jacob.
The holy name, the name above all other names, derived from that moment at Sinai, is YHWH:
the great name that is ineffable. This is the name that Israel adopted as the primary name of its God. This
is the name of God for those who came to Sinai. This is the God of Moshe who led the people from
Egypt. It is thought to be a form of the Hebrew verb "to be." This best fits the new concept of this
religion-that one cannot manipulate the deity. There is no magic in the religion of Israel. This also
provides for the explanation for the "hiddenness of God," the idea that God cannot be seen, cannot be
17
depicted in form. The idea that God is exalted above all finds its origin in the Name. God is transcendent
as well as eminent. We still speak of the Incomprehensible Mystery whom we call God! God's essence is
unknowable. The name provides the explanation of this.4
HISTORY
“In this sacral association it [the Confederation] was subject to a divine law. The constant
proclamation and observance of which was one of the most important, if not the most important task of
the society and its organs and institutions ... It was concerned rather with Israel's relationship to its God
and was intended to safeguard the inviolability of this relationship in every respect. In the law this
relationship appears as a specific and unique commitment for Israel which is not derived merely from the
simple process of gathering round a common central shrine ... What happened was that Israel's own form
of worship, with the shrine of the Ark found a home for itself in an ancient Canaanite place of worship
but was not so bound up with its place that it could not be shifted, if the occasion arose, to another place.”5
The God of Israel is a God who acts in history and historical events. In fact, God becomes the
God of History. History now becomes saving history or Heilsgeschichte. Unlike its neighbors, Israel said
that God is found not in nature, but in the acts of history. Hence, the many statements describing God in
historical acts: "I am the Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt and the house of
bondage."
Israel's cultic practice and cycle of observance (the feasts of Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur,
Pesach, Shuvot, Sukkot) was not a "history-less" practice, but a constant reminder and mythic
participation in the mighty Acts of God and the renewal of the Covenant of Sinai.
The story of the wandering into Egypt, the time of slavery, the Exodus, and part of the tradition of
a segment of the confederacy were all remembered. The name of the leader of the Exodus was Moses
who became synonymous with the Torah and Covenant. The whole adopted this history of the part as the
history of the whole. (This took place in the 13th century BCE).6
CENTRAL CULT
The central cult upon occupation of the land by the Israelites was at Shiloh, although other
4. A note on the name Jehovah: The Hebrew has no vowels only constants. The vowel points were added in the seventh century of the Common
Era in order to preserve the pronunciation of the language. In the fourth century Before the Common Era it became custom not to pronounce the name of
God. Hence it could not be taken in vain. Instead the title Adonai was used, which means LORD. The vowel points for Adonai were used in the
Tetragrammaton to assist the reader to remember to say Adonai. it was in 1530 CE that a Christian first made the mistake of transliterating the letters to
produce the artificial form Jehovah (which is therefore linguistically bastard word), This means the word really does not exist as a true authentic form.
5. Noth, p. 110.
6. A note on the name Moses: Moshe (Moses) is an Egyptian verb form "to be born". This form is often combined with divine titles to form
personal names. Ra-meses is an example of this. The definition ("drawn out of the water") given in Exodus is a popular etymology based on
assonance. Assonance is what a word sounds like, which is different from its formal etymology. This type of definition of words is a very
common practice throughout the Hebrew Scriptures.
18
shrines were tolerated. The Ark of the Covenant was kept at Shiloh. It was here that the sacral association
of the tribes of Israel begins to form into confederations that were to be the nucleus of what was
becoming Israel. This association grew. This initial gathering of tribes formed the nucleus for the tribal
confederation of the 12 tribes, i.e., the people of Israel and their worship of the God of Israel. Under
David the central cult was moved from Shiloh to Jerusalem. The Temple of Jerusalem was built and there
was an attempt to close the outlying cult centers. In time these were closed, leaving only the central cult
site of Jerusalem and the Temple. Under Solomon, the Temple became a beautiful edifice. It was on these
foundations that the Temple of Jesus' day was built. The retaining wall of this final Temple was all that
was left standing following 70 CE.
THE EMERGENCE OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
In the first century the Christian Church and Judaism emerged from the common religion of
Israel. With the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE and the hostility of synagogue towards the Church,
the Church moved into Gentile territory and left behind its original Jewish emphasis. Two communities
emerged from the first century: Rabbinic or Pharisaic Judaism, and Messianic Judaism, or the Christian
Church.
Rabbinic Judaism was the survival of the Pharisee party. With the destruction of the Temple in 70
CE and the consequent end of the cult, the emphasis was now on learning Torah, not the sacrificial cult of
the Temple days. The Pharisaic party which had formed the synagogue system in the Diaspora as well as
in Israel had a ready-made system to fill the void formed with the destruction of the Temple. The
Mishnah and Talmud were the sacred writings that were produced by the Rabbis. These were begun in the
second century CE and not finished until the end of fourth and beginning of the fifth centuries. They
were, in essence, a commentary on the Scripture.
Messianic Judaism was the Christian Church as it emerged out of Israel. In the first century the
Church existed as a sect of Judaism. This was recognized by Rome as well as Judaism itself. The
destruction of the Temple in 70 CE was a major factor in sending the Church forth from Judaism into the
Gentile world as a separate community. It must be remembered that Christianity has its basis in Judaism;
so much so that one may even still refer to it as a sect of Judaism, even though a large sect! Because of
this foundation it has remained extremely difficult if not impossible to have an adequate understanding of
the tradition without a firm understanding of Judaism and the faith milieu in which the church was born.
Originally Jesus and his followers were all Jews and the whole mission was a Jewish one. With
the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE the community was pushed out and into the Gentile community so
19
that by 100 CE there was little contact left with Judaism. Yet, the whole foundation of the Christian
tradition was based on Judaism and Jewish theology. There were differences from Judaism that would
evolve as the church moved out into the Gentile Greek world. As a Jewish sect, Christianity it took its
name from the title given to the hoped for redeemer of Israel. Meshiach (ç—éLØîÈ) which translates into
English as Messiah (Christ, ×ñéóôüò) was the title given to the itinerant Jewish Rabbi. Rabbi Yehshua
ben Joseph (Jeshua ben Joseph) was perceived as the Messiah by his followers. In Greek Christos was the
translation of the Hebrew from which Christ was derived in English. Both the Hebrew, Meshiach (ç—éLØîÈ)
and Greek, Christos (×ñéóôüò), mean "the Anointed One." This term was also used of prophets, priests,
and kings in the history of Israel.
In the first century, the organizational structure evident in today's church began to evolve. But
this governance was different from the parent: bishops, presbyters, deacons not high priests, priests,
Levites. Each of these offices was secular offices, not ecclesial ones. The church also kept and maintained
a set of sacred writings. These sacred writings were the scriptures of Israel in the two existing canons of
the times: the Hebrew canon and the Greek canon. In both cases there was still a fluid nature to the canon.
The first day of the week became the day of worship, the Lord's Day.7 This terminology was in direct
relation to the theology of the Eighth Day of Creation when God recreates the world. As the act of
initiation into the community the church adopted baptism. Baptism as a practice was already old by Jesus'
time.
There were major external and internal influences shaping the evolution of the church. The
internal issues were first, the delay of the Parousia or immediate return of Jesus, and second, Gnostic and
Docetic issues. From the time of the crucifixion of Jesus, there had been the expectation of his return, not
just in the resurrection, but as an eschatological event. It was with great expectation that the first
generation of the church looked toward the completed reign of the Christ in the Kingdom of God. At this
moment all would be completed and accomplished. This did not happen! It kept being put off. Even in
Paul we observed a move from immediate to a later expectation of the Parousia. By the second and third
generations there had to be provisions made to deal with an indefinite delay. This came partly in dealing
with theological issues and partly dealing with organization.
Another factor in the first 300 years of the church was keeping the faith intact, particularly while
it was influenced by other theologies, such as Gnostic and Docetic thought. Gnostic referred to secret
knowledge that one acquired usually through secret religious teachings that were deemed salvific. Docetic
7.
The theology of the Eighth Day of Creation played a significant part in the understanding of the celebration of the Day of Resurrection. The
Epistle of Barnabas (cir. 70-130 CE) explicitly applies the theology of the Eighth Day as the reason for Christians celebrating the
Resurrection on Sunday instead of Saturday. Barnabas 15.8-9. This is also contained in and mentioned by Justin Martyr in Trypho 51.4.
20
referred to what seems to be ghostlike or an apparition. Thus Docetists believed that Jesus only appeared
to be, but was not actually, human. Both of these were characterized by a dualistic anthropology, and
philosophical understanding of the world, i.e., Good vs. Evil. It was the logical conclusion of a notion that
declares that the physical/material was evil and that spiritual/sold was good. Hence Jesus was not really
crucified, because he was not really a human being, but only appeared to be human. To be human was to
partake of evil, and because Jesus was good then he could not be material/physical. Both of these heresies
also affected early Christian theology and caused a great deal of controversy, leading to the formation of
creedal statements designed to clarify right doctrine.
External influences were centered in the persecution of the church by the civil government. The
declaration that the Christian Church and her members were enemies of the state was a strong factor in
the shaping of the organization and development of the faith of the new community. Roman culture was
very inclusive when it came to religion. The newness and monotheism of Christianity did not fit into the
Roman system. Hence, Christians were viewed as subversive enemies of all that was "Roman."
The church responded by developing three main stays of the structure of the life of the church.
The first was the formation of the government of the church that consisted of bishops, priests, and
deacons. A system of government was developed that strengthened the church to withstand the pressures
of persecution through strong leaders and leadership. Second, was formation of the Baptismal Creed.
During this time the evolution of the Baptismal Creed as the regula fidei began to take shape: from "Jesus
is Lord" to "Do you believe in God the Father?" " I believe in God the Father Almighty creator of Heaven
and Earth." And third, the writings that were to become the New Testament begin to be written and
collected.
The development of the New Testament canon is less complicated than that of the Old Testament.
The time span of the writings is compressed within one century. The New Testament is comprised of
gospels, letters, history, and apocalyptic writing.
The New Testament does not come into a coherent whole as we know it until the third and fourth
centuries CE. We can trace the development of the use of the New Testament books through the Church
Fathers and others who quoted or alluded to them in their writings. The Apostolic Fathers span the years
from 90 CE to 175 CE, and are important witnesses to the development of various aspects of Christianity.
The criteria for determining the canonicity of the writings that make up the New Testament were
principally three. First was conformity to what was called the "rule of faith" or regula fidei. This simply
meant "congruity of a given document with the basic Christian tradition recognized as normative by the
21
Church.'8 Second, the book had to be written by an Apostle or a close associate of an Apostle, i.e., Mark
with Peter and Luke with Paul. Third, the extended length and wide acceptance of a particular book by the
church at large. That means that a book in long use by the great majority of the church would be
considered part of the canon.
8. Bruce Metzger. The Canon of the New Testament, p. 251.
22
FOR FURTHER READING
On the Canon:
J. Kugel and R. Greet. "The Christian Bible and It's Interpretation", Early Biblical Interpretation.
Westminster Press, Philadelphia (1986).
Richardson, Cyril. Early Christian Fathers. Collier Books, New York (1970).
On the Old Testament:
Boadt, Lawrence. Reading the Old Testament, Paulist Press (1984).
On the Intertestamental Period:
Russell, D.S. The Jews from Alexander to Herod, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1967).
On the New Testament:
Perrin, Norman and Dennis C. Dulling. The New Testament: An Introduction, 2nd Ed. Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich (1982).
23
CHAPTER II
INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE:
ITS ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
The word Bible means "a collection of books". Hence, the Bible is not a book, but a whole library
of books. St. John Chrysostom (c. 347--407 CE), Patriarch of Constantinople, is the "first writer who gave
the Bible its present name ta biblia (ôN âéâëßá), The Books."9 Their contents extend over nearly three
thousand years of history. Yet, this history goes back even further in time. "Almost 2,000 years separate
us from the NT events, and more than 3,500 from the earliest in the OT. Over these centuries the biblical
witness has been transmitted to us, first by word of mouth, then in writing; first in small units, then in
individual books, eventually in collections of books, and finally in the canon we know today."10 The history of the transmission of the many and varied units that makeup the sources that became consolidated
into the Hebrew Scriptures is a patchwork study of the history of the religions of the Near East. The
written parts that came to compose the Bible have a long history of transmission, much of it lost in
antiquity. This history begins before the earliest moments of the worshipers of Yahweh extending back
into the pre- Yahwistic religions.
As with all religions, that of ancient Israel borrowed from the neighboring religions that
surrounded them and influenced them, as well as from the religious traditions from which they came. The
origins and creation of sacred texts begins long before there is knowledge of writing. The origins of the
stories are lost in the mists of pre-history. The stories told to the ancient people who were to become
Israel give them their identity and a sense of meaning and purpose. It would be ages before someone
would write down these stories, and even more time for their transmission and transformation into their
final forms. These final forms would be the written texts forming the basis of the final expression of the
sacred scriptures. It is the study of the transmission of the text that we will be concerned with in the first
part of this study of the formation of the Bible.
The term canon is from the Greek (êáíüí). It is derived from a Semitic root that meant "reed,"
and hence came to refer to a rule or standard.11 It is applied to several different ecclesial concepts, but is
9. Bruce Metzger. The Canon of the New Testament, 1989, p. 214.
10. The Interpreter’s One Volume Commentary on the Bible, Abingdon Press, Nashville (1971), p. 1225.
11. Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 1, Abingdon Press, Nashville (1962), p. 498.
24
used primarily today in describing the Scripture (strictly speaking the list of books themselves), the
Eucharistic Prayer in the liturgy, and the corpus of legal rules that govern the life of the church, the
canons.
II. HISTORY OF THE CANON-OLD TESTAMENT
The history of the canon of the Old Testament is e history of the collection of the written
expression of the living faith of Israel-the people of God. It becomes the collective memory of the
experience of God's presence among us, and our experience of God's Grace and graciousness towards us
and all peoples. The development of the canon is the history of the process of God's people sifting and
choosing from among the many writings those which most accurately expressed their experience and
faith. Thus, the Scripture is the "Church's Book." It occurs after the fact not before. That is, the Bible is
written after the facts, after the call and disobedience and forgiveness and grace and experience of God in
the life of the People of God.
None of the writings set down with their becoming scripture in mind. A writing became a part of
the canon only if it was read and used in the cultus/liturgy of the people.12 As a writing became part of the
worship life of Israel, this was seen as an indication that it reflected the corporate identity of Israel. It told
the story that formed the identity of the People of God. There were fundamental truths that it preserved
for and conveyed to each new generation. These truths were so succinctly and fundamentally exhibited
that the writing was called inspired, or breathed into by the Spirit. (This term applied to preachers,
theologians, and councils as well. Hence, the notion of inspiration was only a step in the process of
canonization. It was further used of art, poetry, discoveries, and other writings.) The work became part of
the larger whole that in turn may be called the corporate memory of the People of God. The canon of the
Bible is not a monolithic structure determined by some divine fiat.
There are basically eight canons, five of which represent the Christian Tradition. They range in
age from just before the common era to just after the Reformation. They include not only the Jewish and
Christian, but also that of the Samaritans as well, of which there are still alive a little less than a thousand.
The first three canons represent the Jewish Scriptures from various perspectives. The Palestinian
Canon comprises the Hebrew Canon of 24 books. The council of Rabbis meeting in Jamnia in 90-100 CE
set this canon. This means that the Canon of Torah (the Teachings) and Nabi'im (the Prophets) was
acknowledged and confirmed, while the Kituvim (the Writings) were delineated. It was a couple of
centuries before this would be fully enjoined on all Jews. This was close to the canon that Jesus knew in
the synagogue, but not exactly. The Kituvim were still fluid in his day.
12. Interpreter’s One Volume, p. 1209.
25
The Samaritan Canon is older than the Palestinian and represents an earlier stage of the canonical
development. The Samaritan Canon consists of the Torah (five books) and Joshua. This canon was
determined by the separation of the Samaritans from the Jews in 432 BCE. This also dates the latest
possible date for the Torah or Pentateuch, because it had to already be canon by the time of this
separation. The third canon was the Alexandrian Jewish Canon which consists of the 39 books of the
Septuagint, symbolized by the Roman numerals LXX, which began with the translation of the Pentateuch
into Greek around 250 BCE. These were the canons of the sacred texts that were in use by the end of the
first century of the Common Era among the Jews.
The Christian Canon of the Hebrew Scriptures, which the church referred to by the designation of
the Scriptures, was the Septuagint (LXX) plus or minus thirty-nine books in number. The Hebrew Canon
was the list used primarily in Palestine. The Septuagint (LXX) was the list originating in Alexandria and
used in Greek- speaking communities of the Diaspora. The canon of Jesus and his disciples was the
Hebrew Scriptures to be given final form in 90 CE at the Council of Jamnia. The canon of Paul and the
Greek-speaking church was the LXX which was to be the basis for the church's Old Testament, as the
move from being based in Judaism to the Gentile Greek-speaking community became more definite.
The order of the list of books contained in the various Christian canons all differ from the order of
the books as contained in the Hebrew listing of Tanak. [This is the acronym used by the Jews to denote
the Bible. It is composed of the first letters of the three parts of the canon: Torah (äøBú), Nebi'im
(íéàéáð), Ketuvim (íáeúë).] At the same time there is a slight difference in the list order between
these. In the ancient manuscripts, the order of the books follow different patterns depending on the
manuscript and manuscript family of which a particular manuscript is a part.
There are five lists or canons in the Christian tradition. First, the Orthodox or Eastern Church uses
the LXX plus the 151st Psalm and 3rd Maccabees as the Old Testament. Second, the Slavonic Church,
which is part of the ancient Eastern Church, uses the LXX plus the 151st Psalm and 3rd and 4th Maccabees
with 1st and 2nd Esdras in an appendix. The third list is the Roman Catholic Church or Western Church,
having the 46 books of the LXX. "In Roman Catholic editions the Old Testament contains the rearranged
thirty-nine books of the Hebrew Scriptures plus seven others that are current in the official Latin Vulgate
Bible .... The order of these forty six books in Vulgate manuscripts varies greatly; in fact, the manuscripts
that have been examined disclose more than two hundred different ways of arranging the books.'13 The
following list is that of the Protestant churches which are the initial products of the Reformation and the
Reformation tradition and those churches which have splintered off from the Reformation churches
maintain as their canon of the Old Testament the Hebrew list excluding the Apocrypha. This is the one
13. The New Oxford Annotated Bible, Bruce M. Metzger and Roland E. Murphy eds., Oxford University Press, New Y9ork (1991), p. xi.
26
most familiar to non-Roman Catholics. "In the Protestant editions of the Bible the Old Testament follows
the Hebrew text as regards content, but the books in the second and third divisions are rearranged in
sequence and several are divided, making a total of thirty-nine."14 The fifth list is the Anglican, using the
Hebrew list in the Protestant order and number of books, plus a separate section of books designated as
the Apocrypha. Apocryphal books are to be read for edification but not doctrine, and thus are referred to
as "semi-canonical." The Apocrypha is collected together and usually placed between the Testaments.
Three languages make up the ancient texts of the Old Testament. The Hebrew, a Semitic
language, was already a dead language by the time of Jesus. It was the liturgical language of the
synagogue, however, and is still the liturgical language of the synagogue today. Aramaic is the second
language of the Old Testament, and is also a Semitic language. It is a close relative to Hebrew, as Italian
is to Latin. This was the everyday language of Jesus and is still spoken in some places. The third
language of the Old Testament is Greek, the language of the Septuagint. Greek was the language of
commerce and the world in Jesus' time. Scholars of the Jewish community translated the Septuagint in
Alexandria, Egypt.
The division of the Hebrew Scriptures (24 books) is tripartite.15 The first is the Torah (äøBú) Instruction, Learning, Teachings (Law) (587-500 BCE). The books of the Torah are consisting of
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. The second is the Nebi'im (íéàéáð) or Prophets
(587-500 BCE), comprised of Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) and the Latter Prophets.
The Latter Prophets are further divided into Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) and Minor
Prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah,
Malachi). The third part is the Ketuvim (íáeúë) or Writings (600-165 BCE) consisting of 13 books.
These are divided into Poetry (Psalms, Proverbs, Job), the Five Scrolls (Song of Solomon, Ruth,
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther), prophecy (Daniel) and history (Ezra and Nehemiah, I-II Chronicles).
The age of the books of the Bible vary varies by book and by individual parts of books. The
oldest book in its present form is Amos, which dates from around 750 BCE. The oldest writings and parts
are poetic. These are the following with their dates: Exod. 15, Judg. 5, and Ps. 29 (twelfth century BCE);
Gen. 49, Deut. 33, and the poetic portions of Num. 2324 (eleventh century BCE); I Sam. 2, II Sam. I, II
Sam. 22, II Sam. 23.1-7, and Ps. 2 (tenth century BCE); and Deut. 32 and Pss. 68, 72, and 77 (ninth
century BCE). The latest book to be written is Daniel, dating from 165 BCE.
The Council of Jamnia was thought to be responsible for setting the definitive limits of the
14. Oxford Annotated Bible, p. xxi.
15. Georg Fohrer. Introduction to the Old Testament, Abingdon Press, Nashville, (1968), p. 482n.
27
Hebrew Scriptures. The rabbis met in Jamnia between 90 - 100 CE and closed the canon of the Hebrew
Scriptures. This now became the "authorized" canon of the Jewish people. It excluded the books that were
not extant in Hebrew but only Greek and those books which were thought to have been written after the
age of prophets: 400 BCE. Several centuries elapsed before this was standard for all of the Diaspora.
The division of the text into chapters did not occur until well into the Middle Ages. Stephen
Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, was the person who divided the books into chapters in 1205. He did
this to the Latin Vulgate. Rabbi Solomon ben Ishmael borrowed Langton's divisions for the Hebrew
manuscript. The enumeration of the verses began in 1563, first with the Psalter, then with the whole of the
Old Testament in 1571.16 The Geneva Bible was the first to use numbered verses.
COMPOSITION OF THE PENTATEUCH OR TORAH
The substrata of writings that comprise the Torah are referred to by the name of God used or
theological position or office. The names of God used are the Jahwist - Yahwist (äåäé) - designated by J.
The writing of J is dated around 950 BCE. The second author is designated the Elohist (íäGà) and
represented by E., The Elohist is generally believed to have written around 900-750 BCE. The
Deuteronomic, designated as a D and writing around 725 BCE, is the theological position, while the
priestly author, designated as P, wrote in 600 BCE and refers to the office. These strands of writings came
together to form a whole. One might envision different tribes and clusters of tribes who had similar
traditions coming together and combining them into one common tradition. The Yahwist is the oldest
strata, which is melded with the work of the Elohist. This melded writing forms the most basic and
primitive of the literary levels of the Pentateuch, and examples of this writing are found in chapters 2-5 of
Genesis. Deuteronomy represents the major work of the Deuteronomic writer, and the priestly writer is
responsible for bringing these strands together while some writings his own. The first chapter of Genesis
is a prime example of priestly material. The dates of these writers extend over a period of 400 years.
THE APOCRYPHA
The Apocrypha (also known as the deuterocanonical books) is part of the Roman Catholic and
Greek Orthodox canons of Scripture. It is part of the appointed lectionary references and readings in the
Anglican Church. "Modern scholarship has broken down the sharp division between the Old Testament
and the Apocrypha, and it might be a good thing if Anglicans were to adopt the Roman Catholic
designation of the apocryphal books as 'deuterocanonical'. We read them and value them, but they have a
16. Georg Fohrer. p. 501.
28
secondary position, being used only to reinforce the doctrines of the proto-canonical books."17
The place of the Apocrypha in the present canon varies. They are presently separated from the
Hebrew Canon and placed between the Testaments in the Anglican and Protestant editions. In the Roman
Catholic and Orthodox editions of the Bible they remain in their historical places as separate books or
parts of canonical books. Among the Protestants they are usually not included in their Bibles.
During the 17th century it was English law that the Apocrypha be printed and bound in those
editions of the Bible published in England. Those printers with Puritan sympathies did not follow this in
many cases.
The Apocrypha was written between 200 BCE and 200 CE, and contains the following list of
Books: I Esdras, I-III Maccabees, Tobit, Judith, the Prayer of Manasseh, additions to Daniel, additions to
Esther, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah, Ecclesiasticus or Jesus ben Sirach, and the Wisdom of Solomon.
The Eastern Canon also contains IV Maccabees and II Esdras.
THE PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
Those writings, which have never been part of any official canon but form the matrix in which
some of the canonical writings were formed, are religious writings of the period referred to as
Pseudepigrapha. These are religious writings of the time, and are interesting to read, but do not appear in
most cases to be of the same stature as the sacred text. They have never been considered canonical.
Copies of some of the complete texts and many fragments of writings exist, numbering 65 in all.
They date from 200 BCE to 200 CE. There are always possibilities that more will be found through the
science of Archeology. The latest translation of the Pseudepigrapha is a two volume set: The Old
Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vols. 1 & 2, James H. Charlesworth, ed.; Doubleday, New York: 1983,
1985. These are very important documents for the understanding of the development of Judaism and
emerging Christianity. Along with the Apocrypha they shed light on the theological issues, ideas, and
strands that evolved into Christianity. Quoting R.H. Charles who published a collection of the
Pseudepigrapha at the turn of the century, Charlesworth notes: "Without the Apocrypha and
Pseudepigrapha (and we would add other documents recovered since his time, notably the Dead Sea
Scrolls) "it is absolutely impossible to explain the causes of religious development between 200 BC and
AD 100."18
17. Stephen Sykes and John Booty, eds., The Study of Anglicanism, Fortress Press, (1988) p. 85.
18. Charlesworth, p. xxix.
29
HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
The development of the New Testament canon is less complicated than that of the Old Testament.
The time span of the writings is compressed within one century. The same principle of liturgical use is
operative in the development of the New Testament canon as it is in the Hebrew canon. "Although we
cannot speak of any regular reading aloud or of a lectionary system, it can yet be asserted that the
Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and above all the epistles of the apostles were read aloud, and that these
texts were exchanged and also used in public worship. This reading aloud of the Scriptures must,
however, be distinguished from canonization, although here we do have before us a first step towards
that.''19' The Apostolic Fathers and the Post-Apostolic Fathers represent the second and third generations
of the church. The Apostolic Fathers span the years from 90 CE to 150 CE and are important witnesses to
the development of various aspects of Christianity, including the evolving collection of sacred writings.
From their writings can be traced the use and development of the collection of books that will form the
New Testament. The post-Apostolic Fathers are from ISO CE to 250 CE, they in turn express the
developments and issues surrounding the evolution of the church. Justin Martyr reports, around 150 CE,
that in the midst of the liturgy that they read from the Memoirs of the Apostles, i.e. the Gospels.
For these first four centuries the official and authoritative Christian Scriptures was the Septuagint
(LXX) or Greek translation of the Old Testament. The writings that were to become known as the New
Testament were used as explication of the Scriptures. It might be said that the New Testament was a
commentary on the Scriptures for the Christian Church, much the same as the Mishnah and Talmud were
commentaries on the Scriptures for the Judaism that emerged from the first century Common Era along
with the Christian Church, both having their origins in the Judaism which knew the Temple and its
destruction in 70 CE.
The criteria for determining the canonicity of the writings that make up the New Testament were
principally three. First, there was conformity to what was called the "rule of faith" or regula fidei. This
simply meant "congruity of a given document with the basic Christian tradition recognized as normative
by the Church."20 Second, the book had to be written by an Apostle or a close associate of an Apostle, i.e.,
Mark with Peter and Luke with Paul. Third, extended length and wide acceptance of a particular book by
the church at large was determinative. This means, that a book in long use by the great majority of the
church would be considered part of the canon. Unlike the Old Testament with its varied canons, the
canon of the New Testament is the same for the whole church. There are not the differences within the
community concerning what is included here as there are over the Old Testament.
19. Edgar Hennecke, (William Scheemeicher Ed.), R.McL. Wilson, Translator. New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. One. The Westminster Press,
Philadelphia (1963), p. 31.
20. Bruace Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament, p. 251.
30
The New Testament did not come into a coherent whole as we know it until the third and fourth
centuries CE. We can trace the development of the use of the New Testament books through the Church
Fathers and others who quoted or alluded to them in their writings. In the evolution of the canon of the
New Testament there are several matters of note. First, from the many writings that were available over
the several centuries of formation of the canon there came to be the distinction between the Canonical and
the Apocryphal. The second matter of note is that "on the whole the Latin Church drew earlier than did
the Eastern Church a sharp dividing line between what was canonical and what was non-canonical, i.e.,
between what was ecclesiastical and what was to be rejected as heretical."21 The writings considered
apocryphal were of three levels: those written at the same time as the canonical writings and before the
formation of the canon, those written during the formation of the canon and in opposition to the canonical
books, and those written after the formation of the canon and in opposition to the canon, hence
presupposing the canon.22 It is to be noted that the Apostolic and post-Apostolic Fathers were sometimes
listed under the title of Apocrypha, but this designation did not prevail. They have remained in high
regard throughout the history of the church as witnesses to the second and third generations of the church.
The Epistles of Paul were the first parts of the New Testament to be written. They were composed
between 40 CE and 60 CE. These were letters written principally to congregations, most of which he
founded. One letter was to an individual. Their composition was as letters, hence without the various
steps that comprise the evolution of the Gospels. Further, they were not composed with any thought that
they would be scripture. This goes for all the writings that make up the Bible. It would only be a later age
that would designate them as "canon."
The four Gospels were composed between 70 CE and 90 CE. Oral tradition played a large part in
keeping the story alive in the first and into the second century. In the first two centuries, there circulated
within the Christian community, an oral tradition of Jesus' sayings and of stories about Jesus. We pick up
some of the "sayings material" throughout the writings, both those that were to become canonical, and the
Fathers. In the Acts of the Apostles the saying of Jesus "It is more blessed to give than to receive" was
one such example of the oral sayings of Jesus tradition moving into the written tradition. These sayings
were highly respected, and the oral tradition itself was understood as authoritative by those of the first two
centuries.
Papias of Hierapolis, one of the Apostolic fathers, writes between 100 and 180 CE. He appealed
to tradition and said that the "traditions of the elders" (an oral tradition of the sayings of Jesus) were of
primary importance. Papias did not use the term "gospel." "Even in their written form, these traditions
21. Hennecke, p. 41.
22. Hennecke, p. 41-2.
31
about Jesus and of Jesus' words do not carry any greater authority than that which was transmitted orally.
The written Gospels' authority is assured by the same technical terms which had been established for the
oral tradition."23 Even by Papias' time the Gospels carried the names of the apostolic authors, which
assured their veracity. This was in line with the same principle operative in the oral tradition. "These
names, which already guaranteed the trustworthiness of the oral tradition, are now used to assure the
faithfulness of the written documents.”24 The oral tradition remained in effect until the death of the
Apostles and those of the first generation of the church. It was now important that as the eye witnesses
died, that the words of Jesus be written down, thus preserving them. "Later, when the oral tradition was
no longer directly at the disposal of the Church through the first generation of Jesus' disciples, and when
the expansion of the Church made such an oral tradition to appear inadequate, of necessity 'attested'
writings concerning Jesus and His work took its place."25
Quelle (German for "Source") is referred to as "Q" in the discussion of the hypotheses that a
primitive written document lies behind the composition of the Gospels. This document is thought to have
been a collection of Jesus' sayings without narrative. This is thought to be the source from which the
writers gathered their Jesus sayings material that was set into the matrix of the stories about Jesus in the
Gospels. It is believed that Mark was the first Gospel composed and that Luke and Matthew based their
writing on his. They also brought to their writings the common "Q" material as well as material peculiar
to each of them. They edited and used the information at hand to produce their Gospel. Because of the
similarity between the three they are known as the Synoptic Gospels.
The Gospel of John comes out of its own community, and thus it is different from the Synoptics.
"It may resemble the Synoptic Gospels because of the use of a passion narrative; but its presentation of
Jesus' miracles as divine epiphanies and its transformation of the sayings into revelation discourses hardly
fits the definition of the genre of the gospel developed on the basis of the Gospel of Mark."26 Raymond
Brown proposes that the Gospel of John was written in five consecutive stages, and that its origin is Syria.
He contends that the first stage was composed around 40 CE and the final stage not later than 100 CE.27 It
is generally thought that Mark was written in Rome around 65 CE; Matthew written in Jerusalem around
80 CE; Luke written in Antioch around 80 CE; and that John was written in Ephesus around 90 CE. The
remaining writings were composed between 90 CE and 120 CE.
The writings were transmitted by handwritten copy, and thus shared between congregations and
regional groups of churches. One congregation would have a copy of one of Paul's letters and a second
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Helmut Koester, Ancient Christian Gospel, SCM Press (1990), p. 33.
Koester, p. 33.
Hennecke, pp. 29-30.
Koester, p. 45.
Raymond Brown. The Gospel According to John I-XXI. The Anchor bible, Vol 29, Doubleday, New York (1966), pp. LXXXII-LXXXIII.
32
congregation would have a different letter. They then traded copies so that each would now have two
copies of Paul's letters. In a very short time the four Gospels and 10 of Paul's epistles became the common
property of most of the church, plus Hebrews and some of the Apostolic Fathers.
Marcion is the first to compile a "New Testament" in 150 CE. He abridges the Gospel of Luke of
all positive references to "God as the Creator of the world," and collects 10 of Paul's epistles, which he
abridges as he did Luke, creating his "Christian Bible." The church responded swiftly and severely by
condemning the collection and declaring him to be a heretic, subject to excommunication.
Marcion's activity compelled the church to do two things. First, there was the swift and firm
affirmation that the Scriptures are the Old Testament and are essential to the life of the church. Second, a
definite move towards collecting a set of scriptures of the Christian tradition of equal merit with the Old
Testament began to move swiftly.
Concerning the order in which writings were considered as authoritative, and hence the beginning
of the formation of the canon, is analogous and similar to the formation of the canon of the Old Testament
in its tripartite evolution. The Gospels seem to have been recognized first as authoritative and then the
Pauline epistles.28 There is reason to believe that only one Gospel was in use in some churches long
before the canon was finally settled. It appears that only the Gospel according to Matthew was at all
widely read in Palestine, that there were churches in Asia Minor that used only the Gospel according to
John from the outset. Mark and Luke were also used in their special areas. The development and growth
of the New Testament canon came in stages. "The history of the NT can be divided into 3 main steps: (a)
the rise of Christian literature to the status of scripture, to be treated as in some sense authoritative, a step
for which there appear to have been no criteria other than circulation and authority parallel to that of the
OT; (b) the conscious grouping of Christian writings into closed collections such as the 4-fold gospel, the
Pauline collection, and the Catholic letters; (c) canonization proper, wherein the concern is not simply the
acceptability of particular books but the formation of a NT list, a closed canon."29
The, canon as proposed by Eusebius of Caesarea (265-340 CE) in his Ecclesiastical History, was
divided into those books accepted and undisputed by all, those books disputed by some, those accepted by
a few, and those accepted by none. The Apocalypse of John remains in question, some accepting, some
rejecting it. The Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter of Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria (367 CE) listed the 27
books which were accepted as the New Testament and formed the final definitive canon. This was early
accepted by, and representative of, the canon in the West, while the East remained unsettled until the
tenth century. "The year 367 marks, thus, the first time that the scope of the New Testament canon is
28. Metzger, p. 251.
29. Leymon, p. 1217.
33
declared to be exactly the twenty-seven books accepted today as canonical. But not everyone in the
Church was ready to follow the opinion of the bishop of Alexandria.'30 The Apocalypse of John remained
the most controversial candidate for the canon. This remained the case well into the tenth century. It is to
be noted that "The lower status of the Book of Revelation in the East is indicated also by the fact that it
has never been included in the official lectionary of the Greek Church, whether Byzantine or modern."31
The whole process of the creation of a canon is a fluid one, not smooth and clean cut. "If the
Latin Church finally accepted twenty-seven books as the canonical New Testament by the fifth century,
the Greek Church apparently was not thoroughly convinced about the canonicity of one book, Revelation,
until about the tenth century."32 The Synod of Carthage (397 CE) set forth a list of the 27 books which are
the New Testament. This was following the work of the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (393
CE). The work of this synod has been lost, but Carthage offered a brief summary of the acts of that synod.
THE NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA
Many of the writings that are known as the New Testament Apocrypha were written in the
Gnostic circles and were written to be rivals of the canonical texts. On the other hand there were some
writings which were from the Church Fathers and were held in high esteem by the church. These were
mentioned in the various catalogues of the church and were not intended to be discarded as the spurious
writings were. 'The early canon catalogues know the writings about which we are here concerned in great
part merely as 'extra-canonical' or as 'disputed' or as 'writings which are to be read aloud not in the Church
but in the presence of catechumens'33
None of the Apocrypha were included in the official canon of the New Testament by the whole
church. This was the major difference between the Old Testament Apocrypha and the New Testament
Apocrypha. Actually, the New Testament Apocrypha holds the same place and status as the
Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. In fact this title would be much more suitable and descriptive of
these writings than the frequently confusing title, "Apocrypha.”
The churches of the Anglican Communion do not, and have not, considered Scripture to be
inerrant or infallible. If this notion of inerrant and infallible were proposed or maintained, then one would
have to ask, "Which canon'?" Further, if one would maintain that the originals were inerrant or infallible,
then the question becomes moot, because we have no originals! Anglicanism has from the beginning held
that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation." The Seventh Article (of Anglicanism's
historic Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion) further pronounces that the Old Testament is of prime
30.
31.
32.
33.
Metzger, p. 212.
Metzger., p. 217.
Charlesworth, p. xxiii.
Hennecke, p. 24.
34
importance. "The Old Testament is not contrary to the New: for both in the Old and New Testament
everlasting life is offered to Mankind by Christ, who is the only Mediator between God and Man, being
both God and Man."
The 19th century proved to be a pivotal point in the understanding of the relationship between
religion and science. The impact of the new sciences, the work of Charles Darwin in the Origin of the
Species, and the application of literary textual criticism or higher criticism to the Scriptures, caused a
revolution in thinking, the impact of which has yet to be fully settled. The Protestants and the Roman
Catholics responded with declarations of infallibility. The Protestants declared the Bible to be infallible
(their canon of course) and the Roman Catholic Church under Vatican I declared the Pope to be infallible
on matters of faith and morals. The more radical American Protestants formed the Fundamentalist
Movement in the latter quarter of the 19th century. By the turn of the century Fundamentalism was
sweeping across the country and would soon make itself felt in other parts of the world.
Meanwhile the Anglican response was much different from both the Protestant and Roman
Catholic extremes. The Lambeth Conference of Bishops meeting in 1897 took up the issue of higher
criticism of the Bible. In their pastoral letter of that year they made the following declaration. "We pass
on to the consideration of the standards of all our teaching, the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer.
The critical study of the Bible by competent scholars is essential to the maintenance in the Church of a
healthy faith. That faith is already in serious danger which refuses to face questions that may be raised
either on the authority or the genuineness of any part of the Scriptures that have come down to us. Such
refusal creates painful suspicion in the minds of many whom we have to teach, and will weaken the
strength of our own convictions of the truth that God has revealed to us. A faith which is always or often
attended by a secret fear that we dare not inquire lest inquiry should lead us to results inconsistent with
what we believe, is already infected with a disease which may soon destroy it."34 This openness to inquiry
and the need to search for truth in all things, even at the risk of requiring us to change our beliefs as new
truths are revealed, is part of the foundation of the Anglican expression of the Christian faith.
The Scripture, like all things in the church, is a treasure in earthen vessels. God continues to work
through the most fallible to proclaim and demonstrate his grace! The Anglican tradition has maintained
that Reason, Tradition, and Scripture alike must be operative. No one of these principles by itself is
sufficient for the life of the church or the individual.
34. Randall T. Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury, Complier. The Lambeth Conference of 1897, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
London (1907) p. 30.
35
FOR FURTHER READING
Borsch, Frederick Houk, Editor. Anglicanism and the Bible. Morehouse Barlow, Wilton [1984].
McDonald, Lee Martin. The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon. Abingdon Press, Nashville
[1989].
Sanders, James A. Canon and Community. Fortress Press, Philadelphia [1984].
Randall T. [)'1Vidson. Archbishop of Canterbury. Complier. The Lambeth Conference of 1897. Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge. London (1907) p. 30.
36
CHAPTER III
HISTORY OF THE EARLY CHURCH FROM 30 - 1000 CE
This short chapter on the early history of the Christian Church is far from adequate as any indepth study of this rich and varied history. The purpose of this chapter is not to provide such an in-depth
look at the history and people of the early church, but to provide a timeline or succession of events in
order to set in mind the proper perspective of history. One of the vital elements lacking in much of
education today is the sense of history and historical movement. This is a lacuna that places us on
precarious ground when trying to interpret the events of the day.
The church emerged from the first century as a growing force in its own right. The nascent
Messianic Judaism was now the Christian Church. It was predominantly Gentile, not Jewish. It was
composed of a cross section of the society from the very wealthy educated to the very poor and
uneducated, and even to those in slavery. It was a secret society that raised the suspicions of the Roman
government. Only selected guests were invited to be at the gatherings and hear the Scriptures, memoirs of
the Apostles, and the early apostolic preaching. Yet, even they were not allowed to stay for the prayers,
the Breaking of Bread, and fellowship. The heart of the community was secret, although there were leaks
about what went on during those secret meetings.
Early on, the church was outlawed, and it was a capital offense to be a Christian. Although
persecution was not general, but primarily local, it was fierce. The lives of men, women, and children
were sacrificed in the arena, on crosses, and through brutality, all in the name of Christ. The accusations
hurled against them were that they were cannibals. They ate flesh and drank blood. Surely they were the
most horrible of people. It was not long until they were accused of killing babies for this purpose. Then
there was the matter of incest. This seemed rather obvious because they called each other brother, sister,
and father. They greeted each other with the Holy Kiss. The meetings were secret, so one could only
wonder and imagine what went on in them.
Then there was the matter of the proper homage to the religion of Rome. These Christians would
not offer the proper sacrifice to Caesar and the gods of Roman life. This was surely evidence that they
were also atheists. They did not believe in the national religion and its great part it played in the life of the
Roman people. This was a threat to the security of the empire, and thus they were also a security risk.
37
Authority and unity characterized the second century of the life of the church, and a further set of
emphases arose. The internal threats of Gnosticism and Docetism were still present, and there was some
coming to terms with the delay of the Parousia, and the vision of the church was pointing toward the
future and the need for stability. Emerging from this period was Scripture and organization. Many
writings emerged, some were to become Scripture, others were produced by the peripheral community,
who later were to be called heretic, and some which were non-canonical yet produced by those who were
representative of the Christian Church. Of this last category, a number of the writings have been
preserved, and some from those called the Apostolic Fathers, whose were writings were revered.
The Apostolic Fathers consisted of those Christian leaders who made up the third generation of
the Christian Church. They included St. Clement of Rome, who wrote the First Letter of Clement of
Rome (93-97 CE), The Second Letter of Clement of Rome c. 160 CE (an anonymous sermon; refers to
the "bible" which was the LXX and the "Apostles" which were the apostolic writings). The Apostolic
Fathers also included St. Ignatius of Antioch, consecrated bishop by John the Apostle, who was martyred
in 110-5 CE, and was the third bishop of Antioch, and St. Polycarp who was martyred February 22, 156
CE. This is earliest martyrology on record.
Other important writings of the early church include the Didache or Teaching of the Apostles (60100 CE), the Letter of Barnabas (no later than 131 CE and as early as 70-71 CE), the Shepherd of Hermas
(100-40 CE), The Letter to Diognetus (c. 160 CE), and the Fragments of Papias (c. 130 CE). These
writings provided us with a much-needed bridge between the second and third generations of the church,
providing information about the evolution of the New Testament, Church Order, and the Regula Fidei.
There was also in these Apostolic Fathers an overlap with the Apostles, the first generation of the church,
as the Apostle John ordained both Ignatius and Polycarp bishops.
FORMATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON
As the church was experiencing persecution from without, there arose those who caused strife
from within. Among them Marcion (c. 150 CE) stood out as the arch-heretic. He compiled a canon of 10
Pauline Epistles and the Gospel of Luke. His theology was that the creation and all aspects of it were evil.
Therefore, the God who created the creation was an evil god or at least a far lesser god than that which
Jesus called "Father." Marcion abridged the writings he had accordingly to expunge any element of the
Creator God from them. He was a wealthy ship-merchant who came to Rome and gave the equivalent of
$10,000.00 to the Roman congregation, and then tried to make them do things his way.35 As a strong
proponent of Gnostic and Docetic thought, he was a great threat to the survival of the church.
35. Koester, Helmut, Introduction to the New Testament, vol. 2 History and Literature Early Christianity, Walter De Gruyter, New York (1982),
p. 329.
38
The Christian Church responded swiftly and definitively to Marcion's message by
excommunicating him and by even giving him his money back'. The church's response was that the
Creation is good, and the God who created was the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. Also, that the Hebrew
Scriptures were to be maintained and revered as the revelation of God, and that no "Christian" set was to
supersede them. Marcion was to provide a direction for the church, which was unseen by both sides at the
time. Marcion's was the first attempt to provide a New Testament canon. This proved to be a strong
impetus for the church in the next century to provide a New Testament canon. From his efforts came the
beginnings of the church's attempt to collect a special body of Christian writings that would have the
weight of Scripture equal to that of the Hebrew Scriptures.
Those writings that were becoming the New Testament were jealously guarded and preserved,
and handed down to the next generations. Those writings that were not revered slipped away. This
occurred on at least two levels for the secondary and tertiary writings. Those writings that were part of the
emerging Great Church or Catholic Church experienced some level of preservation. These were the
Apostolic Fathers of the first and second centuries and the Apologists of the second and third centuries,
etc. Those writings that the church considered heretical were either destroyed by the members of the
Great Church or simply lost because the group that produced them, revered them, and which they
represented ceased to exist. These were the "evolutionary dead-ends" of the emerging Christian Church. It
has only been in the last 150 years that many of the manuscripts of the secondary and tertiary writings
have been discovered. Some of these have only been known through references to them from writers
representing the Great Church. And there may well be more to be discovered as time passes.
The organization of the church was moving from that of the early first century before the
destruction of the Temple into an organization that insured the future of the community. By the end of the
first century there was emerging a well-developed organizational structure that would ensure the survival
of the church, even into the present time.
PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS
The attack on the church from without was in the form of persecution that would erupt from time
to time. Persecutions were primarily local in scope in the first 250 years of the life of the church. For
some time there was a level of protection as long as the church was a Jewish sect. Yet once the First
Jewish Revolt had been secured by the Roman legions, the Temple destroyed, and antagonism heightened
against the Jewish community, the church emerged with a double dose of suspicion. In the sixties Nero
had used the Christians as scapegoats in Rome, having drawn attention away from him and onto them.
They were entertainment for the citizenry in the Coliseum with the wild beasts. Trajan (98-117 CE) was
not favorable toward the church primarily because of its anti-military stance. In 110 CE, Pliney requested
39
a ruling by Trajan on what to do with Christians. Trajan's reply stood as a precedent for other emperors:
"They are not to be sought out; but if they are accused and convicted, they should be punished, but on the
understanding that the man who denies that he is a Christian and gives proof of his sincerity by offering
prayer to our gods, however much he has been suspected in the past, shall be pardoned on his
repentance."36 Under his edict, Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, was taken to Rome to be martyred. Under
Trajan's successor, Antonius Pius, Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, was martyred. Justin Martyr would also
be counted in the list of those who gave their lives, rather than to deny their Lord.
In the third century, two stretches of time occurred in which of peace and prosperity replaced
persecution and upheaval for the church. During these intervals the church grew and prospered. Church
buildings, some of great size, were constructed. From the flames of the second century, the church
emerged as a strong influence in the world.
Such great theologians as Origen of Alexandria made their mark in this century. Antioch
advanced as a theological center of church life to rival Alexandria. The West was gifted in the centers of
Carthage and Rome as pivotal points of learning and influence. Tertullian was full of enthusiasm,
bitterness, and invective giving him an eloquence seldom matched. Rome, of course, was the center of
the Empire and held a special place in the life of the world and hence of the church at the time.
Hippolytus, who was described as the bishop of Rome, championed a stricter rigorist attitude towards
moral questions in line with Tertullian. He also left for posterity a detailed account of the liturgy as
practiced in Rome at his time. All three of these Fathers tasted the pain of persecution as the century came
to a close, but in the meantime they blossomed in the peace. This peace was a welcome respite from the
struggle and fear that the persecutions engendered. It was a time for the church to grow and strengthen.
The internal struggles were concerned with the strengthening of the government of the church, the moral
stance of the church, and firming the Tradition, the Regula Fidei.
The Emperor Decius (249-251) issued an edict that began a general persecution, unlike the
sporadic and mob-like sparks of the past. "Three points about it should be especially noticed: it was an
official campaign, having nothing to do with that mob-law which had frequently been the cause of trouble
for the church in the past; it was universal throughout the Empire, not confined to one particular province
as such outbursts often were before; and thirdly, it was systematic, beginning on a fixed day and leaving
nothing to the initiative of the local magistrates.''37 All people in the Empire were to offer sacrifices or at
least put some incense on the fires. Those who refused were to be killed. Valerian followed Decius as
emperor and continued the persecution and policy of his predecessor.
36. Wand, J.W. C. A History of the Early Church to A.D. 500, Methuen and co. LTD., London (1961) p. 33.
37. Wand, p. 101.
40
In the midst of this period of persecution arose one of the strongest theologians of the West,
Cyprian. He was a great ecclesiastical statesman who represented the faith well. In his treatise on the
Unity of the Church Cyprian set forth the following points. The source of the unity of the church, Cyprian
wrote, was the Trinity. This unity resided, he reasoned, in the solidarity of the whole episcopal body. This
solidarity was to be represented by one bishop only in each locale. Where necessity called for it, the
whole body of bishops would decide debatable points; but the majority could not compel an individual
bishop to particular action in his own area. Rome was to be the symbol of this church unity, but not the
center.
With the ending of this persecution, the second half of the century saw another long period of
peace. During this time the church continued to grow and strengthen, until it was a dominant force in the
society. This strengthening was occasioned by the reigns of several weak emperors who had other battles
to wage rather than fight the church. This did not mean that the battle was over. Indeed, there was one
more attempt to bring the church to the ground.
The last major effort to destroy the church came under the Emperor Diocletian (284-305). In 303
he issued the edict of persecution. Churches were destroyed; leaders were killed; and the general
membership arrested if they would not offer sacrifice or throw incense upon the altars. It was the general
non-Christian populace that seemed to call a halt to the persecution when the cruelty, ferocity, and sheer
volume of killing had become too repulsive. This now opened the door- for change, which came in the
person of a new emperor, Constantine. None of the periods of persecution lasted long, and certainly not
for decades as might often be assumed from the stories.
Galerius, Constantine, and Licinius, who would vie for the throne of the empire, issued an edict
of toleration in April, 311. In 313 the Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which declared
Christianity legal. "The new policy was no longer, as in 311, one merely of toleration; nor did it make
Christianity the religion of the empire. It proclaimed absolute freedom of conscience, placed Christianity
on a full legal equality with any religion of the Roman world, and ordered the restoration of all church
property confiscated in the recent persecution.”38 The next step was the declaration that Christianity was
the religion of the Empire. This was a smart move on Constantine's part because he perceived the church
to be a strong unifying force among the people and as having a strong hierarchy that would help hold the
Empire together. Much to his chagrin he discovered that there was strife in the midst of the church. There
was potential division and disruption brewing. So he called the first Ecumenical or General Council, the
Council of Nicea I, to settle the issues and guarantee the unity of the church.
This first Council would not be the last, however. It became the order of the day to settle the
38. Walker, Willerston, A History of the Christian Church, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York (1959), p. 1012.
41
disputes of the church through the Councils. The Councils defined the nature of Jesus as the Christ,
created canons to order the life of the church, and wielded power with the backing of the state. The
church had emerged from the period of persecution as a driving force in the Empire. The church was a
unifying force, the cement that held the people together along with the government. But the church was
also relieved to be a part of in this new found freedom. It was no longer costly to be a follower of the
Galilean Jew. One no longer had to pay with one's life for the faith that was professed. The masses were
now baptized without the need to make an inforn1ed confession. It was a new and different age. But with
the pressure off the church, the various differences of thought begin to come to the top and emerge as
points of conflict. As in a previous time when the threat was from without, so now the threat was from
within, it was the organization that held the church together. It was still the bishops who were the glue,
particularly as they sat in council together on the issues that confronted the whole church.
THE GROWTH AND SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
The church was faced with working out what was thought about the person, work, and nature of
Jesus in the life of the church and of human beings. The broad plurality of belief and theology that had
characterized the first three centuries of the church could no longer remain. There was the need for a more
tightly knit understanding of the person of Jesus if the church was to become the unifying force
envisioned by the emperor. The understanding of the nature of Jesus was not always a clear-cut position
set before the church. Much debate and disagreement took place, and many people were affected by the
decisions that were made. Often appeal was made to the Scripture, but this was done only after the
decision of the Council. This meant that the Scripture was not clear about many of the issues of the person
and work of Jesus. The decisions and conclusions that were drawn are found in the results of the seven
Ecumenical Councils. The faith and tradition of the church have always evolved and unfolded in the
midst of history, and for some this has proven difficult to understand. It has always been an ongoing
process of discovery and clarification. Therefore with the cessation of the persecutions the church turned
to internal matters.
These internal church matters centered around Jesus and the organization of the church. Thus, the
decisions of the Councils also dealt with the internal matters of organization and the ordering of the life of
the church. The Second Council affirmed the five Patriarchates of the Church: Rome, Constantinople,
Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria. These played key roles in the events of the next centuries. The
church also grew rapidly and spread throughout the world as a vital force in the every day life of the
populace during these years of freedom. Refer to the Appendix for more detailed information regarding
the first seven Ecumenical Councils. There were differences arising during this early period of peace, or
at least the differences that were endemic were now coming to the fore. In some ways these differences
42
were systemic in the life and development of the West and East. The linguistic differences and the
geographical boundaries of the Empire were making their presence know. Greek and Latin, East and West
had different ways of thinking about and perceiving the world, present and beyond. Language had molded
the way people thought, how they perceive the world, and even dictated the type of questions raised. The
Latin language was a concrete language. It was exact. It was the language of law. Greek on the other hand
was the language of philosophy and speculation. It was one of many nuances and shades of meaning in
the abundance of words and expressions that examine the world of nature and the world of ideas. It was
the language of philosophy and theology.
The great centers of Christian learning and being rise to their full recognition and power during
this time. These centers of theological investigation were all in the East. Of the five Patriarchates of
Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, Rome was the isolated one. All the Councils
of the church were called together and took place in the East, sometimes without the presence of the
Church of Rome. The decisions that were made by the councils were not fully understood in the West.
The nuances of language that come from the speculative nature of the Greek were foreign to the concrete
linguistic patterns of the West. As language shapes thinking and perception, so it was shaping the life of
the church, but in two different ways. A rift was quickly developing and coming to the fore and trouble of
great consequence developed between the East and West.
THE RISE OF ROME AND THE PAPACY
From the age of the martyrs, Rome had held a special place for the church for two reasons. The
first was that Rome was the seat of the Empire; from Rome the world was ruled. The proverb that "all
roads lead to Rome" underlines the mind-set that saw Rome as the center of the world. Thus, the bishop
of Rome was in the center of the world arena. Second, legend reported that Peter and Paul were martyred
in Rome under the purge of Nero. Their bones were laid to rest in Rome. The two who were the primary
leaders of the church ended their lives in Rome, and thus focused the attention of the church on their
relics in the age of the great martyrologies. When the seat of the Empire moved to Constantinople, these
two factors were missing. Although the world was governed from Constantinople, the eyes of all were not
so firmly fixed on the see city of the Empire as they still were on Rome. Secondly, there were not any
prime martyrs in Constantinople who could hold a candle to the stature, in Christianity, of Peter and Paul
in Rome. The fifth century saw the rise of papal claims resting on the "primacy of Peter" and the strong
leadership of several of the bishops of Rome. The Council of Chalcedon in "its twenty-eighth canon
placed Constantinople on a practical equality with Rome."39 This was protested by Rome, but without
success. The lines were being drawn between the East and West.
39. Walker, Williston, A History of the Christian Church, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York (1959), p. 124.
43
This fourth century saw the emerging of the ascetic as a vital part of the life and spirituality of the
church. The ascetic movements of the church developed in the deserts of Egypt and the Near East. In the
West they developed into the various religious orders which are still in existence today, among them
Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, and the various other major and minor orders. The various orders
of nuns, friars, and monks provided for learning and a deepening of spirituality, which continue to
influence the life of the church today. Their influence was the saving factor in the Middle Ages for
learning and church life.
By the end of the seventh century, the Christian religion had spread from India to North Africa,
all the Near East, through Europe into Germany. In short, the entire known world was Christian. But the
Christian Church was not the only religion of these parts. The nascent religion of Islam, founded in 620
CE, was becoming a force with which to be reckoned. The impact of Islam on the church was to become
evident in the next couple of centuries. All of the regions of modern Turkey, through the Middle East,
across North Africa and into modern Spain would come under the sway of this religion. The occupation
of the holy sites of Jerusalem and the oppression of the church throughout these lands was the cause for
the Crusades. The stress that this placed on the church caused even more strife to exist between the East
and West. The East was decimated and the power that once had been, was now reduced to mere existence
and survival. With the fall of the imperial Roman Empire in 476 CE, it was the Church of the West that
assumed the leadership role in the life of the West. In other words, the church was the only organization
capable of holding the West together with the dissolution of the power of the Empire. The Eastern Church
was in no position to assume such a leadership role for the East. The East was now, in effect, the vassal of
Islam.
The center of the church had first been Rome when the empire was centered in Rome. When the
empire became centered in Constantinople the center of the church shifted there as well. The patriarchs of
the church saw themselves as equal among equals with the Patriarch of Constantinople, who assumed the
presidency only by virtue of his residence in the See City of the Empire. However, the Patriarch of the
West did not necessarily hold this opinion. The now long standing rift between the Patriarch of the West,
the Pope of Rome, and the Patriarch of Constantinople and leader of the Eastern Church, came to its head
in the Great Schism of 1046 CE. At this time both Patriarchs excommunicated each other, leaving each
side diminished by the absence of the other's presence. It has only been in recent times that any serious
overture has been made to reconcile the division.
The division of the church in the Great Schism left the West to itself. The great balance in
thinking that existed before was now thrown off, and the Western Church became more and more myopic
because of the isolation from the East. The Middle Ages became the Dark Ages, and this culminated in
44
the further schisms of the Reformation in the 16th century. The Western Church became fragmented in the
attempt to reform a system that had come about over time. The major divisions of the Reformation
produced further divisions, which in turn have produced more into the present. The Eastern Church, under
the pressure of being a minority, maintained much of its collegial unity-a unity that may be seen today in
the Eastern Orthodox community. The Eastern churches, being defined primarily by ethnic boundaries,
became autonomous bodies in communion with each other.
The need for the overcoming of divisions that had resulted in the decisions of various Councils
has remained. The resolution of one of these divisions was seen in the announcement that the Patriarch of
the Oriental Churches, being Monophysite, and the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, being
Orthodox, reached an understanding over the decree of Chalcedon. This means that the Oriental Churches
have resided in agreement and communion with the Orthodox Church since January 1994.
The Middle Ages came to an end with the Renaissance, the resurgence of thirst for knowledge.
The previous centuries saw attempted reforms of a corrupt church organization. The struggle between
church and crown had been a serious issue. The question was who rules: the Church or the Empire, i.e.,
the Emperor or the Pope? In England, encroaching papal power received a set back from Crown and
Parliament in 1351, with the enactment of the Statute of Provisors. This provided that in England
"bishoprics and other ecclesiastical posts were free from papal interference.40
In summary, the church of the first century developed an organization of bishops, priests, and
deacons. This organization proved to be one of sustaining forces during the severe periods of persecution.
There also developed the regula fidei, or rule of faith, which ordered the belief system of the church.
Along with this came the development of a collection of writings along side of the received sacred
Scriptures of the Jewish tradition of the church. With the cessation of persecution and the age of freedom,
the church grew. This growth brought about the need to define the work and nature of the person of Jesus.
This was done through the Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Church. These became the definitive
statements of what was believed about Jesus as the Christ, the church and its organization, and how the
church was to govern its business. With the rise of Islam, the church lost control of ancient centers of the
East and all of North Africa. Finally the rift between the East and West came to full fruition in the Great
Schism of 1046. The Christianity was now divided. The Western Church grew in isolation from the East,
which caused the West to think of itself as the only or "true church." With the events of the 16th the
Western Church itself became divided, and the divisions in turn further divided down to the present. The
Western Church became splintered, giving the sense of a religious smorgasbord where religious choices
appeared to be a matter of taste.
40. Walker, p. 265.
45
FOR FURTHER READING
Baldwin, Marshall W. Christianity Through the Thirteenth Century, Harper and Row, New York (1970).
Bettenson, Henry. Documents of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, London (1963 ).
Crossan, John Dominic. Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography, Harper, San Francisco (1994).
Lightfoot, J.B. and J.R. Harmer. The Apostolic Fathers, second Edition. Baker Book House, Grand
Rapids, Michigan (1992).
46
CHAPTER IV
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND
AND THE UNITED STATES
The origins of Christianity in England are lost in the mists of unrecorded history. The Romans
stationed their legions in England in the mid-first century. Britain was conquered by the Roman general
Aulus Plautius in 43 CE, when Claudius was emperor.41 Already there was a trade route from the Middle
East to the shores of England and France. These merchants brought not only their goods and wares in
exchange for the raw and manufactured materials of the peoples, but also their religion and culture.
Evidence has been found that Christianity was in England by the end of the first century, i.e., around 90
CE. This evidence has surfaced in Britain in archeological excavations of Roman sites. The Christian
symbols of the Chi-Rho have been unearthed at Caerwent on a building dating from the end of the first
century.42 Little has been known about the church in England during this time.
There were a number of legends that surround the bringing of the church to England which may
well contain the kernel of truth that the church came from the East through merchants. One was the story
of Joseph of Arimathea. It said that he arrived at Glastonbury and planted his staff in the ground and it
took root, sprouting into a living tree. The present Glastonbury Thorn is said to be a descendant of that
staff. Or there was the legend of St. Andrew, who brought the Gospel to Scotland, and has been to this
day the patron saint of Scotland. Other stories mention St. Paul or St. Phillip having brought the faith to
Britain. Tertullian made the first mention of the existence of Christianity in England in his tract against
the Jews written around 200 CE. Tertullian mentioned that parts of Britain had been conquered by Christ,
even though the same regions were inaccessible to the Romans.
Little was known about the church in England for the next two centuries until the beginning of
the fourth century. The first known Christian in England was Alban, who was also the first recorded
martyr under the Diocletian persecution in 304 CE.43 Although there is no evidence of bishops from
England attending the First Ecumenical Council of Nicea, there is affirmation of England's adoption of
the canons of that Council. The Council of Arles convened in 314, and its purpose was to secure
allegiance to the canons of the Council of Nicea, and hence to condemn Arianism and to defend against
the African Donatists. Three English bishops were present at this synod. "Arles was the metropolitan city
41. Deanesly, Margaret, Sidelights on the Anglo-Saxon Church, Adam and Charles Black, London (1962), p. 2.
42. Deanesly, p. 14.
43. Moorman, J.R.H., A History of the Church in England, Morehouse-Barlow, Co., New York (1973), p. 4.
47
of the praetorian prefecture of the Gauls, and the prefecture of the Gauls included Britain."44 The English
church sent three bishops: Eborius from York, Restitutus from London, and one from colonia
Londinensium whose name has not survived. Their presence indicated a fully developed organization and
life according to the Apostolic Order. There was also a delegation of bishops from England at the Council
of Rimini in 359. They were an impoverished group and had to accept an imperial offer to provide them
with funds so that they could return to England.45
The English church did not experience the great impact of the age of persecution, although there
was some enforcement of the edicts. The first Christian martyr in England was Alban, a victim of the last
of the Roman persecutions, and on the eve of toleration. The "friendly" Caesar, Constantius Chlorus,
complied with the edict against the Christians by destroying the churches, but not harming the Christians
themselves.46 This produced a much different community than those who had lived under siege. The
English Christians were a more mellow community that tended to get on with living, rather than trying to
stay one step ahead of dying.
THE EMERGENCE OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH
The end of the fourth century brought few names forward. It was in the next centuries that the
move out of the dimness of the unknown into the light of history occurred. Pelagius was the first of the
Britons to come forth. The North African Bishop and theologian Augustine condemned him. Where
Augustine came down heavy on Original Sin, Pelagius thought that it might be possible for a person to
live a perfect life, even without benefit of supernatural grace. This raised the ire of Augustine, and
secured the downfall of Pelagius. Another well-known figure was Ninian, who came to England as a
solitary missionary sometime around 397.47
The church spread to Wales at an early date. The establishment of the church in Wales ensured
the continuation of the church in the next centuries. With the invasions of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes
the church in England experienced great hardship, and in many places was totally ravished by the
invaders. In Wales some level of safety was found from the invaders. Angles, Saxons and Jutes began the
invasion of England in the mid-450s. The Angles and Saxons settled in East Anglia, the Midlands, and
Sussex, while the Jutes settled in Kent.48 By 600, the indigenous Britons had been pushed to the Celtic
fringes of the land. England was now Anglo-Saxon.
The most famous Welshman of the period was the missionary to Ireland, Patrick. He was the son
44. Deanesly, p. 5.
45.
46.
47.
48.
Moorman, p. 5.
Walker, Williston, A History of the Christian Church, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York (1959), p. 101.
Moorman, p. 6.
Savage, Anne trans. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, St. Martin’s/Marek, New York (1988) p. 174.
48
of a deacon, Calpornius, and the grandson of a priest. "Calpornius was an important official in the late
Roman imperial government of Britain."49 At the age of 16 Patrick was captured by a marauding band of
Irishmen and taken to Ireland as a slave. He served as a shepherd until he was 21, when he escaped and
returned to Britain. He was educated as a Christian and then took holy orders. He returned to Ireland
around 432 to spend the rest of his life as a missionary in a remarkable story of success. He died in 461.
Christianity had already made a foothold in Ireland before Patrick. This prepared the way for his work,
and certainly contributed to the great success that his mission experienced.
The first Viking invasions took place at the end of the eighth century and the beginning of the
ninth. These invasions decimated the church. It barely survived, and this only because the Danes were
converted to Christianity by the end of the century.
On the eve of the arrival of Augustine and his band from Pope Gregory the Great, the indigenous
Celtic Church had survived many hardships and triumphs. It had moved from England into Wales, from
Wales into Ireland, from Ireland into Scotland, and back upon England. It was a simple church whose
bishops were not prelates, but servants. Its liturgy was a simple one, although Catholic. It was important
for the Celtic Church to ensure that people experience forgiveness, providing for spiritual growth. Hence,
there had developed a structure for penance that was aimed at forgiving sin and promoting the spiritual
growth of the individual. The practice of private confession was fully developed. One was to confess as
oft as need be to ensure spiritual growth and emotional well being. During this time the church in England
had not been totally isolated from the Church of the West. The church in England maintained contact with
the church in Gaul.
From Ireland Columba brought the church to Scotland, specifically to the Island of Iona in 563.
There he and his twelve companions built a monastery as the center for the mission to Scotland. Under
Columba's leadership, the Picts of Scotland were converted to Christianity. And Columba also overcame
the entrenched Druids, and brought about their conversion. By the time he died in 597, Scotland was
Christianized and the church was moving into northern England. It was this indigenous church that
clashed with the Roman mission from Canterbury.
The work at Lindisfarne by Aidan (d. 651) was a major center of Celtic Christianity. From
Lindisfarne the work in Northumbria took shape. There were missionaries from Lindisfarne who went as
far as the Thames. One of the major centers founded by these missionaries was at Whitby, where Hilda
was to rule as abbess. It would be this abbey that would play such an important part in the life of the
Church of England in the next few decades.
49. The Proper for the Lesser Feasts and Fasts, Fourth Edition, The Church Hymnal Corporation, New York (1988) p. 174.
49
The monk Augustine arrived with his companions from Rome in 597 CE at Canterbury. They had
been commissioned by Pope Gregory the Great to be bring the Gospel to England. They arrived to
discover that there already was a Christian Church established in the land of the Angles. As their mission
spread throughout the land, the friction between the indigenous Celtic Church and the Roman Church
began to ignite. The major issues centered around the simplicity of the Celtic liturgy, the Celtic bishops
being more servants and austere than the continental bishops, the date of Easter, and whether the tonsure
was to be in the Celtic manner of shaving the front of the head or the Roman manner of wearing only a
circlet of hair, and other such matters.50
The issues were not settled until the Synod of Whitby in 664. Whitby was held under the
supervision of the abbess Hilda. Oswy, the King of Northumbria, presided. The Synod of Whitby sealed
the future of the church in England. The Celtic Church survived because it became subsumed under the
Roman Church. If there had not been an agreement reached, then the indigenous Celtic Church would
have receded into the dim recesses of history and been forgotten. Instead, with the agreement of the
Synod of Whitby, the influence of the Celtic Christianity of the first six centuries continued to make its
presence known in the evolving Church of England. The latter part of the century produced one of the
major figures in the history of the English church, the Venerable Bede. He lived his time at Jarrow until
his death in 735. His seminal accomplishment was his Ecclesiastical History of the English People. This
work has remained one of the major contributions to the history of the church in England.
By the end of the fifth century, the continental church had adopted the position that priests could
not marry, but were to remain celibate.51 It was the end of the eleventh century under the leadership of
Pope Hildebrand before clerical celibacy was fully enforced not only in theory, but in practice, for all of
the Western Church.52 The English church maintained many of its ancient practices, even when these
were in conflict with the policies of the Roman Church. In the matter of clerical marriages, it was no
different. Clergy had always been permitted to marry in the English system, and celibacy was not to be a
concern for many of the clergy. Hence, the practice in the Church in England was different from the
Roman practice, even several centuries after the Synod of Whitby. "In the Laws of the Northumbrian
priest (c. 950) the marriage of a priest was regarded as perfectly normal and legal."53
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
With the establishment of the English church under the authority of Rome and the Roman Pontiff
England moved into the Middle Ages. The struggle between the papacy and crown proved to be an ever50.
51.
52.
53.
Moorman, p. 19.
Walker, p. 151.
Walker, p. 210.
Moorman, p. 50.
50
present reality. There prevailed an independent spirit in the English church, even though it was under the
authority of Rome. The Crown early on refused to give up say over the appointment of bishops, and by
two Statutes of Praemunire it was forbidden to remove ecclesiastical cases from English courts to Rome
for final appeal and adjudication.54 The connection between Rome and England also took on a financial
tone. Over time Rome extracted taxes from England, which in turn drained the country of much desired
revenue. The Middle Ages saw the rise of monastic orders, and the acquisition of much land and wealth
for the monastic life style. The resentment towards Rome grew as Rome demanded more and more taxes
from the English people and the church acquired ever-larger land holdings. This resentment finally
culminated in the desire and action of Henry VIII to sever ties with Rome, ending Rome's political
involvement in the state affairs of England and the drain of wealth away from England.
The story of Henry VIII's involvement in this conflict was in itself a very involved and dramatic
story. Before he became king, he had studied for the priesthood and received a theological education.
Theology was one of his favorite subjects. When the reformers, Luther and Zwingli, started the
Reformation on the continent, Henry wrote a treatise in defense of the Catholic Faith. He was rewarded
by the Pope with the title "Defender of the Faith"-a title given to English monarchs in perpetuity.55
Many have thought that Henry started the Church of England, but this is the view of those who
would dismiss the intrigue of the time, as well as failing to understand the complex history of the church
in England. Henry had received a special dispensation from Pope Julius II to marry Katharine of Aragon,
the wife of his dead brother Arthur. This was a political dispensation that formed a much-needed alliance
between Spain and England. When Katharine, now in her forties, proved unable to produce a male heir to
the throne, Henry petitioned Rome for an annulment of the marriage.'56 Under normal circumstances this
would have been granted, but not now. Pope Clement VII "considered" the petition for four or more
years.
There seemed to be a slight problem. Katharine's nephew was Charles V, emperor of the Holy
Roman Empire. Charles' army was encamped against Rome, just in case the Pope made a foolish decision
in the matter of Charles' beloved Aunt Katharine. Henry got tired of being put off. England was in
dynastic need of a male heir, and there was a suitable English bride available, Anne Boleyn. In the end,
Henry took matters into his own hands, after careful and deliberate consultation and advisement of the
Archbishop and others of his Privy Council, and proceeded to sever the political relationship between
England and the Roman See. No longer did a foreign power hold sway over the affairs of England. The
Crown was now both the head of State and the head of the Church throughout the realm of England.
54. Albright, Raymond W., A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church, The Macmillan Company, New Ork (1964), p. 2.
55. Albright, p. 3
56. Moorman, p. 164.
51
Through legislation and design, English history set forth on a new and independent course for both
Church and State.
With the death of Henry VIII in 1547, the crown settled on the child Edward VI, who was frail
and under age, being nine years old at the time of his accession. Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset and
a committed reformer headed the Council, which was to govern for the next seven years until Edward
came of age. Thus, Edward's Protectorate was in Puritan hands, and the intrigue of reform moved along as
acts of state.57 The First Prayer Book of Edward VI was published and in use in 1549, with a Puritan
revision in 1552. Upon Edward's death in 1553, his half-sister Mary ascended the throne. She was the
daughter of Katherine of Argon and determined to restore England's full relationship with Rome. Her
reign lasted only five years until Elizabeth I ascended the throne upon Mary’s death. Mary died on 17
November 1558 from ovarian or cervical cancer.58
With the ascension of Elizabeth, a firm course was established for England and the Church that
has lasted down to the present. The last attempt to bring England back to Rome was made by Spain. They
attempted to take England by force, but "God breathed, and England was saved". The Spanish Armada
sailed into the English Channel in 1588, only to be met by a sudden and powerful storm that sank some of
the armada. The rest was burnt and rousted by the fine English naval operation. "God breathed and
England was saved." This "act of God" ended any further attempts to bring England under the authority of
Rome. Through the "breath of God," God had spoken and acted, and England was free to continue her
course through history, while Spain receded into the background of history as a defeated and impotent
kingdom, albeit still Roman.
Following Elizabeth I, James I of England (James IV of Scotland) ascended the throne. Under his
reign a new translation of the Bible took place which bears his name to the present as the King James
Version. This took the place of the Great Bible as the English translation and use. Ironically it was never
officially adopted by the church, but was appointed by the Crown to be read in churches. The Scots were
fiercely Presbyterian, and hence of strong Puritan leaning, and James was the son of Catherine of Aragon
and half-brother of Mary and Elizabeth. He strongly disliked the Puritans, and threw his weight behind
the episcopacy. James' son Charles I would succeed him to the throne and inherit the struggle between the
Crown and the Puritans.
The seventeenth century saw another attempt to change the course of the religious history and
direction of England. The Puritans prevailed in the overthrow of Charles I and saw to his execution. The
same fate awaited the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud! The establishment of the Commonwealth
57 Moorman, p. 180.
58. Schama, Simon. A History of Britain At the Edge of the World? 3500 B.C. – 1603 A.D., Talk Miramax Books, New York (2000) p. 328.
T
52
was the establishment of the Puritan party in England, and the apparent end of the episcopacy. For a
moment it appeared as though the historic Church in England was in the death throes. The Presbyterians
were in charge. The religious scene was one of confusion and disarray. The Episcopacy was gone,
although there were Anglicans who kept the Episcopacy with the Deacons and Priests alive, albeit
underground. This was the time of the Commonwealth. It was the triumph of the Puritans and the imposition of their ideas and values on the nation.
Puritan glory was short lived. With the Restoration of the Crown their lot severely changed. The
Commonwealth came to an end, and along with the Restoration came the reestablishment of the
Episcopacy and the historic Church of England. In 1660 Charles II arrived from Holland and ascended the
throne of England. In a short time the principle of "No bishop, no king" secured the re-establishment of
the Church of England. The Puritans and their cause were lost.
The Savoy Conference of April 15, 1661 secured the return of the Prayer Book to the life of the
English Church as well as secured the demise of Puritan control and inf1uence. The liturgy of the Prayer
Book was once again the liturgy and life of the church without the Puritan pedantic criticism and
grievances. The Book of Common Prayer of 1662 followed as part of the Act of Uniformity. The Act
ordered the use of the Prayer Book to commence on St. BaI1holomew's day, 1662.59
James II succeeded Charles II and because of his strong Roman Catholic faith and commitment,
was forced from the throne in what was called the Glorious Revolution. William of Orange and Mary the
daughter of James II were called to England from Holland by Parliament as the new rulers. The
succession was disturbing to some, not the least of which were some of the bishops. They believed that
they could not owe allegiance to a foreign monarch. In the vows of ordination of the English Ordinal was
the oath of allegiance to the Crown. Instead of remaining in England under the obligation of allegiance,
they left England and went to Scotland where the new king and queen did not have jurisdiction and hence
they were not required to take the oath of allegiance to them. These bishops became known as the nonjuring bishops. They saw to it that the Episcopal Church in Scotland gained a foothold in the life of that
land. Their presence in the next century was of great importance in securing the historic episcopate for the
newly forming Episcopal Church in the former North American colonies-colonies that were, as an
independent nation, to become the United States of America.
THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND IN AMERICA
During the 17th century in the New World the English colonies were beginning to come into
existence. Along with the settlements the Church of England was established, with its rites and
59. Moorman, p. 251.
53
ceremonies according to the Book of Common Prayer. Yet, before the colonies had come into existence
there had been a celebration of the Holy Communion on the North American Continent. It was on June
21, 1579, that Sir Francis Drake's ship came ashore in what is now San Francisco Bay. The chaplain, the
Rev. Francis Fletcher, administered Holy Communion according to the Book of Common Prayer.60 In this
same century, Sir Walter Raleigh made another attempt to colonize North America between 1585-1587.
The first English child born on North American soil was Virginia Dare, who was baptized according to
the Book of Common Prayer. The Anglican Church had come to the New World. It was the next century,
though, before there were viable colonies and settlements where the church survived.
With the founding of Jamestown in 1607, the Anglican Church was established in the New
World. The first services conducted were by the ship's chaplain, the Rev. Robert Hunt, according to the
Book of Common Prayer.61 He also performed the first marriage in the New World according to the Book
of Common Prayer. From this colony such notables as John Smith and Pocahontas were to take their
place in history. Pocahontas, the daughter of Indian Chief Powhatan, was baptized according to the rite of
Baptism of the Book of Common Prayer. Upon her first visit to England in 1616 following her marriage
to John Rolfe she died at the age of twenty-two in 1617. She was buried in the churchyard of St. George's
Parish in Gravesend, England. Pocahontas and Rolfe had one son, Thomas.
The Plymouth Company's settlers held a service according to the Book of Common Prayer on
August 9, 1607, on St. George's Island. They brought with them the charter that would establish the
Church of England and its worship and instruction of the colonists and Native Americans. This remains
significant because it is a reminder that before the Pilgrims or Puritans had landed, "in Massachusetts the
Church of England was by charter established in that colony and its worship regularly practiced."62
The Church of England was established in several of the colonies. The idea of religious freedom
was not part of the life of the colonies at this time. Neither was the idea of a pluralistic religious society
uppermost in the minds of the colonists. This idea had to wait for a much later time, even as late as the
19th century. As the unrest and dissatisfaction grew in the colonies over English rule, the church also
experienced anxieties and frustrations.
England would not permit the colonies to have a resident bishop. This meant that no one received
confirmation unless they returned to England. Those who entered the priesthood had to make the difficult
and dangerous journey back to England for ordination. Many of those who sought orders died during the
hardships of the trip. Yet, at the same time the local situation brought about changes in the governing of
the local parish that had significant influence on the future of the Episcopal Church in the United States.
60. Albright, p. 12.
61. Albright, p. 16.
62. Albright, pp. 14-15.
54
Without bishops present, the local vestry assumed a power and prominence unknown in the Church of
England. This helped shape the peculiar form of interactive and interdependent rule that is still exercised
by the laity and clergy of the Episcopal Church in the United States. Until the American Church acquired
bishops, this power of the laity over the clergy produced some strife for the clergy who found themselves
helpless before the vestry. This tension between the two provided fertile ground in the compilation of the
Constitution and Canons governing the American Church.
The advent of the American Revolution found the Church of England in the colonies in a
precarious situation. There were no resident bishops, and without bishops by definition no Episcopal
Church can exist. The further complications for the church centered in the ordination of the priests and
deacons. The ordination vows of the English Ordinal included an oath of allegiance to the Crown. Hence,
all the Anglican clergy had taken a vow that tied them to the support of the monarch. They found
themselves in a setting where if they were loyal to the prevailing currents of the revolution, they were
disloyal to their vows before God and God's Church in ordination. With the American Revolution many
of the clergy returned to England or went to Canada as a matter of conscience. This same tension existed
among many of the laity. For some it was un-American to be part of the Church of England, and so they
joined other groups like the Presbyterians or Congregationalists. Others went to Canada along with the
clergy as the tide of war turned in favor of the colonies. Those who remained members of the church
found a decimated community following the Revolution. These were some of the prominent figures in the
Revolution itself, as well as very prominent wealthy landowners. Among the signers of the Declaration of
Independence, three-quarters were or had been active members of the Church of England. It was from the
Anglican Church that much of the leadership was found for the Revolution and the subsequent nascent
nation.
Following the Revolution the remnant of clergy and laity came together to strive to save the
depleted and frail church. The looming question was what kind of organization was this to be? The church
in Connecticut elected one of its priests as bishop-elect in order to secure an "Episcopal" future. Samuel
Seabury was elected and sailed for England, arriving on July 7, 1783. The English Ordinal contained the
oath of allegiance to the Crown, and the English Church and Parliament was unwilling to make an
exception by agreeing to Seabury's consecration for the rebellious colonies.
Seabury then went on to Scotland, where the "non-juring bishops" of the previous century had
formed the Episcopal Church of Scotland. After negotiations with the Episcopal Church of Scotland, it
was agreed that they would consecrate him. But they agreed to do so with the understanding that upon his
return to North America, Seabury would do all he could to have the Scottish Consecration Prayer of the
Holy Communion as part of the Book of Common Prayer of the emerging Episcopal Church of the United
55
States. Once Seabury was consecrated as bishop, and the English were aware that the American colonies
would have bishops, the vow of allegiance to the crown was reconsidered.
THE FORMATION OF THE EPISCOPAL CHURCH
Under the leadership of William White of Pennsylvania a convention was called to meet in Christ
Church Philadelphia on 24 May 1784 comprised of clergy and laity. "Under his chairmanship this
convention of four clergy and twenty-one laymen met in Christ Church, Philadelphia, on May 24, 1783,
and appointed a standing committee to act with representatives of the church in other states in framing a
constitution for a national ecclesiastical government. Here, for the first time in Anglican history, the laity
officially sat with the clergy in a council of the church; each congregation was allowed one vote.63 White
was the architect and chief guiding spirit of the formation of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the
United States. His contributions to the life of the American Church continued as he was elected to be
bishop and his subsequent consecration in England along with Samuel Provoost.
The first General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States convened on
September 27, 1785. At this first Convention the organization of the new church was worked out. And a
Book of Common Prayer, revised in accordance with the life of the emerging American church, yet still
holding to the Catholic Faith and practice as understood by the Church of England, was accepted. Once
this Prayer Book, with some revisions, had been approved by the bishops of the Church of England as
being in keeping with the historic faith, then the way was open for the consecration of more bishops for
the American church. Parliament had made provision for the exception of the oath of allegiance to the
Crown and to the Archbishop of Canterbury, in order to consecrate "no more than three bishops" on
behalf of the Episcopal Church. This provision by Parliament and the Archbishop of Canterbury secured
the "Historic Episcopate" for the Episcopal Church of the United States.
On February 4, 1787, White and Provoost received consecration as bishops in historic succession
in Lambeth Palace by the Archbishop of Canterbury. There were now three bishops, including Seabury
who had been consecrated in Scotland, in the American church. By ancient canon, three was the requisite
number to make other bishops. This assumed that they cooperated with each other, but this was not to be
the case. As it developed, Provoost despised Seabury and would have nothing to do with him, under any
circumstances. He refused to join with the other two in the consecration of Edward Bass, Bishop-elect of
Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Finally, on September 19, 1790, James Madison was consecrated at
Lambeth Palace, being now the third and final member of the American church to be made bishop by the
Church of England.
63. Albright, p. 128.
56
Now that four bishops existed in the American church, the Historic Episcopate assured, the new
American bishops proceeded to the consecration of James Claggett on September 17, 1792. Claggett was
the first bishop made on American soil by bishops of the Episcopal Church in the United States of
America.64
July-August, September-October of 1789 in Christ Church, Philadelphia the first fully structured
meeting of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America took place. The House of
Bishops was composed, at that point, of three: Seabury, White, and Provoost; the House of Deputies was
made up of clergy and laity from the dioceses. This Convention adopted the Constitution and Canons of
the Episcopal Church, and the Book of Common Prayer (1789) as the Liturgy of the Church. A new era in
the life of the Anglican Church had begun. There was now an Anglican Communion in the making.
The Episcopal Church in the United States set the precedent of being an Anglican church in
communion with the See of Canterbury, but not juridically responsible to nor under the authority of the
Archbishop of Canterbury. It provided the paradigm for the creation of the future national churches of the
Anglican Communion.
From the first General Convention, the church has grown to cover the whole of the United States,
plus churches throughout Central and South America, a number of which have become independent
national churches. From a peak membership of 3.5 million in the 1960's to the present 2.5 million
members, the Episcopal Church comprises approximately 1 % of the population. The general influence of
the church in the life of the American people is far beyond her size. Almost half of the Presidents of the
United States, a significant percentage of members of Congress and the Supreme Court belong to the
Episcopal Church.
FOR FURTHER READING
Armentrout, Don S. and Robert Boak Slocum, editors. Documents of Witness: A History of the Episcopal
Church 1782-1985, Church Hymnal Corporation New York [19941.
Atwater, George Parkin. The Episcopal Church Its Message for Today. Morehouse, Wilton [1978]
Bettenson, Henry. Documents of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, London ( 1963).
Deanesly, Margaret. A History of the Medieval Church, 590-1500, Methuen, London (1972).
Holmes III, Urban T. And John H. Westerhoff, III. Christian Believing, Seabury Press, New York
11979].
Hood, Robert E. Social Teachings in the Episcopal Church. Morehouse, Harrisburg, Pa. [1990].
Hosmer, Rachel and Alan Jones. Living in the Spirit. Harper, San Francisco [1979].
Staley, Vernon. The Catholic Religion. Morehouse, Harrisburg, Pa. [1983].
64. Albright, p. 138.
57
Sykes, Stephen W. Editor. Authority in the Anglican Communion. Anglican Book Centre, Toronto,
Canada [1987].
Wand, J.W.E. A History of the Modern Church, Mathuen & Co. Ltd., London [1965].
Westerhoff III, John H. and O.C. Edwards, Jr. A Faithful Church. Morehouse-Barlow, Wilton,
Connecticut [1981].
58
CHAPTER V
INTRODUCTION TO THE LITURGY:
THE HOLY EUCHARIST
This chapter is designed to help explain and point out the various parts of the service of Holy
Communion, their meaning and significance. There are a variety of interpretations, allegorizations,
justifications, of each part of the service, which have come about over the centuries. Our discussion will
be directed more toward origins and basic meanings that seem to be fundamental to the act, rite, or form.
Rite refers to the written text and content of the liturgy, while ceremony refers to the actions of
the liturgy. Throughout this chapter we will be exploring both the rites and ceremonies of the Eucharist
according to the usage of the Episcopal Church. It will become obvious that it is the ceremonies that can
become complicated and involved, and sometimes even obscure the impact of the intent of the rite. Most
ceremonies have their origin in practical matters, i.e., washing of the hands at the offertory or the
breaking of the Bread at Communion. Others are elaborate or ornate accretions, such as how many times
the priest makes the sign of the cross over the elements during the Consecration.
The term rubric refers to the directions in the Prayer Book which direct the specifics of the
services. The term means "red" because the early rubrics were printed in red ink, as is still the case with
the Altar Service Book. The Rubrics of the Book of Common Prayer are in many instances supplementary
to Canon Law. This means that they play an important part in the structuring of the church's liturgical life.
In reading the rubrics, one gains insight into the subtle meanings of the services as well as an
understanding of what is considered important. Following each major set of services in the 1979 Prayer
Book, there are additional directions on the conduct of the services.
Worship for Anglicans conveys more than just an act on the part of people who gather to perform
certain rites. For instance, the rite of the Holy Eucharist, as celebrated in the Chapel of St. Anselm, where
only two or three are gathered, is the same rite with the same reality experienced as that celebrated in the
National Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul in Washington, D.C. with some 5,000 people present and
presided over by the Presiding Bishop flanked by an entourage of bishops. This is because "Anglicans
have always understood their liturgy to be more than just human activity initiated here on earth; it is a
participation in the worship of heaven. The ultimate destiny of humanity is seen in participation in that
59
worship."65 This discernment is similar to that of Ignatius of Antioch, the third Bishop of Antioch,
succeeding Evodius, the successor of Peter the Apostle.
Ignatius wrote his letters on the way to martyrdom around 110 C.E. He reports that he is well
acquainted with John the Apostle and others of the Apostolic band. He is the first to refer to the Eucharist
as the "medicine of immortality." He says, in his letter to the Ephesians: "Come together in common, one
and all without exception in charity, in one faith and in one Jesus Christ, who is of the race of David
according to the flesh, the son of man and the Son of God, so that with undivided mind you may obey the
bishop and the priests, and break one Bread which is the medicine of immortality and the antidote against
death, enabling us to live for ever in Jesus Christ."66 Hence, there is the call to celebrate the Eucharist frequently as in a sense of focus and direction. Here is the coming together of heaven and earth. "Be zealous,
therefore, to assemble more frequently to render thanks [to celebrate the Eucharist] and praise to God.
For, when you meet together frequently, the powers of Satan are destroyed and danger from him is
dissolved in the harmony of your faith.67
What we do in the Divine Liturgy is not a matter of fancy or preference as though what we do is
optional. What we do in Divine Liturgy, even though this Liturgy is imperfect and subject to revision
from age to age, is not penultimate, but ultimate! For what we do is to join with "Angels and Archangels
and the whole company of Heaven in the praise and adoration of Almighty God." And this is what we
have been created to do, and that to which we look forward for all eternity.
The service itself is called by many names: Holy Communion. The Divine Liturgy, The Service of
the Lord's Supper, or the Mass. Eucharist is perhaps the most widely used term, meaning
"Thanksgiving." Mass comes from the Latin used in the dismissal, Ite missa est (Thus, it is dismissed!).
To go to Mass, means that you stayed for everything: to the end, through the Dismissal. We are sent forth
from the experience of the Risen Lord into the world.
The Liturgy of the Eucharist is itself a divine drama of the life of Christ. The overall form of the
service is the life of Christ encapsulated in the very movement of the Liturgy. Hence, meaning is found
even in the general form of the service that has its own interpretations. The Gloria in Excelsis at the
beginning, has echoes of the song of the angels at the birth of Christ. As the service unfolds, the life of
Christ is portrayed, leading up to the breaking of the Body of Christ for us. The Risen Lord appears to the
faithful, and in the Breaking of the Bread. He is recognized. Each service is an enactment of the story of
his life. Each service becomes Gospel, proclamation of the Risen Lord.
65. Stephen Sykes and John Booty, eds. The Study of Anglicanism, SPCK/Fortress Press, New York (1988), p. 87.
66. Ludwig Scholpp, ed. The Apostolic Fathers, CIMA Publishing Company, New York (1947), p. 95.
67. Schopp, p. 92.
60
A service of Holy Eucharist easily divides into two parts. The first part focuses on the Word of
God, and is called the Liturgy of the Word. The second part focuses on the Altar and Communion and is
called the Liturgy of the Table.
THE OPENING OF THE SERVICE
When we enter the church, in a sense, the service has already begun. This is God's House, God is
already here, and when you enter, God is waiting. This is a time of personal devotions and personal
prayer. Kneeling has long been a customary position for prayer, and kneelers are provided in the pews,
should you wish, at this time to make use of them. Some will make the sign of the cross at this time,
recalling their baptism and that through baptism we enter the church and are incorporated into Christ. It is
also customary in the Episcopal Church not to talk during this time or carry on idle conversation. This is a
time of preparation and anticipation. Silence remains the hallmark of these moments before the service
begins. The congregants are encouraged to use this time for personal meditation and reflective prayer.
This is a time of contemplative expectation.
After entering the church, and before entering the pew, it is customary to reverence the altar,
either bowing or genuflecting. Of the two, bowing (or nodding of the head) is both the older, and the more
widespread custom. The practice of reverencing the altar grew from the acknowledgment of the bishop by
the congregation. And so it is still today, although the bishop may not be present. In some of our
congregations, there is a chair in the Sanctuary that is reserved for the bishop when he is present, though
today in numerous congregations they are without a Bishop's Chair (cathedra). When the chair is present
it is a visual reminder of the place and role of the bishop in the life of the church. The Bishop's Chair for
the diocese is in the cathedral of the diocese, the church that takes its name from the presence of the
cathedra of the bishop. The custom began in the first century when the congregation would gather in the
atrium of the home or villa for the Divine Services. The bishop would be seated with the presbyters of the
congregation. As the people gathered, they bowed toward the bishop in acknowledgment of his authority.
This bowing or genuflecting has been transferred over the centuries to indicate our respect and
subjection to Jesus Christ, the cross, the altar, or the Blessed Sacrament on Reserve, which is the Presence
of Christ in our midst in the blessed Bread and Wine of the Altar. All of these reasons are appropriate and
indeed right. This transference of reverence has occurred because the bishop is not always physically
present in the service, yet the custom of bowing remained a part of the life of the liturgy.
In the same way that we acknowledge our bishop, whose presence is known to us at our altar, we
likewise acknowledge our bishop, as his or her presence is known to us in our priest. The priest is not
only the bishop's person, but is the bishop's gift, and the bearer of the bishop's presence, love, and caring
for us. The priest is the symbol or Icon of the bishop, who is likewise the symbol or Icon of Christ. When
61
the clergy enter or leave the service, the congregation stands out of respect.
The fourfold ministry of bishop, priest, deacon, and laity remains imbedded in the liturgy. The
chief celebrant at all Eucharists is, in theory, the bishop. This is adhered to throughout the rubrics. Each
level of ministry has a significant place in the Liturgy. "At all celebrations of the Liturgy, it is fitting that
the principal celebrant, whether bishop or priest be assisted by other priests, and by deacons, and lay
persons."68 It is a total ministry of the people of God that is involved in the Divine Liturgy. As Ignatius
says in the Letter to the Trallians, "You must continue, then, to do nothing apart from the bishop. Be
obedient, too, to the priests as to the apostles of Jesus Christ.. . .in the same way all should respect the
deacons as they would Jesus Christ, just as they respect the bishop as representing the Father and the
priests as the council of God and the college of the Apostles."69
THE LITURGY OF THE WORD
The gathering hymn we sing serves as a general call to the Liturgy of the Word; that part of the
service which deals with the reading of Scripture and the exposition given in the sermon. The practice of
singing together dates back to at least the 1st century. Singing the whole service was customary in Judaism
and is still the practice of the Eastern Church. This is seen not only in the numerous hymns in the New
Testament, but in the references from the Church Fathers. Singing, what is sung, and when music is used
throughout the Liturgy has shifted and changed throughout the ages. "From a very early period, possibly
from the beginning as a heritage of Judaism, the prayers and readings from the Scriptures were sung. In
the Eastern rite today the entire liturgy is sung."70
If there is a procession during the opening hymn as the ministers (lay and clerical) enter the
church, there is the custom of bowing when the Processional Cross passes by. It is always the case that
the congregation stands when the ministers enter, even if there is no hymn. The Procession may include
incense as well as the Processional Cross these precede the choir, servers, and clergy (deacons, priest, and
bishop).
The use of incense is an ancient practice. Incense was used in the Temple worship of ancient
Israel. There was an offering of incense at the morning (9:00) and evening (afternoon or 3:00 p.m.)
service in the Temple when the sacrifices were made. It was part of the sacrifice of atonement made daily
on behalf of Israel. Incense was a very costly item, and hence was a very important expression of
offering. Some of its more practical uses were that of fumigation, a deodorant. The church rejected the
use of incense in the first few centuries due to its association with the worship of the emperor. It became a
68. Book of Common Prayer,(1979), p. 322.
69. The Apostolic Fathers, pp. 102-3.
70. Marion J. Hatchett, Commentary on the American Prayer Book, the Seabury Press, New York (1980), p. 33.
62
part of the church's worship following the conversion of Constantine, first used to proceed the clergy and
then before the Gospel Book.71 In today's service, incense is used at the Entrance, not only in procession,
but with the censing of the altar at the beginning of the service; with the reading of the Gospel; at the
Offertory as the altar, gifts, and the people are censed and offered to God; and as the Eucharistic Prayer is
said.
GREETING OR SALUTATION
The service proper begins with the Greeting or Salutation. This is based upon the traditional
beginnings of Jewish prayers, opening with a blessing of God ("Blessed are You, 0 Lord God, King of the
Universe "). The salutation changes seasonally, for instance in Lent the structure has a penitential mood,
and during Eastertide it is the joyful proclamation, "Alleluia. Christ is risen!" This opening acclamation
has been kept most intact in Eastern Liturgies, and is only now beginning to be revived in the West.
COLLECT FOR PURITY, GLORIA, KYRIE, AND TRISAGION
These greetings are followed by the Collect for Purity ("Almighty God, to whom all hearts are
open, all desires known, and from whom no secrets are hid .... "). A collect, (pronounced COLL-ect) is a
short prayer following a set form, almost poetic in structure and form: opening salutation, ascription,
petition, doxology. Poetic in its nature, it is similar in many ways to Japanese haiku. It is as rigid a
structure/form as is a sonnet. The word "collect" "may signify the summing up of the prayers of the
individuals who have been called to pray. Or it may designate the prayer said at the collecting of the
people at the start of the Mass, for the collect was inserted immediately after the salutation which, at an
earlier stage, had served to call the people to attention before the reading of the first lection. 72
The Collect for Purity was originally a private prayer said by the priest as he vested. A ritual
prayer for cleanliness, it has its roots in the Jewish concept of being ritually clean. No longer a private
prayer, we, as a royal priesthood of believers, exercise a part of our priesthood, as this public plea for
purity is read, so that we may approach God, cleansed in God's sight. Following the Collect for Purity, is
either the Gloria ill Excelsis ("Glory to God in the highest, and peace to his people on Earth .... "), the
Kyrie eleison ("Lord have mercy, Christ have mercy, Lord have mercy"), or the Trisagion ("Holy God,
holy and might, holy immortal One, have mercy upon us").
The Gloria in Excelsis is an ancient Greek hymn that is composed of "a series of acclamations,
arranged in three stanzas."73 The three stanzas are the Antiphon, that is the song of the angels from Luke's
Gospel at the announcement of the bil1h of Jesus. This is "a kind of praise-shout to the glory of God and
71. Hatchett, p. 152.
72. Hatchett, p. 163-4.
73. Massey Hamilton Sheperd, Jr., The Oxford American Prayer Book Commentary, Oxford University Press, New York (1955), p. 84.
63
the coming of his salvation to men through the Messiah-Redeemer."74 This is an ancient Jewish Messianic
song. The second stanza is composed around the responses in the Kyrie and Agnus Dei. The third stanza
comes from the Eastern liturgies reminiscent of the primitive confession of the Christian faith. It is the
model of the ultimate hymn of praise that the church offers. The rubrics direct that the Gloria not be used
during the seasons of Lent and Advent. These seasons have a penitential mode that is not compatible with
the use of this hymn of praise. Lent and Advent are times of introspection and penitence, and are subdued
seasons. The Gloria, at the beginning of the service, echoes the joy of the manifestation of the Christ.
This song has always been associated with moments of high praise.
The Kyrie, printed in both the original Greek and in English, was originally a secular greeting of
the one in authority. It is similar to the British acclamation, "God save the Queen."75 The middle response
was changed to Christe eleison, giving it a distinctive Christian touch. The Kyrie is said in units of
three—either three, six, or nine times. This probably symbolizes the Trinity of the Godhead. Originally
part of the Eastern Liturgy, it passed to the West at an early date, and has been kept at this spot, and as a
response in litanies and prayers since.
The Trisagion comes from the liturgy of the Eastern churches. Its original use is as the entrance at
the opening of the rite, but this later changed to be sung following the Little Entrance, i.e., the entrance of
the clergy with the Scriptures. It is still used at this point of the service in the Eastern Church.
COLLECT FOR THE DAY
In traditional Anglican fashion, we are next greeted and bidden to pray in the name of Lord. This
is first a sharing of the presence of the Lord, and next an affirmation of community. The call to prayer is
the last element. The prayer that follows is the Collect of the Day. This prayer varies from day to day, and
occasion to occasion. These are found in the Prayer Book, in the section marked Collects (TraditionalContemporary).
SCRIPTURE READINGS AND SERMON
What follows next is the very heart of the Liturgy of the Word. Everything in the service to this
point has been moving towards this moment, and finds its fulfillment in the Word. The reading and
exposition of the Scriptures are not optional for the life of the community. During the reading of the Old
Testament and New Testament Lessons, the congregation is seated. In the Episcopal Church more
Scripture is read and heard in the services than in any other Christian community. Scripture quotations
and paraphrases comprise the major content of the Prayer Book itself. This does not include the
prescribed readings. The readings are set forth in a Lectionary found in the back of the Prayer Book. A
74. Ibid.
75. Hatchett, p. 319.
64
Lectionary is a table setting forth the readings in course, or in a set order. The use of a lectionary is an
ancient practice, followed even as far back as the time of Jesus. The Eucharistic Lectionary provides for
an orderly reading of the entire Bible (except for a few passages of records and begats), over a course of
three years. There are two Lectionaries in the Book of Common Prayer. One is the Eucharistic Lectionary
for years A, B, and C. The other is the Daily Office Lectionary for years one and two.
There are three distinctions made among those who participate in the readings and the service.
The first is a Lector who is any person asked to read from time to time the lections or lessons at any given
service. This person is not licensed. The second is the Lay Reader who is a person who has gone through
training and preparation to be able to lead the services of the church, which includes reading the Lessons.
The third person is the Eucharistic Minister who assists in the administration of the Eucharist. The Lay
Reader and Eucharistic Minister are both licensed by the bishop and must conform to the Canons of the
church as they work under the direction of the priest. Here is a complete expression of the ministry of
aspects of the People of God.
This licensing is not to keep the Bible from the laity, quite the contrary. At the reader's stand
(lectern) is an open Bible, always open, for use by the laity. At any time you may come into the church,
and read the Bible for yourself. This is a custom we maintain from times when Bibles were scarce,
illiteracy common, and English a vulgar tongue. Anglicanism has traditionally favored the inclusion of
Bible reading into the habits of the people of God. The reason for lay readers (or lectors) is that we
recognize that the public reading of scripture is a form of ministry, requiring some training and a certain
preparation.
OLD TESTAMENT
The first reading is from the Old Testament. The Christian Church has always recognized our
God as the God of the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and of the Matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, and
Rachel. The story of the Jews is our own story! The Hebrew Scriptures remain the foundational Scriptures
for the Christian Church. From the very beginning of the church in the first century, and even more
emphatically and definitively in the middle of the second century of the Common Era, the church has
declared that the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ is the one revealed in the Hebrew Scriptures.
The Hebrew Scriptures continue to play, as they always have, a vital role in the life of the church, to the
point that without them the New Testament ceases to be a Christian book!
Following the Old Testament Lesson, we worship through the Psalms. The Psalms were
composed and originally used in the worship of Israel as hymns. They were very much a part of the life of
Jesus. They were his hymnal, often upon his lips throughout the Gospel accounts of his life. The manner
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of reading the Psalms can vary. The Psalm might be read "by gender," in an alternating style with the
women reading half a verse, followed by the completion of the verse by the men. Or the Psalm might be
read responsively by half-verse or whole verse with a leader and congregation. To go back to an ancient
and traditional style, the Psalm might be sung antiphonally, with each side of the congregation responding
to the other. The Psalms can also be said in unison-or sung, using Anglican Chant. The possibilities are
endless.
EPISTLE OR NEW TESTAMENT
In the first century church, it was common to read from the letters of traveling missionaries, with
Paul chief among them. Gradually a corpus of "guiding letters" grew to be recognized as having special
authority. From this collection of letters, part of our New Testament was formed. As we still read sections
of these letters today, the readings are known as the Epistle or the New Testament Lesson.
GOSPEL
The practice of greeting the Gospel is likewise an ancient one. With glad shouts of joy, singing,
triumphal marches, and sometimes incense, the proclamation of the Risen Lord is made. The Gospel is
not read; it is Proclaimed! The ancient synagogal practice of the Jews of standing for the procession of
the Torah is carried over into the Christian tradition as we stand for Torah, the Torah of the New
Covenant. In the synagogue the Torah Scroll is taken from the Ark and processed throughout the
congregation standing and singing, so in the same traditional manner the Gospel Book is presented with
hymns and standing.
The proclamation is done from the midst of the people. For it is in the midst of the People of God
that our Torah is found. The proclamation is made by the deacon, or a priest in the absence of a deacon. It
is a part of both the deacon's and the priest's ministry to make the Risen Lord known to us. And it is here,
as well as in the Sermon (homily) which follows, that this function is carried out. Rather than reading a
history of the man Jesus, we are presented a living Christ.
The Sermon is not an optional element in the Eucharist. Any time the Eucharist is celebrated, a
sermon or homily is to be preached. The people are seated for the sermon. They stand again with the
conclusion of the sermon as the preacher gives an ascription of praise concluding the sermon. One of the
early witnesses to the reading of the Scripture and the Gospels followed by a sermon is Justin Martyr. He
was martyred around 165 C.E. In his First Apology he reports: "On the day which is called Sunday we
have a common assembly of all who live in the cities or in the outlying districts, and the memoirs of the
Apostles or the writings of the Prophets are read, as long as there is time. Then, when the reader has
finished, the president of the assembly verbally admonishes and invites all to imitate such examples of
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virtue.'76
We turn now to the transition from the Liturgy of the Word to the Liturgy of the Table.
THE LITURGY OF THE TABLE
The Creed recited in the Eucharistic celebration is referred to as the Nicene Creed, dates from
381 C.E., from the Second General Council called at Constantinople by the Roman Emperor Theodosius.
The church at that time was beset by controversy. Differing groups, whose names are no longer known by
any but historians and scholars, both within and without the church, were at war. In an effort to reach
consensus, the General Council was called. A general council was a meeting of all bishops of the
Christian Church. While possessing no formal authority, its decisions came to be regarded as binding,
both by the government, and by the church. The congregation stands to recite the Creed.
The use of the Creed in the Eucharist has a two-fold history. Some form of creed seems always to
have been used. Originally, it appears the Eucharistic prayer was both prayer, and statement of belief. The
use of the Nicene Creed in the Eucharist was originally done by those who announced their agreement
with the consensus of the Church Catholic concerning the nature of Christ and God. They were orthodox.
Uses of the Creed in its present place spread from the East, to Spain, and from there to England. From
England, it spread to the rest of Europe.
Some controversy is heard about the so-called filioque clause. This is Latin for "and the Son".
This is the part of the Creed that says that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father "and the Son". "And
the Son" was not an original article of the Creed. Its inclusion is a very thorny, theologically detailed
question. The filioque clause is not used in the more theologically sensitive, and sophisticated East. But
use of it is nearly universal in the West. The real importance lies in the fact that it is the prima facie
reason for much division, especially that of the East from the West. (NOTE: The Roman Catholic Church
is in communion with some Uniate groups that have never used it.) At the General Convention of the
Episcopal Church in 1994 it was voted to exclude this clause from future revisions of the Prayer Book.
In the Prayers of the People, which follow, we stand, as a fellowship, as a Royal Priesthood. The
Priesthood of all Believers are those who have been anointed by the chrism of baptism, the liturgical
expression of the Protestant Reformation principle. Here the church exercises its priestly character. We
pray for the world, for the church, and for ourselves. This prayer is the very essence of intercessory
prayer, the model of evangelism. We pray for other people, that they may be made whole, delivered into
faith. The church has always been a servant people. Part of our service is to pray for others. The Prayer
Book offers traditional forms for this prayer. These may be lengthened, shortened, and edited, as the
76. Justin Martyr, The First Apology, Thomas B. Falls, Trans., Christian Heritage, Inc. New York (1948). pp. 106-7.
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occasion dictates according to the rubrics. The prayers are concluded by the celebrant, but may be lead by
anyone. The concluding prayer is in the form of a collect.
Our Reformed or Protestant heritage is the congregational Confession of sin or General
Confession. This is a new development for the congregants to join in the Confession, begun in "only" the
16th Century. The custom developed in the Middle Ages of the priest and his assistant to confess to one
another. Later, as a general act of the people it became the custom for those who were to receive
communion to be invited to the altar rail to confess. This was at a time when Communion of the people
was an occasional event, required only annually of the faithful, not weekly, as is more often the case in
eucharistically-centered churches today.
We kneel to say the Confession and to receive Absolution.
As someone has said, "Confession is the obverse of thanksgiving; to give thanks is to
acknowledge one's sinfulness." This points out the true nature of the Confession, not an acknowledgment
of one as a wretched sinner, but as real preparation to accept the bounties of God, at God's altar.
Occasionally, the Confession may be omitted, for instance at celebrations where a penitential note is not
appropriate.
The true resolution of the Confession is not in the absolution alone, but in the total process of
being made whole. This process of being made whole may also include the laying-on-of-hands in healing,
and the blessing of God. The priest gives the Absolution immediately after the Confession. Hence, the
Confession/Absolution, the laying-on-of-hands in healing or Unction, and the exchange of the Peace of
God are a part together. They flow into the Thanksgiving of being made whole by Christ Jesus.
We stand to be greeted by the celebrant with the Peace, and then to pass the Peace along to our
fellow congregants. While passing the Peace of Christ, it is appropriate to greet one another with "The
Peace of the Lord be with you", and to respond saying "And also with you". This is the Lord's peace with
which we greet one another, a peace that passes understanding. A variety of tokens may be used in
passing the Peace: a handshake, nod, embrace, or a kiss. None is necessarily better than any other is and
some may not seem appropriate to some individuals. This is perhaps the freest flowing time in the service;
the Peace of Christ can be wholly encapsulated in no single form.
We now focus on the Great Thanksgiving, the very heart of our celebration, one of gratitude
(the meaning of the Greek word Eucharist is Thanksgiving.) It is fitting that the act of Thanksgiving
begins with our return to God of some of the riches given to us in God's creation. This is the Offertory.
The Offering is not something a money-hungry modern church has instituted. Rather, it reaches all the
way back to our first experience. Nor is it simply here to pay the bills and to allow us to get on with the
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business of the church. The first offerings were food, bread and wine, the necessary staples of life. Today
we still give what we prize most, life itself, but now we do so through the medium of money. The bread
and wine were tangible expressions of the re-creation of God's gifts of wheat and grapes, which in turn
were re-created and given back by God as the Body and Blood of Christ. So it is today that our offering of
money is the offering of the works of our hands to be re-created by God into the Body and Blood of
Christ!
When the offerings are brought forward to be placed on the Altar, it is appropriate for the
congregation to stand as the priestly community in the offering of the gifts in thanksgiving. It is during
this time that the Altar is made ready. The priest dons his chasuble, or outer coat, in preparation. This is
similar to our Lord's "coat without seam," for which soldiers cast lots. The bread and wine, stored on a
shelf called the credence, are moved to the Altar. In many churches the bread and wine are brought
forward to the priest or deacon by members of the congregation, recalling the original offerings of the
early Christian Church. Sufficient bread and wine are set out. The wine is mixed with a little water in the
chalice. This serves a dual function. First it is a mixture of wine and water most nearly always used in
Eastern cultures, and most likely used at the Last Supper. Second, at the piercing of our Lord's side, out
poured water and blood. So here, in our Communion is his Water and Blood. This is the beginning of our
anamnesis. Anamnesis is a technical term used to describe this whole part of the Eucharistic service. It
means the opposite of amnesia. It is the recalling into the present of that which is past. It is the taking
into oneself of Christ's history, identity, and purpose. It is the re-enacting memorial of the Christ event.
This is the re-presenting of the whole of salvation history.
Finally, in the preparation is the lavabo, or washing of the priest's hands. Water is poured over his
hands, into the lavabo (lavabo is both the name of the act and of the bowl used to catch the water),
signifying the ritual cleanliness of the priest.
The Sursum Corda follows, while the congregation remains standing. It is the section beginning
"Lift up your hearts." Based upon traditional Jewish blessings of God, we likewise follow the Jewish
practice of standing for this act. "The oldest of the common, fixed elements of the prayer come from
Jewish liturgical tradition: the bidding to stand, "Lift up your hearts," with its response, followed by the
celebrant's request for permission to pray in their name, "Let us give thanks to the Lord our God," and
their assent "It is right to do so," is typical of the dialogue which introduced the Jewish berakoth (form of
blessing). The acclamation "Amen" (so be it) at the end was also retained from Jewish tradition.77 It is
followed by an appropriate Preface, or general introductory prayer. This sets the right note for the season
or specific occasion. The prefaces are found in the Prayer Book on pages 344-45 for Rite I and pages 38077. Hatchet, p. 350.
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81 for Rite II.
Following the Preface is the Sanctus, or Holy, Holy, Holy. This is the song of the Seraphim in
Isaiah's vision of God. Its use is directly taken from Jewish liturgical practice. In it, we join with the
angels in singing their eternal song of glory. The last two lines are the acclamation of Christ's entry into
Jerusalem. Presaging the breaking of the body of Christ, we again are reminded that the whole liturgy is
the dramatic re-presentation of the life of Christ.
The congregants may either remain standing throughout the remainder of the Eucharistic Prayer
or they may kneel. Standing is the stance of the priestly community offering the gifts to God. Kneeling is
the position of a contrite and humble community in awe of the Presence of God in our midst.
The body of the Eucharistic Prayer follows, including the Institutional Narrative. These are the
words that recount the events at the Last Supper when Jesus took, blessed, broke, and gave, thus
providing the framework for the actions for the Sacrament. Great stress has traditionally been laid upon
the Institutional Words "Take Eat: This is my Body" and "Drink this, all of you: This is my Blood". This
is anamnesis. The Institution is followed in Rite II by the Eucharistic Acclamation, as in Prayer "A"
beginning "Christ has died". This acclamation comes at the climax when we turn from Thanksgiving for
the mighty acts of God, and the anamnesis of the work of Christ, which has culminated in the offering of
the Bread and the Cup, to pray for the benefits of the Holy Spirit.
Before moving to the reception of the Body and Blood of Christ, i. e., the Communion itself, it is
best to recap what has been said about the central movement of the section. The Institutional Narrative,
the section beginning: "On the night in which He was betrayed .... ", as pointed out is our; it is our history,
our remembering, and calling to mind of our identity. It is a calling into the present. This is the event of
going beyond time. After recalling what happened on that night so long ago, perhaps a night not too
unlike tonight, we offer through the gifts the thanksgivings and memorials. This is the Oblation. "The
Oblation is the hinge of the whole Consecration Prayer. It gathers up the thanksgivings and memorials
that have gone before and offers them to God by means of the 'holy gifts,' the instruments of bread and
wine which our Lord Himself chose to represent His own sacrifice and to be occasion of its continuing
and 'innumerable benefits' to His Church.''78
In the context of worshiping God as Father, and relating God as Son, we next invoke God as
Spirit. We ask God to sanctify the elements and ourselves, as we offer not only the bread and wine but
ourselves as "living sacrifices." This asking for the presence of the Holy Spirit is called the Epiclesis or
Invocation. "All the ancient liturgies, as far back as we can trace them, contained some form of
78. Shepard, P. 80-81
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Invocation in their consecration Prayers."79 It is at this moment in the Eastern tradition in which it is
understood that the elements of bread and wine are changed to Body and Blood. It is the offering of
ourselves as part of the offerings that we bring. We request that we, too, may be hallowed. This is in
keeping with the most ancient Christian tradition. "The earliest forms request the hallowing of the
communicants or the Church no less than of the oblations."80 In Rite I this offering of ourselves is in the
paragraph that follows the Invocation and in both rites immediately precedes conclusion of the
Eucharistic Prayer. The culmination all of this is a short Doxology. This is the short section with the
phrase "By him, and with Him, and in Him, in the unity of the Holy Spirit....” Doxology is a term used in
other parts of the service. It is a triune or Trinitarian affirmation of praise. It is a short summary of the
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit structure.
The congregational response to all of this: The Institutional Narrative, the Oblation, the
Invocation of the Holy Spirit, and the Doxology, is the Great AMEN. At the end of the Doxology is the
word AMEN in capital letters. This is the only place where AMEN is in all capitals. Amen is a way for the
congregation to agree with what has been said; to affirm, to say "yes," we approve. It is a direct loan from
the Hebrew. When Israel affirmed what was said, prayed, taught it was with the word "Amen." Thus, in
like manner and in that unbroken tradition we approve worshiping God: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. We
affirm the presence of God in our midst, and at the Holy Table which is God's! And we agree with and
affirm the offering of ourselves, our souls, and bodies, as living sacrifices, holy and acceptable to God.
Following the Great Amen, is a short pre-Communion meditative prayer. This prepares us to
receive the Body and Blood of Christ, to commune with each other as the family of God, and sets the
proper perspective for our approach to God. This prayer is the "Our Father" or alternatively "The Lord's
Prayer". This follows the Consecration Prayer proper, and is the immediate preparation for receiving the
Eucharistic Body and Blood. This prayer has long been part of the devotions of the people. There is
evidence that it was used as a preparatory devotion before receiving the Eucharist in their homes on
weekdays. It is a standard part of the Eucharist from around 400 C.E.'81
One of the most dramatic moments in the service follows the conclusion of the Consecration
Prayer. Called the Fracture, it is the moment of the breaking of the Body of Christ. As so long ago His
Body was broken for us, re-enacted here for us, in a memorial sacrifice of His Body, is Christ, still yet
being broken for us. This is the climax of the Great Thanksgiving. Silence is kept for a time. As the
disciples recognized him in the breaking of the bread at Emmaus, so we too recognize him in the
Breaking of the Bread.
79. Shepherd, p. 80-81
80. Shepherd, p. 80-81
81. Hatchett, p. 378.
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An Anthem may be sung following the Fracture. This is often the Agnus Dei or 0 Lamb of God.
In Rite I the Prayer of Humble Access may be said as part of the preparation before receiving the
Communion. This prayer acknowledges our place at the Altar as one dependent on God's grace.
The invitation is given, and we gather at a Common Table to receive. We do not just sit in our
separate pews to passively receive, but we have our common call to come and receive Him "who takes
away the sins of the world". Rich and poor, young and old, short and tall, beautiful and ugly we are
changed as we gather together at a common Altar, a common Table, as manifestation of our unity.
We receive either kneeling or standing. The former is symbolic of our humble approach to God,
while the latter is symbolic of our nature as children of God. When the ministers pass among the
communicants, they use the words "The Body of Christ" and "The Blood of Christ", and we respond
"Amen", meaning "yes, I agree, affirm that this is the Body of Christ." I use my priesthood to affirm and
to complete what is happening, and I receive the Body and Blood of Christ.
The congregation kneels for the Post Communion Prayer. This prayer is short, but very compact
and with each phrase full of meaning and intention. The prayer sums up all the various strands of
everything said so far-the triune nature of the context, the Real Presence and saving Grace of our Lord. In
addition it serves to dedicate us in our entrance back into the world.
Once charged to go out into the world, we receive the Blessing. In the East it is this point that the
laying on of hands occurs, something we do much earlier. But the Blessing has this same character. The
priest lifts his hands and blesses, much the same as the priest in the Temple of Jerusalem did so long ago,
and the Cohen still does today in the synagogue. The priest lifts his hands and blesses, a kind of long
distance laying on of hands for the entire congregation. We are fully healed or made whole in
Communion, and this is symbolized in the Blessing. The Dismissal is taken from Jewish services, which
begin and end by blessing in the Name of the Lord. We do likewise. Although we have a few variant
Dismissals to fit the proper time, occasion, and season, the basic idea remains, a blessing of God.
(Blessed are you, o Lord God, King of the Universe .... ). GO IN PEACE! Following the Dismissal the
ministers of the service leave. The congregation stands while the clergy, readers, and servers leave the
sanctuary.
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FOR FURTHER READING
Croquet, William R. Eucharist: Symbol of Transformation. Pueblo Publishing Company, New York
[1989].
Driver, Tom F. The Magic of Ritual. Harper, San Francisco [1991].
Mitchell, Leonel L. The Meaning of Ritual. Morehouse, Harrisburgh, Pa. [1977].
Sydnor, William. The Story of the Real Prayer Book. Morehouse, Wilton [1978].
Thompson, B. Liturgies of the Western Church. Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1962.
White, James F. Introduction to Christian Worship, Abingdon Press, Nashville [1980].
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CHAPTER VI
INTRODUCTION TO THE LITURGY:
HOLY BAPTISM
This chapter is designed to explain and point out the various parts of the service of Holy Baptism.
It is to be used in conjunction with the chapter on the Holy Eucharist.
Baptism was the primary rite of initiation into the Christian community. This rite is what makes
one Christian. The Episcopal Church, as part of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church maintained
this pattern of becoming a Christian. Confirmation by the bishop at a later stage in one's development
became the customary pattern in Anglicanism. This pattern changed as Baptism assumed its proper place
as the sacrament of entrance into the church. Confirmation became an adult response to the vows taken in
Baptism. Baptism was the beginning of new life in Christ. "Baptism is a sacrament of beginnings, of
newness, of grace, of a fresh start within history and in the depths of individual life."82
THE MEANING OF BAPTISM
From the beginning of the Christian community as it emerged from the matrix of Judaism,
Baptism has been fundamental to the life of the community. It has always been understood to be what
made one Christian. This was when one was born again or born from above (ãåííçèyíáé Tíùèåí). This
notion has continued to be integral to the sacrament, and continued to be expressed in the sacrament itself.
In Judaism baptism was part of the ceremonies that were performed for proselytes who had come into the
faith of Israel. Here there was re-birth into a new way of life. Both men and women were baptized; and in
addition men were circumcised prior to baptism. Baptism occurred as part of the understanding of being
born into Israel. "Coming out of the water, the candidate was signed as God's sheep, slave, and soldier by
the marking on the forehead with a Taw (Τ), the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, symbol of the name of
God."83 This became the paradigm for entrance into the church that was brought directly into the nascent
Christian community.
In the early church, baptism was not simply administered because someone decided they wanted
to become Christian. The process of becoming Christian took up to three years. This was a period of
probation, education, and nurturing in what it meant to be Christian. In this period also it was a time for a
person to decide if he/she wanted to partake of the community which might cost them their life. The un82. Daniel B. Stevick, Baptismal Moments: Baptismal Meanings. The Church Hymnal Corporation, New York (1981), p. 1.
83. Hatchett, p. 251-2.
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baptized were allowed to take part in the opening part of the service. The first part of the liturgy included
hymns, scripture readings, and sermon. There were no prayers in this part of the service. Following the
sermon the catechumens, as the un-baptized newcomers were called, were dismissed, the doors locked,
and the deacon would declare that all was now ready to continue to the Eucharist.
For the first time in the liturgy, prayers were offered. "In rites as late as that described in the
catechetical instructions of Saint John Chrysostom (c. CE 390), those who were immersed came out of the
water and, as soon as they were clothed, took their places among the congregation to participate for the
first time in the prayers of the people and the exchange of the peace."84 Only the baptized were allowed to
hear the prayers, because only those who have been incorporated into Christ can pray through his Name.
This incorporation into Christ was Paul's phrase, in Christo. Further, from the earliest times while the
Eucharist was an ever repeated event, Baptism was not. "It is of the essence of the Eucharist that it is
repeated, whereas Baptism cannot be repeated for the individual."85
In the Early Church, the rite was administered following the lengthy, three-year catechumenate.
At this point the un-baptized persons were dismissed following the sermon. Then followed the prayers
and the celebration of the Eucharist. Now when all was in readiness the candidate for baptism disrobed
and removed all jewelry. Then nude, as at their first birth, the candidates entered the water. They were
interrogated by the Bishop or Presbyter. Following each interrogation (Do you believe ... ) the person was
immersed in the water. Following the baptism they were anointed with oils of birth and clothed in new
clothes. They had been reborn!86
The initial rubrics on page 298 of the Book of Common Prayer concerning the service make it
plain that Holy Baptism is the full initiation into the church. Baptism is part of the life of the gathered
Church, the Community of the Faithful, and thus finds its proper celebration within the Eucharist as the
chief service on Sunday or feast day. This means that the old practice of private baptism being the norm
(as it was before the 1979 edition of the Prayer Book) is no longer appropriate. Except for special
situations that require pastoral sensitivity (which really means some type of emergency situation or of
exceptional circumstances), private baptisms are no longer to be performed. Baptism is meant to be a
community celebration and is properly celebrated within the Eucharistic setting of the life of the
community. In accordance with the Additional Directions (Book of Common Prayer, pp. 312-13),
Baptism is to be celebrated most appropriately at the Easter Vigil, the Day of Pentecost, All Saints' Day
or the Sunday after All Saint's Day, and on the Feast of the Baptism of our Lord (the First Sunday after
the Epiphany) or at the visitation of the Bishop. If for any reason there are no Baptisms on these days,
then the congregation appropriately says the Renewal of Baptism Vows.
84. Hatchett, p. 278.
85. Oscar Cullmann, Baptism in the New Testament, SCM Press, London (1950), p. 29.
86. Stevick, pp. 8-9.
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In case of emergency, any baptized person may baptize another. Give the name, if known, of the
person and say, "I baptize you in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." This is
described on pages 313-314 of the Prayer Book.
The service opens in the same way as the Eucharist, the first part of the service being The
Liturgy of the Word. Following the opening acclamation the celebrant moves directly to the Collect of
the Day. If desired the Gloria in Excelsis may be sung just after the opening versicles and before the
salutation and Collect.
Following the Lessons and Sermon the service continues with the presentation and examination
of the candidates for baptism.
Two forms of presentation are given-one for adults, the other for children. The present Prayer
Book assumes adult baptism as the norm. This is in conformity with the Early Church as a missionary
community whose primary converts were adults. If the candidate is a child then questions are asked of the
parents and godparents. If the person is an adult, or old enough to answer for himself or herself, then they
are addressed directly. If old enough to answer for himself or herself, the candidate is presented and asked
immediately: Do you desire to be baptized?
The renunciations follow the initial question to the candidate. Since the Early Church the
candidate has been asked to renounce Satan, the world, and sinful desires (the flesh) which draw one from
God. In the Early Church the person made the renunciations facing west, then turning toward the east
made the affirmations. The west symbolizes death and the east symbolizes new life and resurrection.
These are followed by the question to the congregation to support these persons in their life in Christ.
This question is a formal recognition of one's incorporation in the church and the church's responsibility
to the newly baptized.
The Baptismal Covenant is the "Apostle's Creed" in interrogative form. This Creed has from its
very beginning been associated with Baptism. Its evolution is its setting in Baptism. It is derived from the
three-fold interrogation at the time of Baptism. As issues of the faith came to the fore, the Creed grew to
cover the issues of God the Creator, the person of Jesus, the place of the Spirit, and the church. The Creed
is followed by five questions whereby all pledge to be faithful in the apostolic faith, to participate in the
worship of the community; to resist evil, and repent when one fails to do so; to proclaim the Good News
by one's life; to serve others; and to strive for justice and peace respecting the dignity of every person.
The Thanksgiving over the Water recalls Salvation History from Creation to the saving acts of
Jesus. The prayer recalls the archetype of water in Creation, in Israel passing through the sea, and in
Jesus' baptism at the hands of John. It also recalls that as we die with Christ, so are we raised with him in
his Resurrection. Here we are reborn by the Holy Spirit, which recalls Jesus' talk with Nicodemus in
John's Gospel. The crossing of the Red Sea by Israel is a major archetype of Baptism. Here is movement
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from bondage and death to freedom and life.
Justin Martyr, who wrote in the middle of the second century of the Common Era, has a
description of the rite of Baptism in his First Apology. "Lest we be judged unfair in this exposition, we
will not fail to explain how we consecrated ourselves to God when we were regenerated through Christ.
Those who are convinced and believe what we say and teach is the truth, and pledge themselves to be able
to live accordingly, are taught in prayer and fasting to ask God to forgive their past sins, while we pray
and fast with them. Then we lead them to a place where there is water, and they are regenerated in the
same manner in which we ourselves were regenerated. In the name of God, the Father and Lord of all, and
of our Savior, Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Ghost, they then receive the washing with water. For Christ
said: 'Unless you be born again, you shall not enter the kingdom of heaven.' Now, it is clear to everyone
how impossible it is for those who have been born once to enter their mother's wombs again .... And this
is the reason, taught to us by the Apostles, why we baptize the way we do."'87
The rubrics of the Prayer Book set immersion as the preferred form of Baptism with pouring as
secondary. It has long been customary to pour the water over the person's head rather than dip or immerse
them in the water. In the Eastern Orthodox Churches immersion is still the practiced form of
administering baptism. From the Didache, a writing of around 85-90 CE we receive instructions on how
to Baptize.88 The practice that is described is already by the time of the writing the customary form. This
means that this practice is twenty to thirty years older than the text describing it. Hence, this places the
practice in the time of Paul, 55-60 CE.89 "Regarding baptism, baptize thus. After giving the foregoing
instructions, 'Baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit' in running water.
But, if you have no running water, baptize in any other; and, if you cannot in cold water, then in warm.
But, if the one is lacking, pour the other three times on the head 'in the name of the Father, and Son, and
Holy Spirit.' But, before the baptism, let the one who baptizes and the one to be baptized fast, and any
others who are able to do so. And you shall require the person being baptized to fast for one or two
days."90
At the time of the Baptism the candidate is called by name. This signifies the uniqueness of each
person and is emblematic of God calling us each by name. This is this person's own unique moment as he
or she experiences new birth and new identity. In previous Prayer Books the priest declared, "Name this
child," and then baptized the child by the name given.
Following the Baptism the person may be given, by rubric, a candle (p. 313 in the Prayer Book).
87. Thomas B. Falls, Translator. Saint Justin Martyr: First Apology, Christian Heritage, Inc., New York (1948), p. 99.
88. John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, Harper, San Francisco (12991), p. 431.
89. Michael W. Holmes, Editor. The Apostolic Fathers, “The Didache (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles)”, 2nd. Edition, Baker Book House,
Grand Rapids Michigan (1992) pp. 247-48.
90. Francis X. Glimm; Marique, Joseph M.; Walsh, Gerald G., translators. The Apostolic Fathers, “The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles”, CIMA Publishing co., Inc., New York (12947), p. 177.
77
This symbolizes the new light that has come over the person. Justin Martyr speaks of the illumination that
comes in Baptism. "This washing is also illumination, since they who learn these things become
illuminated intellectually. Furthermore, the illuminated one is also baptized in the name of Jesus Christ,
who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and in the name of the Holy Spirit, who predicted through the
Prophets everything concerning Jesus."91
The prayer that follows the Baptism draws attention to what has just happened in Baptism. In
Baptism we receive the forgiveness of sins. We die with Christ in his death and are raised with him to
new life. In the new life we are called to have an inquiring and discerning attitude to life, much like the
new born baby does to the life that is experienced in a world full of wonder and surprises.
Following the Baptism the person is signed with the cross on the forehead.
Alternately, the bishop or priest may use oil for the signation. The sign of the cross derives from
the Hebrew Taw (Τ) that was signed on the forehead of the proselytes following their Baptism. It is a
"branding" of the person with the sign of Christ. In the ancient world a slave was branded, much as cattle
are today, with the sign of their master. So we are "branded" with the sign of our Master, an indelible
mark.
The oil used in this rite is the oil of chrism or new birth. In the ancient world the baby was
anointed with oil at birth. In the rite of Baptism the one who is born anew is anointed with the oil of new
birth. Oil was also used in the anointing of kings and priests. This anointing is seen in the story of Saul,
David, Solomon, and others throughout the Scriptures. Our anointing at Baptism signifies our life in the
new community of priests and kings. We are "christened". This term carries the double meaning of
anointing and being in Christ. The Hebrew word Messiah and the Greek word Christ mean "the anointed
one." This seems to be the source for Paul's use of "in Christ." The use of the chrism further reinforces the
presence and place of the bishop in the life of the church. "Because the chrism can be consecrated only by
a bishop, its use in the absence of a bishop signifies the relationship of that office to baptism.'92
It is from the signation that we derive the devotional use of the sign of the cross. This goes back
to the Early Church. "In the early church the devotional use of the sign of the cross was a reminder of
one's baptism.”93 Today each time we make the sign of the cross it still has a relation to our baptism. The
sign is made upon entering or leaving the church or chapel as we make use of the holy water stoop in
some churches or chapels signifying our recalling of our Baptism and entrance into the church, the Body
of Christ. It is made at the mention of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in whose name we are baptized. In
the Creed at the mention of the Resurrection of the dead we make the sign because in baptism we were
buried with Christ and raised with him in his Resurrection. The same is true with the Prayers of the
91. Justin Martyr, p. 100.
92. Hatchett, p. 281.
93. Hatchett, p. 280.
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People when we pray for those who have died. It occurs at the time of absolution when our sins are pronounced forgiven. It is in Baptism that we receive the forgiveness of sins; in the Sanctus at the Benedictus
qui venit (Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord) for through our baptism we stand without fear
or shame at the coming of the Lord. At the time of receiving the Bread and Wine the sign of the cross is
made for it is through baptism that we are admitted to the Table of the Lord. Finally, when the blessing is
given, we make the sign of the cross as we appropriate the blessing of God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit
to our self. The devotional use of the sign of the cross is never required. But for some, it is an aid to
worship. When used devotionally it is always a recalling of our Baptism, the vows that we have taken,
and the one to whom we belong.
The newly baptized person is now welcomed by the community into the household of faith. This
welcoming outlines the characteristics of the life we have taken upon ourselves in Baptism. We are to
confess Christ crucified. We are to proclaim his Resurrection. We are to share in his eternal priesthood
into which we have been anointed. Following the welcoming the Peace is exchanged.
In the Early Church this point was the first time that the candidates had received the Peace. Until
now they were dismissed from the services. Now they received the Peace and offered their gifts of bread
and wine along with the other members of the community in preparation for the Eucharist. This would
have been their first Eucharistic celebration.
The newly baptized are the newest members of the community of faith. The community now
gathers to offer the Eucharist. Baptism is full admission to the Eucharistic celebration and Table. Thus
their first official act as members of the household is to eat at the Table of the Lord. This includes the
children as well as adults.
ALTERNATIVE ENDING TO THE RITE
In the alternative ending to the rite when there is not a celebration of the Eucharist, the prayer
which is said reminds us that we are adopted children of God. It is through our Baptism that we become
children of God. Not only are we incorporated in the church, we now bear the reality of being children of
God who have been born through baptism.
Baptism is to be administered only once to a person. We need not be re-adopted over and over
again. From the earliest times, the administration of Baptism was once for all. In our tradition we
understand that anyone who has been baptized in water in the name of the Father and the Son and the
Holy Spirit has been properly baptized and does not need to be repeatedly baptized. This is dependent on
our understanding that baptism is a sacrament, i.e., an act whose chief actor is God. For this reason if
there is some doubt as to whether a person has been baptized or that their baptism was valid (in water in
the name of the Trinity), then they may be conditionally baptized. The difference occurs in the words
79
used in the administration of the sacrament: "If you are not already baptized, I baptize you .... " In
conditional baptism the intent not to re-baptize is upper most. Thus, if one's baptism is not known for
sure, then by being conditionally baptized the person is assured of baptism.
FOR FURTHER READING
Davies, J.G. The Architectural Setting of Baptism. London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1962. Eliade, M. Rites
and Symbols of Initiation: The Mysteries of Birth and Rebirth. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.
Meyers, Ruth A. Editor. Baptism and Ministry. The Church Hymnal Corporation, New York [1994].
Stevick, Daniel B. Baptismal Moments; Baptismal Meanings. Church Hymnal Corp., New York [1987].
80
CHAPTER VII
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER:
ITS HISTORY AND CONTENTS
The Prayer Book provides the structure and contents of the services of the Episcopal Church. The
liturgy of the Episcopal Church that is in the Book of Common Prayer has its origins in the liturgy of the
Early Church and beyond into the liturgy of Israel. This liturgical tradition can be traced back through the
various writings of the church into the Patristic period into the New Testament and beyond into the
Hebrew Scriptures. The Book of Common Prayer is more than just a set of services for a particular
community. It is first the expression of what that community believes. It is the structure of the faith of that
community. If one wants to know what the Episcopal Church or any of the Anglican Churches believes,
then attend the worship of that community. The church at prayer is the believing church expressing its
faith delivered once and for all to the saints.
Second, the liturgy informs us. This means that the liturgy is the formative force in our
spirituality. It is through the participation and action in the liturgy that our approach to life and the world
is formed and shaped as well as given substance. It is a radical sense of giving structure and meaning to
what we understand to be the Christian faith or Regula Fidei. This is one of the reasons that we never take
our worship lightly or the Prayer Book for granted. This is the historic and apostolic worship of the
church according to the English Rite, and is one of the two ties or links with the ages, the bishops being
the second link.
The First Book of Common Prayer of Edward VI, published in 1549, was the work of the
Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Cranmer used the Sarum Rite, the rite of Salisbury
Cathedral, as the standard or basic structure for the English Rite. The first of the services to be translated
into English was the Great Litany. This majestic litany has remained in all the Prayer Books including the
present one. Cranmer's ingenious work was to take the five books that were previously needed to conduct
the services of the church and reduce them to one. He thus produced one book in English containing all
that was needed by the people and clergy to provide full participation in all services of the church.
"At that time all things necessary for conduct of the Eucharist were gathered into one book-the
missal; material for the daily offices into the breviary, litanies into the processional, pastoral offices into
the manuale (agenda or rituale), episcopal rites into the pontifical or benedictional. Rules for the conduct
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of the rites were collected in the ordinale (customary, or pie)."94 So out of these five service books, with a
sixth giving the rules for the conduct of the rites, was to come one book of manageable size for both
clergy and laity.
The feat was accomplished by reducing the number of services (the seven canonical
hours of prayer of the breviary reduced to Morning and Evening Prayer) and shortening them; by placing
the collect, Epistle, and Gospel for each Sunday and major feast day together (hence reducing the great
multiplicity of observances); and including the Psalter. Also included were the order for Holy Baptism
and Holy Communion, along with the five minor sacraments of the Church-Confirmation, Reconciliation
of a Penitent (Confession), Marriage, Unction, and Ordination: providing for the visitation of the sick and
dying, and the churching of women. The total round-of-life events were provided for, having them in
English, the language of the people, and printed in a convenient volume. This provided the people the
ability to participate fully in the services of the church not only corporately, but in family gatherings and
private prayer. This Prayer Book had its roots in the life and liturgy of the Early Church. This was the first
time it had been written in the language of the people for the purpose of providing for their full participation in the worship of the church. This was both a new development issuing from the Middle Ages,
liturgy in the language of and for the whole people; and the reinstitution of the ancient practice and
precedent. The Primitive Church knew a living liturgy that had come from the worship of Israel in both
synagogue and Temple. The whole church participated in the liturgy, lay and clergy. It was not until the
beginning of the Middle Ages that this ceased to be the case.
During the Middle Ages the liturgy became the sole propriety of the clergy, with the people as
spectators-at best. The language of worship in the West was Latin. This provided for uniform
understanding by those who knew Latin, but the common person no longer spoke it nor understood it. The
great mystery of the Eucharist became an esoteric and removed experience. The Presence of Christ in the
Eucharist became magic. The words of the priest had become unintelligible to the common person, and
what he did seemed like hocus pocus. This quip was derived from what people thought the priest was
saying in the solemn act of consecration: "Hoc est corpus meam" (This is my body), which only
underscores the depth of the problem. The liturgy had become a time for private devotions and infrequent
communion at best which had its consequences. These consequences became the norm for the centuries
following and the origin of them lost to the participants.
Among these consequences was the manner and frequency of receiving communion; with so few
taking communion the cup became reserved for the clergy alone. The people were required to receive
only once a year-at Easter. Reception of Communion throughout the year by the laity was very infrequent.
Hence, it evolved that only the bread would come to be offered to the people.
94. Hatchett, p. 4.
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A TABLE SHOWING THE HISTORICAL DESCENT
OF THE AMERICAN PRAYER BOOK95
Rites of the Ancient Church
Western (Latin) rites
Roman
Eastern (Greek) rites
Gallican
English uses,
notably Sarum
Lutheran
Orders
FIRST PRAYER BOOK
OF EDWARD VI, 1549
SECOND PRAYER BOOK
OF EDWARD VI, 1552
1559 ed.
1604 ed.
SCOTTISH BOOK, 1637
(Laud's Liturgy)
ENGLISH PRAYER BOOK, 1662
Scottish Communion
Office, 1764
AMERICAN PRAYER BOOK, 1789
Revision of 1892
Scottish Prayer
book, 1911
English Proposed
Book of 1928
Revision of 1928
Revised, 1929
Revision of 1979
I.
95. Shepherd, Jr. Massey Hamilton. The Oxford American Prayer Book Commentary, Oxford University Press, New York (1950), p. xxiii
[updated for the 1979 revision].
83
With the evolution of the role of the laity as spectators, private devotional manuals and practices
developed. One of these was the Rosary or prayer beads; other forms were liturgical and devotional
books, such as The Book of Hours, which could be read while the Mass was being celebrated. In the
meantime the practice of the religious communities was having an effect on the life of the church. The
practice of nuns, friars, and monks in their daily rounds of prayer were setting the standard of prayer for
the laity. In the seven canonical hours of prayer of the religious communities was evolving a paradigm of
worship and spirituality that defined what it meant to be "religious." The religious became the
professional supplicants for the uninformed laity. It came to be understood that in the daily round of
prayer offered by the religious was the church-at-prayer. In the coming centuries in England, through the
Book of Common Prayer, the church-at-prayer would become the nation-at-prayer. Now those who would
be active in the everyday life of the church would be referred to as "religious" without any remembrance
of the former and original meaning of this term. It was the Book of Common Prayer that played one of the
major roles in this development.
The First Prayer Book of Edward VI was published in 1549, and immediately met with criticism
from the Puritan side. A revision along Puritan lines was published in 1552, but was short lived due to the
death of Edward and the ascension of Mary to the throne in 1553. Mary abolished the "new religion" and
attempt to return England to Roman Catholic authority. Many of the leaders of the English Church were
killed under Mary, including Thomas Cranmer. The ascension to the throne of Elizabeth I in 1558 saw the
restoration of the Book of Common Prayer. In 1559 the Elizabethan revision was issued which
exemplified the great Elizabethan compromise, as she steered a course between the two extremes of
Puritan and Catholic parties. In 1662 the Prayer Book underwent another major revision with the restoration of the monarchy, following the demise of the Commonwealth. (The 1604 revision was the Prayer
Book used in James Town and the North American Colonies until the 1662 revision. The 1604 Prayer
Book was a mild revision of the 1559 Book.) The 1662 Prayer Book was the Book the American Colonies
used through the Revolution. It was the official Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England from
1662 to the present, and was the basis for all other Prayer Books of the Anglican Communion, including
our own.
The post-Revolutionary church in the United States maintained the historic succession of the
liturgy of the Church of England in the life of the American Church. Hence, the Book of Common Prayer
of the Episcopal Church in the United States of American traced its heritage through the Prayer Books of
the Church of England in historic succession. In 1789 the first American revision of the Prayer Book was
authorized by Convention. The American Book was revised in 1892 and 1928. The 1979 Prayer Book, the
present authorized liturgy of the Episcopal Church, was authorized in 1979 by the General Convention.
The contents of the Prayer Book cover the various moments of the sanctification of time, space,
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and things. It provides for the cycles of life from daily prayer to birth in Baptism, nourishment in the
Eucharist, to mature commitment in Confirmation, to marriage, family, vocation, renewal in
reconciliation, to sickness and health, to the final moment of passing from this life to the next in death. To
have a rudimentary understanding of the use of the Prayer Book one must "walk" through it from cover to
cover. This will assist in the familiarization of the Prayer Book, but only as a prelude to the appropriation
of the Prayer Book spirituality which comes through regular use. As one uses the Prayer Book as a
regular and disciplined part of prayer and worship, there is the slow formation of the prayers becoming
not the prayers of a book, but the prayers of the faithful, and hence one's own prayers! Through the use of
the Prayer Book we join with countless throngs of the faithful who have prayed these prayers and been
nourished in this spirituality. Through the centuries a particular spirituality has developed through the use
of the Book of Common Prayer. Our faith becomes "informed" by the Prayer Book and receives its
content, direction, and energy from the life of the liturgy. Here is the nourishment that sustains our
spiritual life.
This Prayer Book was originally for the English-speaking peoples of England. Since that
beginning the Anglicanism has spread throughout the world. No longer is its sole or primary language
English. Today the Episcopal Church is no longer, nor is the Anglican Communion, the church of the
English-speaking people. It is a church of many races and languages. Today in New York City alone, on
any given Sunday, the liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer is celebrated in 22 different languages!
THE STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS OF THE PRAYER BOOK
The structure of the Book of Common Prayer provides the framework of the life of the church
and the spiritual life of the individual member of the church. When asked what Episcopalians believe, it is
appropriate and essential to look at the worship of the Episcopal Church. The way we worship provides
the rationale and formation for what we believe. This follows the Latin expression Lex orandi, lex
crendendi ("the law of prayer, the law of faith").
At the beginning of the examination of the Book of Common Prayer it is noted that the Prayer
Book is not copyrighted. Instead there is a certificate which certifies that the book in hand conforms to the
Standard Book of Common Prayer, and is hence the authorized liturgy of the Episcopal Church. Because
the Prayer Book is the liturgy of the church according to the English rite, it is not possible to copyright
that which is by definition public domain.
This is the worship of the church which by definition is open to the whole church, not just
Episcopal or Anglican. This is the Prayer Book of all the baptized. This statement echoes the idea of the
"Nation at Prayer" of the Elizabethan Church. It also underscores the fact that we do not perceive
ourselves as a denomination. We understand ourselves as the English expression of the Catholic Church.
Catholic refers not just to universal, but to that historic body of faith and practice which distinguish it
85
from other expressions of Christian practice, i.e. Protestant, sectarian, and partisan. The Catholic Church
is that which holds and maintains the unbroken historic continuity of faith and tradition from the age of
the apostles to the present. This faith and tradition includes the historic episcopate, the practice and
tradition of the Catholic Faith, and custodian of the repository of beliefs of the historic church. There are
several expressions of the Catholic Faith. Among these are the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox
Churches of the East, the Coptic Church, and the Anglican Church. All of these traditions represent the
Catholic Faith.
There is set forth at the beginning of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer in the Preface taken from
the 1789 Prayer Book expressing the Episcopal Church's understanding of the worship of the church. This
is followed by an explicit series of statements concerning the service of the church. One important
statement is that the Holy Eucharist and Daily Morning and Evening Prayer are the regular services of the
church. Another is that all four orders of the church have their proper function and place in the worship of
the church. Hence, laity, bishops, priests, and deacons are to assume their rightful role in the church's
liturgical life. The calendar of the Church Year explains the structure of the year and lists the principle
feasts and fasts of the church. This section also contains by month and days of the month the various
major and minor feasts of the church, often referred to as the "Red Letter" (major) and "Black Letter"
(minor) Days.
One needs to note the rubrics that are found throughout the Prayer Book. Rubrics are the
directions, usually in smaller type, which direct the course of the services. Rubrics are important because
they give the directions and explanations of parts of the service or Prayer Book. A clergy person could be
brought up on charges of breaking the rubrics of the Prayer Book. Obviously they are not just for
consideration or optional, but are considered very important in the meaning and structure of the details of
the services. The term rubric comes from the Latin word for red, because the rubrics were often written in
red ink in the service books. Today the Altar Book has red rubrics. The 1979 Prayer Book contains not
only rubrics throughout the services, it also has general directions at the beginning of each service about
the general conduct of the service. And there are additional directions at the end of each service that give
further detailed directions and instructions on the conduct of the services under consideration. This
expanded style of rubrics is new in the service books of the Anglican Communion.
The language of the Prayer Book has traditionally been Elizabethan English. The use of "Thee"
and "Thou" has become, in the English speaking world, the "holy language" of prayer. However, it is no
longer the language of the people, the common language. As a point of note this is very different from the
intention of the first English Prayer Books. "Thee" and "Thou" are like their equivalents in French,
Spanish, and other languages; they are the familiar and intimate use of the personal pronoun-not formal.
This is an ironic turn in the course of history. English no longer has special cases which denote the
86
familiar and intimate as opposed to the formal, yet the liturgy of the church, and hence, the Prayer Book,
considered it imperative that the intimate use of the personal pronouns be used in reference to God! This
is underscored by Jesus' continual reference to God as Abba, the Aramaic for "Daddy." From the
beginning there has been a profound level of intimacy between God and God's people.
THE DAILY OFFICE
The Prayer Books from the First Book of Edward VI in 1549 until the present revision of the
American Book contained the Daily Offices of Morning and Evening Prayer with an accompanying
lectionary. This represented a reduction in the number of stated times for prayer which had been familiar
in the religious communities of monks, friars, and nuns. In our present Prayer Book the traditional Daily
Morning (pp. 37-60) and Evening Prayer (pp. 61-73) is maintained as Rite I, using the traditional
language of Elizabethan English. Rite II designates the use of Contemporary English. The proper Psalms
and Lessons for each day are provided in the Daily Office Lectionary (pp. 934- 1001). The Daily Office
Lectionary follows a two year cycle of readings. When followed daily it provides that the New Testament
will be read through in a year and the Old Testament in two years. The Psalms will be read in their
entirety every eight weeks. Under Rite II Daily Morning (pp. 75-102) and Evening Prayer (pp. 115126) has been joined by three other restored forms of the daily round of prayer.
The Noonday Prayer (pp. 103-107) is a short rite designed to be used for the monastic offices of
prayer known as the "little offices" of Terce, Sext, and None and may be used for private or corporate
devotion. "The service provided in this edition of the Prayer Book is so constructed that it may be used
for any or all of the traditional little offices-- Terce, Sext, or None. The first lesson and the first collect
have reference to the Holy Spirit, traditional for the office of Terce. The second lesson and collect relate
to the crucifixion. Both the second and third collects mention the noon hour and are prayers for the
church's mission. The third lesson and final collect may be used at None."96
An Order of Worship for the Evening (pp. 108-114) has its origins in the lighting of the
Sabbath lights which occurs as the family begins the Sabbath meal. The lighting of the candles is done by
the mother or wife of the house with the barukh or thanksgiving for light and the Sabbath. The first
century Christians followed the Jewish custom of blessing of the lights. "Evidence of such Christian ritual
appears in the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus (Rome, c. CE 215)."97 This service may be done by itself
as a devotion for the evening or as the beginning of the Eucharist, or as a family devotion as the evening
begins.
An Order for Compline (pp. 127-135) has become one of the very popular services in the 1979
Prayer Book. It is used by groups on retreat, in gatherings before retiring for the evening, and at home by
96. Hatchett, p. 132.
97. Hatchett, p. 134.
87
families just before going to bed. It may also be used in chapels, and it may be sung, much in the same
way as it was sung in the monastic chapter houses of another age.
Daily Devotions for Individuals and Families (pp. 136-140) provide, on the pattern of Morning
and Evening Prayer, structured devotions for convenient use for individuals and families who wish to
make use of a structured form in their prayer life.
The Great Litany (pp. 148-155) was the first of the Latin services that Thomas Cranmer
translated into the English. The term litany refers to a form of prayer in which the people respond with a
set form to the short petitions. "The Litany was the first rite published in English, in 1544, as a special
supplication when Henry VIII was at war with Scotland and France."98 Its continuous use makes it the
oldest service in English in the Book of Common Prayer. In fact "it is the only service of the Prayer Book
that continued in use during the reign of Queen Mary (1553-58) and the Catholic reaction against the
work of the Reformers."99 The Litany, which for the most part is addressed to God the Son, is composed
of five parts: invocations, deprecations, obsecrations, suffrages, and supplications. The Litany may be
used as a complete service by itself, as the beginning of the Eucharist or within the Daily Office of
Morning or Evening Prayer. It may be sung or said in Procession or standing or kneeling with the priest
and people in their accustomed places in the church or chapel where services are conducted. It is often
used during Lent and on days of national supplication-in time of war or in the event of a natural disaster,
for instance.
The Collects for the Day are provided in traditional (pp. 159-210) and contemporary English (pp.
211-261). There is a collect for each lectionary listing for all major feasts, fasts, special occasions, and
Sundays throughout the year. Along with the Collect is provided the appropriate Proper Preface to be
used in the Eucharistic Prayer. Cite the notation on collects in the study of the Eucharist (p. 59) for a
fuller explanation of the construction and use of this form of prayer.
The Special Liturgies all concern Lent, and more specifically focus on Holy Week. This is the
first time that these have been included in the Prayer Book and their presence and structure underscore a
new perspective on the Liturgy. In the previous Prayer Books in order to have a special emphasis or
added aspect of the service of the Eucharist the added portion had to be placed either at the beginning or
end of the complete order of Holy Communion. Hence, one merely lengthened the already present service
of Holy Communion by adding either to the beginning or ending another complete service. In this Prayer
Book the special services, such as those of the Daily Offices, Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, Burial of
the Dead, Ordinations, plus the Special Liturgies, become the Ministry of the Word, being fully integrated
into the service instead of simply attached to it.
98. Hatchett, p. 155.
99. Shepherd, p. 54.
88
Each of these special services has the peculiar emphasis of the occasion that it celebrates.
Therefore, Ash Wednesday (pp. 264-269) provides for the special emphasis of that day in the life of the
faithful. The rubrics provide the instructions for the special liturgies of this day. Beginning this day, the
use of the word Alleluia and the Gloria in Excelsis are omitted until the first Eucharist of Easter. There is
provision for the imposition of ashes, as well as a penitential Psalm and Confession. The ashes used on
this day are traditionally from the burned palms of the previous year's Palm Sunday. The congregation is
usually reminded the previous week to return their palms for this purpose. This day begins the Great Fast
of the forty days. It is to be noted that the Sundays are excluded from the time frame of the fast. This is
because Sunday is always a feast day. It is for this reason that Lent begins on a Wednesday instead of a
Sunday. Therefore, there are more actual days from Ash Wednesday to Easter than forty, but only forty
fast days.
Holy Week is the week preceding Easter Day. This has since the second century been an intense
week of observance of the events of the last week of Jesus' life. Much of our information about the special
observances that spread from Jerusalem throughout the church comes from the diary of Egeria a fourth
century pilgrim to Jerusalem. The triduum sacrum or three days of Thursday, Friday, and Saturday take
on special significance by the end of the first century. By this time these days are part of the reconciliation
of the penitent as well the days of preparation for those to be baptized at the Great Vigil of Easter
beginning on Saturday night. By the beginning of the fourth century Palm Sunday marks the beginning of
the week, with the events of the week reenacted in Jerusalem. This practice spreads to the rest of the
world in the next few centuries.
The intensity of Holy Week sets its course with the Liturgy of the Palms and the reading of The
Passion Gospel in the Palm Sunday Liturgy (pp. 270-273). The Gospel account of the entry into
Jerusalem is read at the beginning of the special liturgy and provision is made for the blessing of the
palms and the ensuing procession. The Passion Gospel is read in the normal sequence of the Liturgy of
the Word and may be read as a whole or in different parts by members of the congregation, with the
congregation taking the part of the crowd as they cry out, "Crucify him." The customary responses before
and after the Gospel are omitted on this day. This dramatic reading of the Gospel on Palm Sunday is a
special feature of many congregations.
Maundy Thursday (pp. 274-275) restores for parochial use the liturgy of the washing of feet.
The term Maundy comes from the Latin mandatum, "the commandment." This service contains several
parts. The washing of feet is the special liturgy of the evening. This is also the time of the solemn
commemoration of the institution of the Lord's Supper. In many congregations, the altar is stripped before
the final blessing. In the stripping of the altar all appointments (the candlesticks, missal stand, books, etc.)
are removed from the Sanctuary, the linen on the altar is removed, and the altar left bare. The Reserved
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Sacrament is removed from the Aumbry, and is either consumed or placed on the altar of a side chapel.
This altar is referred to as the Altar of Repose. The door of the Aumbry is left fully open, and the eternal
flame is extinguished. The final blessing is given and the congregation leaves in silence into the darkness
of the night. In some congregations an all night vigil is kept following this service with members of the
congregation taking turns in the watch.
Good Friday (pp. 276-282) no longer incorporates the ancient recriminations against the Jews for
the death of Jesus. The 1979 liturgy suggests the collective guilt of humankind in this act. The liturgy is a
somber one in which we recall the mighty acts of God in the redemption of the world. As on Palm
Sunday, the Passion Gospel is read without the customary responses before and after the Gospel. The
service concludes on this day without a blessing. In some places, according to ancient custom, the
congregants receive Holy Communion from the Reserved Sacrament, the pre-consecrated elements
reserved on the Altar of Repose for this purpose from the service of the night before (Maundy Thursday).
This is known as the Mass of the Pre-Sanctified. There is not a consecration of the Eucharist on this day,
only reception from the Reserved Sacrament.
The Great Vigil of Easter (pp. 284-295) has its roots in the first century life of the church. The
Great Vigil was noted by Hippolytus in the Apostolic Tradition in the second century.100 This liturgy was
eliminated by the 1549 Prayer Book and in its place put a "proper Epistle and Gospel for Easter Even as a
special commemoration of our Lord's Burial and Descent into Hell.101 In the earliest days of the Christian
Church, the Great Vigil began at sundown on Saturday with the blessing of the new fire and continued
until sunrise on Easter Day, with the Eucharistic Feast of the Resurrection. Throughout the night there
was a great spiritual pilgrimage from darkness into light, from the beginning of Creation into the hope of
the New Creation, from the First Day to the Eighth Day of Creation, from new birth into the Feast of the
Kingdom of God. Here was enacted the whole of salvation history.
This service becomes the "keystone about which the rest of the church year is built. Other
baptisms of the year reflect this primary baptismal rite. Other Eucharists of the year are, to use the
analogy of Augustine of Hippo, the repeatable part of this rite. Today, in the Great Vigil of Easter, we
celebrate and make present (anamnesis) the pivotal events of the Old and New Testament heritage, the
passover of the Hebrews from the bondage of slavery in Egypt to the freedom of the Promised Land, the
passover of our Lord Jesus Christ from death, and our own passover from the bondage of sin and death to
the glorious liberty of new life in Christ Jesus."102
In our 1979 Prayer Book the ancient service of the Great Vigil is restored with its four traditional
parts: The Service of Light, The Service of Lessons, Christian Initiation, or the Renewal of Baptismal
100. Hatchett, p. 240.
101. Shepherd, p. 161.
102. Hatchett, pp. 242-3.
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Vows, and the Holy Eucharist with the administration of Easter Communion. Although a long service,
lasting for up to three hours, it is a detriment to the integrity of the service to omit any of the parts in
whole. Adjusting the internal parts of the whole of each of the four sections may shorten the service.
The Blessing of the New Fire begins in the total darkness of the Church as the Light of Christ in
the form of the Paschal Candle is carried into the midst of the congregation. It is appropriate for the
congregants to have individual candles that will be lighted from the Paschal or Christ Candle in turn as
the light of Christ spreads throughout the darkness that cannot overcome it. As the candles are lighted, the
deacon or priest or cantor sings the Exsultet.
The Service of Lessons, with its substantial number of lessons, is basic to the Vigil. "In the early
church the lessons extended from soon after sunset until cockcrow."103 In the 1979 Prayer Book there are
nine lessons. Each lesson has a Psalm or canticle that may be used.
Baptism or the Renewal of Baptismal Vows is an essential part of the Vigil. In the Early Church
this was the special time for baptisms. This is when the person passed from death to life along with Jesus.
Here is the crossing of the Red Sea as the new members moved from slavery to freedom, crossing over
the river Jordan from the Wilderness into the Promised Land and new Life. This is the culmination of the
long, three-year period of preparation, called the catechumenate. Today if there are no baptisms, then the
congregation renews their own baptismal vows.
The First Eucharist of Easter concludes the service. (From this tradition comes the customary
sunrise service on Easter Day, a practice whose roots have long been forgotten by most of those who
practice it.) As the service of the Eucharist begins, the candles on the altar are lit for the first time in the
service. This light is taken from the Paschal Candle, as have all the other lights in the service this evening.
The Alleluias are heard for first time since Lent began, and the bells are rung for the first time since they
were silenced on Maundy Thursday. Lent is over! Here is the time of celebration: "Alleluia Christ is
Risen. The Lord is Risen Indeed. Alleluia."
The Rite of Baptism (pp. 299-314), which is entrance into the church, is the first in the sequence
of sacramental acts of the church. Note Chapter VIII on Baptism for a fuller explanation of the service.
Holy Eucharist: Rite I (pp. 318-349) and Rite II (pp. 350-382)
The center of the Book of Common Prayer is the Eucharist-literally. This placement indicates the
continuing belief, expressed in previous Prayer Books, that the Eucharist is at the center of the Prayer
Book because it is the center of the life and worship of the church. Note Chapter V on the Eucharist, for a
fuller and detailed explanation of the meaning and content of this vital liturgy.
The proper lections for the celebration of the Eucharist are provided in the Eucharistic Lectionary
years A, B, C which are on pages 888-931 in the back of the Prayer Book.
103. Hatchett, p. 245.
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In the Additional Directions following the Eucharistic Rites is found for the first time in the Book
of Common Prayer directions and permission for the Reserved Sacrament. Until this 1979 Prayer Book,
the rubrics directed that any consecrated Bread and Wine remaining be reverently consumed. The rubric
in the previous Prayer Books read: "And if any of the consecrated Bread and Wine remain after the
Communion, it shall not be carried out of the Church; but the Minister and other Communicants shall,
immediately after the Blessing, reverently eat and drink the same." Now provision is made for Reserved
Sacrament to be kept for the sick and those who for weighty cause are unable to be present at the
Eucharist. The Reserved Sacrament is kept in an Ambry or Tabernacle. The Ambry is a wall safe and the
Tabernacle usually sits on the Altar or the retable of the Altar. A candle, either of white or red globe,
burns continuously as a sign of the Presence. This is called a Sanctuary Lamp.
PASTORAL OFFICES
Confirmation (pp. 413-419) along with reception and reaffirmation is provided in the Order for
Baptism. However there are many times, often preferred, when Baptism is administered at one time and
Confirmation at another. In the normal course of events Confirmation is a special time for an adult to
make an adult commitment to the Christian Faith expressed in Baptism. This is also the time when
members coming to the Episcopal Church from other communions formally come under the authority of a
bishop of the Episcopal Church. This service is designed to be part of the Ministry of the Word in the
Eucharistic Rite. In Confirmation, the candidate confirms the vows taken at baptism and receives the
laying-on-of-hands from the bishop. There is a prayer for reception of the Holy Spirit and the strengthening that comes from the indwelling of the Spirit. Reception is for those who have been confirmed by a
bishop in Apostolic Succession-for instance, a Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or bishop from one of
the other churches in the Catholic tradition.
In Reception the bishop receives the person under the authority of the bishop of the Episcopal
Church, and recognizes their Confirmation. Confirmation from a bishop in Apostolic Succession, like
Baptism in the name of the Trinity with water, is not repeatable. Reaffirmation is provided for those who
for various reasons wish to renew the commitment that they made in their Confirmation.
A Form of Commitment to Christian Service (pp.420-21) is designed for those who would make
a renewed commitment before the congregation as they embark on a new beginning in their lives. This is
a new service in the Prayer Book tradition.
Celebration and Blessing of a Marriage (pp.422-438) also includes the blessing of civil
marriage, which is new for the Prayer Book, as well as a form of marriage designating the vows to be
used which permits the composition of a rite along the guidelines provided. The Rite of Marriage is one
of the two services that seem to cause friction, the other being the Burial of the Dead. In our culture, and
maybe others, the marriage rite is perceived to be whatever the couple wants. Yet, here restrictions
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abound, because the Marriage Rite is a service of the church, not the prerogative of the couple to do as
they please.
First, there is required by canon that 30 days notice be given to officiate at a marriage. Second,
there is also required that the priest see that the couple has pre-marital counseling. Third, there are
restrictions on the type and content of the music that is used in the service. Fourth, the number,
placement, and size of floral arrangements are restricted. Fifth, types and use of candles must conform to
the strictures of worship. All this may seem rather odd and strange to most people unfamiliar with the
Episcopal Church, but the way we believe is the way we worship, and the way we worship is the way we
believe. The Prayer Book service for the Celebration and Blessing of Marriage is a beautiful, deep, and
profound rite. The rite is trans-cultural, exhibiting its antiquity and the collective wisdom of the ages. It is
understood that the Marriage Rite properly belongs with the Eucharistic Rite. Hence, the Marriage Rite
forms the Ministry of the Word in the Eucharistic Rite.
The 1979 Prayer Book provides for the first time for the blessing of a civil marriage. By this
inclusion it should be noted that the church has the understanding that there is a difference between a civil
or secular marriage and the marriage rite of the church or religious rite. At the discretion of the priest or
the desire of the couple, the Banns of Holy Matrimony may be published. "Banns" comes from the Old
English verb bannan, "to proclaim." The Banns are published on three consecutive Sundays prior to the
wedding. The form prescribed is in the Additional Directions on p. 437 of the Prayer Book.
Thanksgiving for the Birth or Adoption of a Child (pp. 439-445) replaces the former "Churching
of Women." This new service emphasizes the joy and responsibility of children in the life of families and
the church. It is a beautiful service that provides for a significant way to offer thanks to God for the gift of
children, and ask for the strength to carry forth this responsibility assumed as parents.
Reconciliation of a Penitent (pp. 446-452) is the first time in the Anglican Prayer Books that a
formal form for private confession and absolution has been set forth. Confession and Absolution is not
new to the Anglican Church. There has been, from the first Prayer Book, the General Confession with the
Absolution in the service. Of course there was maintained in the Anglican Prayer Books' Exhortation,
provision for private confession by having the priest say, "if there be any of you, who by this means
cannot quiet his own conscience herein, but requireth further comfort or counsel, let him come to me, or
to some other Minister of God's Word, and open his grief." But the 1979 Prayer Book provides two forms
of Confession. Through private confession, a person is provided with an avenue to constructively examine
his or her conscience, receive proper counsel, and receive and experience absolution.
Ministration to the Sick (pp.453-461) is from the beginning of Christian ministry an integral part
of the ministry. One need only recall that Jesus healed many throughout his ministry and handed this
ministry on to the Apostles so it might continue as an integral part of the church's life. Provision is made
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in the Visitation of Sick for prayers, unction, and the reception of Holy Communion. The anointing of the
sick with oil is not confined to the sick bed, but at various times opportunity is made in the regular
worship of the church for those who desire to come forward for anointing and laying on of hands for
healing. The oil that is used for unction is blessed by the bishop for that purpose.
Ministration at the time of Death (pp. 462-467) is provided through the Litany for the Dying.
This great prayer provides for the expression of the faith of the dying as well as the living as the family
gathers with the dying to offer these prayers. This service is usually conducted at the bedside of the
person dying. There is great strength and comfort that comes from the use of this service, both for the
dying person and for their family and friends.
Burial of the Dead (Rite I and II) (pp.468-507) is provided in traditional and contemporary
language. The Burial Office is an Easter Celebration. In our death we recall our Baptism when we died
with Christ and rose with him. The Paschal Candle is used at this service as it is at Baptisms. There are
several restrictions that assist us in the proclamation of our faith in the Resurrection. First, the casket is
closed before entering the church or chapel at the beginning of the service and is not to be opened again.
It is customary by rubric to cover the casket with a pall. The pall is a large blanket that covers the casket
entirely. The color is usually white or purple. Second, flowers are customarily limited to the ones
normally used at the regular Sunday service of worship. This means that any other flowers that may be
sent to the funeral will only be used at the grave. As with the other offices, the Burial of the Dead is
designed as the service of the Word to be followed by the Eucharist. This service also contains a prayer
for the consecration of the grave.
EPISCOPAL SERVICES
Ordination of Bishop (pp. 511), Priest (pp. 525-535), Deacon (pp. 537-547) are acts of the
whole Church. This constitutes the Ordinal of the Episcopal Church.
In the Anglican tradition, as in all the Catholic traditions, ordination is necessary for the
perpetuation of the ministry of Jesus Christ. It is our understanding that bishops in Apostolic Succession
(the Historic Episcopate), are necessary for the church to be the church. Bishops are the chief pastors of
the church. It is their responsibility to oversee the life of the church in its worship, teaching, and
discipline. The word "Episcopal" comes from the Greek Episcopos (EÅðßóêïðïò) or "overseer." We have
translated this as "bishop." This is an Anglicization of the Greek Episcopos: Episcop - Biscop - Bishop.
Hence, our church is one governed by bishops. The bishop is assisted in the governance of the church by
the council of presbyters or elders or priests.
The tern presbyter comes from the Greek Presbyteros (Ðñåóâýôåñïò) or elder. The English
corruption of the Greek word produces our term priest, in the same manner as bishop above. A priest sits
in council with the bishop in the governance of the church. Over the course of the first few centuries of
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the church, the presbyter received the authority to function on behalf of the bishop in the absence of the
bishop. Hence, the presbyter or priest pronounced absolution, blessed the Eucharistic Bread and Wine,
water of Baptism, and blessed the people. All these functions of the bishop were delegated to the priest in
the bishop's absence.
The bishop is assisted in the ministry of service by the deacon (The word deacon comes from the
Greek deaconos (ÄéÜêïíïò) meaning "servant.") The deacon served at Table and distributed the gifts to
the poor. Since early times one was ordained first a deacon and then a priest. Today there has been
revived not only this traditional form, but the enhancement of those ordained to be perpetual or vocational
deacons who do not intend to be ordained priests. They have revived the ancient and honorable ministry
of service.
All three of these terms are borrowed from the secular world and not the religious. None of them
belong to the religious sphere of Israel. The Episcopos is an "overseer" or "manager;" the Presbyteros is
an "elder" who, in council with other elders, governs the community; the Deaconos is a "servant" or
"table waiter." This is a new understanding of what ministry is to be in the new community of the church.
This is in extreme contrast to the cohanim (priest) of Israel who offered the sacrifices. This term is used in
the New Testament, but only for the people of God, the laity, and in the compound form of "High Priest,"
as applied to Jesus. Here is a very different understanding of ministry from that of old.
Celebration of a New Ministry (pp.558-565) continues the English practice of institution and
induction of the priest into a new ministry. The noteworthy act in this service is the handing of the keys of
the church to the priest, an act that signifies the priest's authority over the use of the buildings for the
spiritual strengthening of the people. The giving of the keys is a significant act that provides the priest
with an authority and oversight of the buildings and their use by others as well as the congregation itself.
In addition to the keys, the new priest is given various items pertaining to ministry by members of the
congregation. These include an oil stock, chalice and paten, vestments, and Bible.
The Dedication and Consecration of a Church or Chapel (pp.567-579) is the setting apart of a
building for sacred use. It is the sanctification of places. It provides for the consecration of the place of
worship by the bishop. In the past this was dependent on the place of worship being debt free. In the
present service, it is dependent on the first use of the building.
The Psalter, or Psalms of David (pp.582-808)
The translation of the Psalms in the 1979 Book of Common Prayer is a new translation especially
for the Prayer Book. The liturgical cadence of this translation makes it very suitable for worship. This
fact, along with its excellent English usage, is turning it into an ecumenical Psalter used by other
Christian bodies in their worship.
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Prayers and Thanksgivings (pp. 810-841)
These prayers are constitute a treasury of prayer for all occasions. The prayers cover the petitions
of the ages. It is would be worthwhile for anyone interested in the worship of the church to take time and
read over these many and varied prayers and thanksgivings. Here is a very rich anthology of the church at
prayer over the past two millennia.
Outline of the Faith, or Catechism (pp. 844-862)
This Catechism is a new one written to replace the one used in previous Prayer Books.
Unlike older versions, the answers in this Catechism are open-ended, producing food for thought,
instead of answers to be repeated by rote. The Catechism is constructed as a commentary on the Creed,
providing a point of departure for both teacher and student to investigate the Christian faith.
Historical Documents (pp. 864-878)
Various documents that are of historical significance to the Episcopal Church and its Prayer Book
are included in this section. It is worth taking time to look them over. They will help you gain a broader
understanding of our present identity as a church community. The documents in this section of the Prayer
Book include the Definition of Chalcedon of 451 CE and the Creed of Saint Athanasius that is used in the
1662 Prayer Book. This creed is the one removed from America's 1789 revision of the Prayer Book, to
satisfy questions of the English bishops who were being asked for their approval. Their approval was
given after the creed was removed. The Preface to the First Book of Common Prayer (1549) recalls our
understanding of the guiding principles that lie behind our Prayer Books. The Articles of Religion
(commonly called The Thirty-nine Articles) set forth the issues that confronted the Elizabethan church of
the sixteenth century. The final two documents are the Chicago/Lambeth Quadrilateral 1886, 1888 which
provide Anglicanism's understanding of what is essential for the church to be the church. Hence, any talks
and agreements acceptable to Anglicans must contain these four points as the minimum-namely: 1. The
Old and New Testaments as the Scripture; 2. The Apostle's Creed as the baptismal creed; and the Nicene
Creed as the summary of the Faith; 3. The two Sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist; 4. The Historical
Episcopate. These four points are essential to us if we are to be the Church of God.
Long before there was strong interest in the reunion of the divided church, the bishops formulated
these four points and they were ratified and adopted by the Lambeth Conference of 1888.
A NOTE ON THE USE OF THE LECTIONARIES.
There are two Lectionaries in the Prayer Book. The first is the Eucharistic Lectionary for
Sundays, Holy Days, Common of Saints, and Various Occasions (pp.889-931) with its three year cycle of
readings (A,B,C) and the readings for the Holy Days. This lectionary provides Old Testament, New
Testament, Psalm, and Gospel readings for each Sunday and appointed occasion. The inclusion of Old
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Testament readings re-introduces the Episcopal Church to the rich tradition of the Hebrew Scriptures
which had become blurred and blunted with the decline of the regular observance of the Daily Offices.
The second lectionary is the Daily Office Lectionary (934-1001), that is arranged in a two-year
cycle. The odd numbered pages are year one (noted at the bottom of the pages) and the even number
pages year two (noted at the bottom of the pages). This lectionary provides for the readings of Morning
and Evening Prayer with Psalms appointed for the morning and evening. If one reads the lections
regularly in one year, the New Testament will have been read and in two years, the Old Testament, with
the Psalms being read every eight weeks.
FOR FURTHER READING
Countryman, L. William. The Language of Ordination. Trinity Press International, Philadelphia [1992].
Dendy, D.R. The Use of Lights in Christian Worship. Alcuin Club Collections No. XLI, SPCK, London
[1959].
Jones, Cheslyn, Geoffrey Wainwright, Edward Yarnold SJ and Paul Bradshaw. The Study of Liturgy,
SPCK, London (Oxford University Press New York) [1992].
Michno, Dennis. A Priest's Handbook: the Ceremonies of the Church, Morehouse-Barlow Co., Wilton
[1983].
Mitchell, Leonel L. Praying Shapes Believing: a Theological Commentary on the Book of Common
Prayer. Winston Press, Minneapolis [1985].
Price, Charles P. And Louis Weil. Liturgy for Living. Harper, San Francisco [1979]. Shepherd, Massey H.
The Worship of the Church, Seabury Press Greenwich, Conn. [1952].
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CHAPTER VIII
CEREMONIES, THE CHURCH YEAR,
ARCHITECTURE, AND VESTMENTS
There is a great richness in the observances of the Episcopal Church. Over the years a people
gather about them in their home the many and various points of decor that mark the place as belonging to
a particular family. Our church homes are no different. In those special places, we also gather around us
assorted tables, candles, clothing, and utensils, as well as practices and routines that have meaning to us
and say who we are as Episcopalians at prayer. These various accouterments and appointments are part
and parcel of what it is to worship and live as an Episcopalian. They range from various observances of
the year to what we wear to how we decorate our holy places.
THE SEASONS OF THE CHURCH YEAR AND THEIR COLORS.
The Seasons of the Church Year are Advent, Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, Easter, Ascension, and
Pentecost. The colors used are white, green, red, purple, blue, and Lenten array.
The Christian Year begins with the First Sunday of Advent. This Sunday is counted as the
beginning of the year. There are four Sundays in Advent, which are the four weeks prior to and in
preparation for Christmas. Use is often made of the Advent wreath which is a flat wreath containing four
purple candles placed around the wreath, with a white candle in the middle. On each Sunday of Advent,
the candles are lighted in progression to mark the approach of Christmas. On Christmas Eve the wreath is
ablaze with all the candles lighted, the white one signifying the Christ. As part of this preparation it is
inappropriate to sing Christmas carols during this time. Further, Christmas decorations are not used in the
church until Christmas Eve. These customs are reserved for the Twelve Days of Christmastide.
Christmas begins on December 25, and lasts for twelve days, culminating on the Feast of the Epiphany
(January 6). The season of Epiphany may be as long as nine Sundays and short as four. The length of
Epiphany is dependent on the date of Easter. Lent follows Epiphany and begins on Ash Wednesday. Lent
is counted as 40 days in length, not counting the Sundays. This is so because Sunday is always a feast
day. Palm Sunday is the sixth Sunday of Lent and the beginning of Holy Week. Holy Week contains
Maundy Thursday. Good Friday, and Holy Saturday which concludes with the Great Vigil of Easter.
Easter Day is the first Sunday of Eastertide which lasts for fifty days and culminates on Pentecost.
Forty days following Easter is Ascension Day which is always a Thursday. The Season of Pentecost lasts
up to 29 Sundays depending on the date of Easter.
Easter is the Queen of the Festivals. Much of the Church Year is dependent on the date of Easter.
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For us, the date of Easter is determined to be the first Sunday following the first full moon after the spring
equinox. The dates for Lent, Eastertide, Ascension, and Pentecost are all determined by the date of Easter.
Further, the length of Epiphany (number of Sundays in Epiphany) and the length of Pentecost (number of
Sundays in Pentecost) are determined by the date of Easter.
Christmas is the second festival that is pivotal for the Church Year. The four Sundays preceding
Christmas Day (December 25) are the four Sundays of Advent. Christmastide is twelve days long, with
Christmas Day being the first day of Christmas and the eve of Epiphany being Twelfth Night (January 5).
The Feast of the Epiphany is January 6.
Other days of special importance are All Saints Day, Ash Wednesday, Palm Sunday, Holy Week,
Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter Even, and Trinity Sunday.
Each season has its color. The colors used in the Church Year are purple, blue, white, red, and
green. Each season uses one of the colors that distinguishes that specific season from the others. Advent is
purple or blue. Purple signifies penitence and blue, royalty. Christmas is white for the twelve days and the
Feast of the Epiphany. White signifies purity and festivals. The Sundays following Epiphany are green,
since they are counted as "ordinary" time. Green signifies the ordinary time that is a time of growth. Lent,
beginning with Ash Wednesday, is either purple or Lenten Array.
Lenten Array is coarse-weave, off-white fabric with deep burgundy-red orphreys very plain. It
gives the feel of burlap. The Lenten Array signifies the deep sense of penitence and self-examination that
is demanded of Christian during this season. During Lent the crosses, statues, and icons are veiled. The
veiling may be for the whole season or only for Holy Week. This custom is intended to assist the faithful
to turn inward for self-examination during this season of reflection and introspection.
Holy Week beginning with Palm Sunday is red, with Maundy Thursday either red or white. Good
Friday is red. Red signifies the fire of the Holy Spirit or the blood of the martyrs.
Eastertide beginning with the Great Vigil of Easter is white and continues for the fifty days.
Pentecost is red, the Sunday after Pentecost, being Trinity Sunday, is white, while the Sundays beginning
with the second Sunday after Pentecost and following throughout Pentecost are green, being ordinary
time.
CUSTOMARY CEREMONIES
A visitor or newcomer to the Episcopal Church quickly notices the various acts that are
performed by the faithful during the course of the Liturgy. In regards to the various ceremonies or
ceremonial acts that one may find in an Episcopal service, we need to recall at the outset the adage:
"None must, all may, and some should."
The first act is of bowing or genuflection. Bowing is the more ancient of the two practices. Both
of these are acts of acknowledging authority. Hence, we bow or genuflect upon entering the pew to
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acknowledge the authority of the bishop over us. We bow as the cross passes us in the procession as a
sign of being under that banner. It is also customary to bow when the bishop passes in procession, which
indicates that we are under the bishop's authority. Following the biblical statement that "at the name of
Jesus every knee shall bow," it is customary throughout the service to bow the head at the mention of the
name of Jesus. This practice has it roots in the ancient Jewish practice of bowing the head at the name of
God, which is still part of the custom of the synagogue. The church adopted this practice as a profession
that Jesus is the incarnate God. In the Nicene Creed it is customary to make a profound bow at the
Incarnatus, "For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he
became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man."
We kneel or stand to pray. Kneeling is an ancient posture for prayer. It signifies humility and
penitence. To stand for prayer signifies the priestly posture of the people of God. Hence, we stand for the
Prayers of the People in the Eucharist. Standing is also the posture for praise. Our hymns are sung
standing in most cases, as these are acts of praise. From the earliest times, we have stood for the reading
of the Holy Gospel, as it is proclaimed. It is part of the liturgy of the synagogue to stand when the Torah
Scroll is brought forth from the Ark and processed throughout the congregation to the singing of hymns.
The Gospel is the Torah of the Christian Tradition.
We sit to listen or learn. Therefore, we sit for the reading of the Lessons and the Sermon. Sitting
is not for the general purpose of being spectators, but for the purpose of attention.
Making the sign of the cross dates to the first century church. It is related to our Baptism. The
sign is made by first touching the forehead, then the stomach, then the left shoulder, then the right,
concluding with the mid point of the chest. A fuller explanation of the use of the sign of the cross is found
in the chapter on Baptism. At the announcement of the Gospel, a small cross is made on the forehead,
mouth, and over the heart signifying that it be written in our mind, upon our lips, and within our heart.
Silence is important in the Anglican tradition. It begins upon entering the church. It is customary
in the Episcopal Church to enter the church in silence and to pray and meditate upon entering the pew.
This is not a time for visiting or unnecessary talking. This is not a legalistic rule: we should not be rude if
greeted by others. But this is the time to offer prayer for those who minister that day in the services, both
lay and clergy, for one's fellow worshipers, and finally for one's self, that this day's worship will be to the
glory of God and for our health. Throughout the services there are moments of silence, moments that play
an important part in the life of the liturgy. There is silence after the call to confession, giving time to the
penitents to make their private confession or to recollect their sins before the General Confession. Silence
may be kept following the Scripture readings providing a moment of reflection upon the lessons. The
great silence occurs at the Breaking of the Bread. Here is the moment of focus upon our salvation. And of
course there is the silence after the service before we return to the world.
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Addressing the clergy can be a confusing moment for the newcomer to the Episcopal Church.
One of the most common questions asked today is what to call the clergy. As we have discussed, there are
three main types or orders of clergy: bishop, priest, and deacon. The deacon is addressed as Mr., Ms.,
Miss, or Mrs., or Deacon. When addressing a letter or publishing a notation, the correct written form for a
deacons is: The Rev.... or The Rev. Mr. (Ms., Miss, or Mrs.) The priest is directly addressed as Mr., Ms.,
Mrs., Father, Pastor, or Mother, or if a doctoral degree is held as "Dr." When addressing a letter or
publishing a notation the correct form is: The Rev .... or The Rev. Mr. (Ms., Miss, or Mrs.), and when a
doctoral degree is held, The Rev. Dr .... It is to be noted that in the Episcopal tradition one never refers in
direct address to a priest or deacon as "Reverend," as in Reverend Jones. This is absolutely incorrect.
Reverend is an adjective, and not a title. Its use as a title is very inappropriate, although very common. It
is derived from the Protestant lack of titles of address for the clergy, and the laity's need to have some
form of reference. Reverend is the same part of speech as honor- able as used in reference to members of
the judiciary. And this properly applies to any Christian clergy, not just Anglican or Episcopal.
The bishop is addressed directly as Bishop (as in Bishop Smith) or, less frequently, as Mr., Ms.,
Mrs., Miss, or Dr. When addressing a letter or publishing a notation, the correct form is: The Rt.
Reverend .... The Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church is addressed as the Most Reverend, and titled
Bishop. In regard to the term reverend, it is understood that in ordination all are reverend and as one
increases in rank so too does the amount of reverence. Very, Right, and Most are the archaic forms of the
comparative in English. Formerly, when you had some amount of an item, you have "very much of it,"
and "more of it," and you had "a right amount." And the "most," had, well, "the most." Deans are worthy
of more reverence than parish clergy, so they are "very reverend." Bishops even more so, they are "right
reverend." And the Presiding Bishop, or an Archbishop, is the "most reverend" among clergy.
There are other titles that are given to clergy. The dean of a cathedral or seminary is addressed
directly as Dean or Father or Dr., if a female clergyperson, as Dean or Mother or Dr., depending on her
preference. In the form of the written address of a letter or publication reference the dean is: the Very
Reverend. The archdeacon of a diocese is addressed as Deacon, Father, Mother or according to personal
preference. In address the archdeacon is the Venerable Reverend.
The Anglican Communion has religious orders. There three types of orders: friars, monks, and
nuns. A friar is a man who belongs to an order, lives in community, but works in the world. He may be a
tailor, bookkeeper, or have any number of other skills. The monk is a man who belongs to an order and
lives in community, working within that community. This may include farming, working cattle, making
items for sale to the outside world. The nun is a woman who belongs to a religious order, and may either
work outside the order or within it depending on the particular order. They may live in a monastery,
priory, friary, or convent. In the Episcopal Church the major traditional Christian orders are represented:
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Benedictines, Augustinians, Franciscans, as well as other specifically Anglican orders such as Holy
Cross, Society of St. Mary, and others. All religious (friars, monks, nuns) take the traditional vows of
poverty, chastity, and obedience. Members of the religious orders are not necessarily clergy, unless they
have sought and received ordination. They are referred to as Brother or Sister, in general, and if ordained
as Father or Mother. The nun who is head of her order or house is Mother Superior, and is addressed as
Mother or Reverend Mother. All the orders have their distinctive dress that is referred to as a "habit."
Vestments are used by the leaders of the Liturgy and signify different orders of participants. The
basic dress of the clergy-priest, deacon, and bishop-is the cassock. Cassocks are not, strictly speaking,
vestments. Technically, in the Catholic tradition of the church, they are street dress, the every day dress of
the clergy. In Europe the cassock is still the distinctive street dress of the clergy. What is left of the
cassock in today's costume for the clergy is the clerical shirt (black shirt with white collar). The cassock is
usually black, but may be of any color: gray, white, purple, or crimson. The purple or crimson colored
cassock is usually used to denote a bishop in the Anglican Church. In the Anglican tradition, the purple or
crimson shirt is worn only by bishops. The cassock is often worn as the basic dress over which the
vestments are worn. The lay participants in the Liturgy may also wear cassocks as the basic
undergarment. These include all lay readers, acolytes and servers, as well as the choir and organist. The
over garment that these wear is the cotta. This is a waist length full-sleeve, pleated white garment worn
over the cassock. It is a shorter version of the surplice which the clergy wear. The surplice has various
lengths to denote the various orders of participants from lay reader, to deacon, priest, and bishop.
The various traditional vestments are placed over the cassock. The choir office attire is the
surplice worn over the cassock. The surplice is a full bell sleeved, white garment that is mid-calf in
length. A tippet is worn over this in much the same manner as the stole. The tippet is a folded piece of
material, tri-folded to 8 inches in width, which hangs down to midcalf. In collegiate churches and chapels,
it is appropriate for the clergy to wear their academic hoods appropriate to their degree. In officiating at
one of the choir offices (Morning or Evening Prayer) this is the appropriate dress for the clergy. When
celebrating one of the sacraments in a low service, the clergy may wear a stole appropriate of the season
or occasion instead of the tippet.
In the Eucharist there are special vestments which have been used since the very beginning.
These vestments are the common clothes of another age that gained significance liturgical significance
over the centuries. The basic garment, which is traditionally worn over the cassock, is the alb. The alb is a
long white garment reaching down to ankle length. The collar of the alb is separate and is called the
amice. Today these are in one garment called the cassock-alb. Over the alb is worn the stole. The stole is
a long piece of cloth which hangs around the neck and drops to mid-calf when worn by a priest or bishop.
For the deacon the stole is crossed over from the left shoulder and under the right arm. The stole usually
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has fringe on each end, and is of the color of the season or occasion being celebrated. This is the basic
attire for the celebration of Baptism or for those assisting in the celebration of the Eucharist.
The Deacon wears the dalmatic during the celebration of the Eucharist. This is a vestment that
hangs straight down like a long over shirt with full sleeves. The Sub-deacon wears a tunicle. It is
distinguished from the dalmatic in the number of orphrey bindings (one instead of two).
The special eucharistic vestment is the chasuble. This is a large round vestment with a hole in the
center for the head. It is actually a coat, much like the Latin American poncho. It is made of the same
material as the stole, forming a set. This vestment is worn only for the celebration of the Eucharist. The
deacon may wear a dalmatic during the Eucharist. The dalmatic has full sleeves and drops to just below
the knees. It is an analogous vestment to the chasuble. Both the priest and deacon may also wear the cope,
which is a large floor length cape with a stylized hood. It is used for special occasions and may be worn
over the alb or the cassock and surplice. It is most often used on festival occasions (Easter, Christmas,
Epiphany, funerals, weddings, etc.) and at solemn evensong.
The vestments peculiar to the bishop are the cope and miter, rochet and chimere, and, the symbol
of office, the crosier. The cope is the same as that worn by the priest or deacon. The miter is a hat worn
by the bishop. The rochet and chimere are vestments peculiar to the bishop. The rochet is a form of the
alb whose sleeves are closed around the wrist. Chimere is a long sleeveless vest like garment worn over
the rochet, open down the front. The chimere may be either red or black in color.
Sacred space is very important to us. It is customary for Anglicans to provide the best and highest
quality of art and architecture for our places of worship, for these are to the glory of God. Each
appointment and structure, from the stained glass to candles to the chalices, expresses the finest
affordable for that particular community. Special meaning defines each item. The architecture of the
church building carries its own peculiar meaning. Here is the sanctification of space. Each part of the
building carries meaning. The building is from ancient times oriented on an east/west axis. The east is the
altar end and the west is the narthex end. Even when a building is not aligned on the compass east/west
orientation, the altar end is referred to as the liturgical east and the narthex as the west. The various parts
of the building may be referred to as rooms. These are the narthex, baptistery, nave, chancel, choir, and
sanctuary.
In the traditional cruciform plan of a church building (cf the accompanying diagrams of cruciform
buildings: figures 1 & 2) the entrance to the building is called the narthex. Often the baptistery is
adjacent to the narthex. The narthex is the vestibule that stretches across the west end of the building and
is separated from the nave by a wall or screen. When the baptistery is adjacent to the narthex it is the
reminder that one enters the church through Baptism. Hence, the baptismal font is in the entrance area to
the nave.
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The place where the people sit is called the nave. This is a cognate of the word "navy." The
church building has been compared to Noah's Ark. It is the boat that protects the people from the storm of
the sea, the chaos of life. This is why some churches have a beamed ceiling, much like a boat turned
upside down. It also is a reminder that the members are fishers of people.
The chancel area is where the choir and sanctuary are. Often this is raised by a couple of steps.
The area where the choristers sit is called the choir. In the church of the Middle Ages, the "religious"
(monks, friars, nuns) sat in the choir. They sat facing each other across the aisle that leads to the altar. The
religious sang the offices in an antiphonal manner. Hence, today those who sit in the choir are the lay
choristers who are often vested for the service. The vesting of the choir is a visual reminder of a previous
age when the choir was the reserve of the religious.
The altar is the most sacred part of the church building. It is in the sanctuary, the space that is
traditionally behind the altar rail. The altar and its appointments may also be vested. There are hangings
of colors of the seasons and of special observances that may be used on the altar. This is in addition to the
linens which are used, and which are not thought of as vestments. The ends of the altar are referred to as
the Epistle and Gospel sides. When facing the altar from the congregation's position the Epistle side is on
the right and Gospel side is on the left. This comes from the days when the altar book or missal was
moved from the right side following the reading of the Epistle to the left side for the reading of the
Gospel.
The two eucharistic candles that are on the altar are also referred to as the Epistle candle and the
Gospel candle. It is customary to light the Epistle candle first and extinguish the Gospel candle first. A
quip used to remember the sequence of lighting is: "The Gospel candle never stands alone." The other
altar candles may number one, three, or seven on each side. Off the altar, candles on the retable or stand
are called the choir candles. These are lighted for the choir offices and at the main services on Sundays or
Holy Days.
The sanctuary, as the holiest place in the church building, is not a place of casual traffic. Only
those people who have business in the sanctuary should be there. To the side of the altar stands the
credence table. The credence is used for setting the water and wine cruets, bread box, and lavabo bowl
which are used for the celebration of the Eucharist.
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Figure 1
The linens used on the altar are cere cloth, basic linen, fair linen, the corporal, the purificator,
and lavabo towel. The cere cloth is bottom-most linen. It is made of coarse weave linen that fits exactly
the top of the altar (called the mensa-literally "table" in Latin). It is waxed to prevent the stone altar top or
mensa from "sweating" on the other linens. The basic linen is placed on top of the cere cloth, and also is
cut to fit the top of the mensa. Over these is placed the fair linen. This is a fine piece of linen that is
embroidered with five crosses, one in each comer and one in the middle. It usually hangs down on either
end of the altar a minimum of 18 inches. The corporal is a square piece of linen which is placed in the
center of the altar, upon which is placed the chalice and paten during the consecration of the Eucharistic
bread and wine. The purificator is the linen towel used to wipe the chalice after each communicant has
received the wine. Finally, the lavabo towel is the piece of linen used to wipe the priest's hands after the
acolyte has washed them.
The chalice and paten are the sacred cup and plate of the eucharistic meal. They are properly
vested with matching material of the priest's eucharistic vestments forming a complete set of eucharistic
vestments. These may be of gold, silver, brass, or pottery. It is common for the chalice and paten to be
sterling silver, sometimes encrusted with precious and semi-precious stones.
The sacristy is located adjacent to the sanctuary. This is the room in which all the sacred vessels,
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linens, altar vestments, and other such items are kept. It is from this room that the preparations for the
altar take place. The piscina is in this room. The piscina is a sink that drains directly into the ground. The
water from baptisms, the first rinse of the chalice and paten following the Eucharist, and other sacred
liquids are poured into it and thus the liquids are returned directly to the ground.
In most Episcopal churches, the Altar Guild is the organization that takes care of the sanctuary
and all of its appointments. The Altar Guild is responsible for setting the altar, setting up for baptisms,
taking care of the linens, hangings, vestments, etc. They are also in charge of the preparations for
weddings and funerals. The Altar Guild provides a most important service, and it is very difficult to work
without one.
Many Episcopal churches have red front doors, which has become a distinguishing mark of
Episcopal Churches. A whole lore has developed around the use of red on the doors of the church
building. Some people have suggested that the custom comes from 11th century England and was a way of
marking churches as places of sanctuary. Throughout the English realm in those days all churches,
abbeys, and other consecrated places were, by common law and practice, places of sanctuary where a
person could flee and find safety--even from the law. This seems to go back to the earliest times in
Christian England. Later in English history there came to be certain churches designated as sanctuaries
under charter, or as peculiars, i.e., places where one is safe from the danger of arrest often for even the
worst type of crimes. "Such places could protect all classes of criminals, save those who escaped from the
sheriff, or other royal officer, after having been delivered up for execution; even those who had
committed high or petty treason were safe within the walls of most of the chartered sanctuaries."104
Further the surrounding area of the church was sanctuary, sometimes extending as far as a mile or more.
Not all churches were designated as chartered. Many English dioceses had several parishes so
designated as a sanctuary church. Any person who was in need of sanctuary and a safe haven could enter
the church, which always remains unlocked, and no one was to hurt them or take them away from there.
This applied to anyone at any time who was in such a place. Even the legal authorities were prevented
from capturing a criminal who had taken sanctuary. They had to wait for the person to leave the safety of
the church. The safe area of the church often extended to the boundaries of the property, and in some
cases were the boundaries of the parish which would include the whole of the village, particularly in the
chartered sanctuaries. Crosses were inscribed with the word "Sanctuarium," and placed on the roadside as
guides for the fugitives to the sanctuary churches. Further, the boundaries of the extent of sanctuary were
marked by stone crosses. These crosses would mark the several degrees of sanctuary. The first called for
pursuers to halt their pursuit under penalty of fine. The fines increased past each grade. "At Beverley the
104. Norman Maclaren Trenholme, The University of Missouri Studies, Vo.. 1, No. 5, “The Right of Sanctuary in England” University of
Missouri (1903) p. 21.
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distance from the outer limits to the altar was divided into seven sections, the penalty being made, in
proportion, to increase from eight pounds for violation within the first limit up to one hundred and fortyfour pounds for the sixth, while to violate the seventh of the divisions was to commit a botless or
unremissible offense and entailed death on the offender."105
The most holy and safest refuge was the frith stol or "chair of peace." It insured absolute
protection. "Anyone who violated the sacred precincts of the altar committed an unpardonable offense,
one for which no money payment could atone. The frith stol at Beverley, in Yorkshire, bore the following
inscription, carved in Roman capitals, to signify its use: HAEC SEDES LAP IDEA FREED STOOLE
DIClTUR, I.E. PACIS CATHEDRA AD QUAM REUS FUGIENDO PERVENIENS OMNIMODAM
HABET SECURITATEM."106
These large stone crosses can still be seen today as they mark the directions to safety. There are
also those crosses that marked the boundaries of the safe area. These are still seen in some of the places.
Some of the churches have large ornate door knockers, which have come to be called "sanctuary
knockers." They are large bronze escutcheons in the form of gruesome monster with a person's head in
their mouth. These have large rings in them which serve as the knocker (also called the hagody or
"sanctuary knocker") so that when "offenders did come and knocke, streightwaie they were letten in at
any time of the nyght."107 The fact is that although the presence of sanctuary within a church has, in
popular lore, been described as the origin of red doors, there is no concrete evidence to support the idea.
Some people feel the red doors are symbolic of the blood of martyrs and saints, and hence of our
communion with all the saints. This is a nice idea, but seems more apocryphal, than accurate. After much
discussion and many fanciful reasons being proposed, the following is the most credible explanation.
First, the custom originates in the United States after the Civil War. (There is no evidence for the custom
in ante-bellum times.) It seems to have been the outgrowth of the Anglo-Catholic liturgical advances of
the late 19th century, where greater attention was paid to signs and symbols. Second, the most credible
explanation was the idea that the red paint is symbolically connected to the idea of blood on the door post
of Israelite homes during the Passover. The church doors are marked by red as being, through the blood of
Christ, safe haven from death. Hence, in the church there is sanctuary-the ultimate sanctuary.
But we should remember that there is no real evidence that any of this symbolism in the origin of
the red doors. It may well be that the doors of Episcopal Church are red because some architect liked the
color, and others followed suit.
In some congregations, there is a votive stand. The votive stand contains candles in glass cups or
a place to put tapers, usually in a box of sand or a candelabra style stand. These are lighted as a way of
105. Ibid., p. 47.
106. Ibid., p. 48.
107. P.H. Ditchfield, The Village Church, Methuen& co. Ltd. London (1914) p.100.
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prayer for special intentions. The use of tapers is part of the Eastern tradition while the use of the glass
votive lights is from the Western tradition. This tradition is very ancient and is transcultural in its practice.
Votive offerings are well attested in the history of religious practices. The use of votive candles enters
into Christian practice in the early centuries of the church, coming from the ancient burial practices of the
Roman period. The use of the candles in the church is first attached to the martyrs, when people lighted
the candies in remembrance of the dead; the candles being votive offerings for the dead. A votive
originally refers to a vow or promise one makes. It is only a short distance to the offering of prayers of
any kind through the use of votives.
Today, the prayers of the faithful in both the Eastern and Western churches are expressed through
the use of votive candles. They are our offerings to God. These votive stands are often placed in a side
chapel of a church. Note the side chapels in Figure 2. It is customary to give a monetary offering for each
candle lighted.
There are many churches today with holy water stoops that are placed at the entrance to the nave
(cf. Figure 2). As people enter and leave, they dip their finger in the water and make the sign of the cross.
This is a form of blessing oneself as well as a renewal of one's baptismal vows. Hence, it is a form of selfcleansing as well as blessing. It is a way to recall our baptismal vows and the responsibilities we have
been called to perform in the world.
Figure 2.
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FOR FURTHER READING
Gibbs, Lee W. Holy Days and Holidays. Forward Movement Publications, Cincinnati, Ohio [1995].
Hatchett, Marion J. Sanctifying Life, Time and Space: An Introduction to Liturgical Study.
New York: Seabury Press, 1976.
Mayo, Janet. A History of Ecclesiastical Dress. Batsford, London [1984].
Sherman, Jonathan Goodhue. Church Buildings and Furnishings, Seabury Press, Greenwich, Conn.,
[1958].
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CHAPTER IX
AN INTRODUCTION TO STEWARDSHIP
Money is often the first thought that comes to mind when the word "stewardship" is spoken. This
is an unfortunate situation. Stewardship is about one's whole life, not just the pocketbook. At the same
time the fact that the "pocketbook" often occurs to us when we hear the word "stewardship," suggests
something about the importance of our wealth and its fundamental place in our lives. This chapter deals
with the whole aspect of stewardship in the life of the Christian. Like other parts of this program, this can
only be a glance at one of the most important aspects of the Christian life. But it should be enough to
serve as an introduction to the subject-if only rudimentary.
Stewardship is a whole way of life. It is how we manage and care for, in a responsible manner,
the world around us, and our own gifts and abilities. It is an attitude that is often only slowly developed
and matured in us as we become informed by and grow in the liturgy and a life of commitment. The
foundations of stewardship are contained in the ancient texts of the Bible. These foundations are part of
the very fabric that creates the identity of the people of God. They are found in some of the most ancient
parts of the text and ancient stories of the prehistory of the people of God. They form part of the ancient
cosmology that shapes the identity of the people, and, in turn, shapes our own identities as well.
The story of Cain and Abel is often a confusing story. Cain was the tiller of the soil, a farmer.
Abel was a herdsman; he cared for the sheep and goats. The two brothers offered a sacrifice of
thanksgiving to God from the gifts they had in turn received. But God did not accept (regard) Cain's
sacrifice. What kind of God is this that does not accept the gifts that God's people offer? What was wrong
with Cain's gift? Abel offers "of the firstlings of his flock, their fat portions"(Gen. 4.4), the best portion of
his herd. Cain, on the other hand, offers the mediocre parts of his crops, not the best. We come before
God offering the best that we have, not just enough to get by.
In Deuteronomy 26 there is the injunction with its accompanying instructions to offer the first
fruits. "When you have come into the land that the LORD your God is giving you as an inheritance to
possess, and you possess it, and settle in it, you shall take some of the first of all the fruit of the ground,
which you harvest from the land that the LORD your God is giving you, and you shall put it in a basket
and go to the place that the LORD your God will choose as a dwelling for his name. You shall go to the
priest who is in office at that time, and say to him, 'Today I declare to the LORD your God that I have
come into the land that the LORD swore to our ancestors to give us.' When the priest takes the basket
from your hand and sets it down before the altar of the LORD your God, you shall make this response
before the LORD you God: 'A wandering Aramean was my ancestor; he went down into Egypt and lived
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there as an alien, few in number, and there he became a great nation, mighty and populous. When the
Egyptians treated us harshly and afflicted us, by imposing hard labor on us, we cried to the LORD, the
God of our ancestors; the LORD heard our voice and saw our affliction, our toil, and our oppression. The
LORD brought us out of Egypt with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, with a terrifying display of
power, and with signs and wonders; and he brought us into this place and gave us this land, a land
flowing with milk and honey. So now I bring the first of the fruit of the ground that you, O LORD, have
given me.' You shall set it down before the LORD your God and bow down before the LORD your God."
(Deut. 26.1-11).
Deuteronomy reminds us after declaring the acts of God in giving the land to Israel with all of its
produce and riches saying, "Do not say to yourself, 'My power and might of my own hand have gotten me
this wealth.' But remember the LORD your God, for it is he who gives you power to get wealth, so that he
may confirm his covenant that he swore to your ancestors, as he is doing today." (Deut. 8.17-18).
OFFERING OUR GIFTS
In the Eucharist we offer the bread and wine; this is the Offertory. We also offer our money. In
the early church, the congregants, gathering for the Sunday celebration, brought the loaves of bread, made
with flour ground from their own wheat, and bottles of wine, made from their own grapes-as well as
olives and cheese. This was the offering of the day. The deacon took the amount needed for the Eucharist
and placed it on the altar-table before the bishop. The remainder was set aside to be distributed to the poor
and widowed. Later part of the offering went to the bishop or priest as part of their stipend. The wheat and
grapes that had been recreated through the work of the hands of the recipients, was once again recreated
through the joyful act of thanksgiving of the Eucharist. This in turn was given back to the congregants as
the life-giving gift of the Body and Blood.
As the populace moved from a bartering-in-kind society to one governed by the use of money, so
the church's offerings changed from bread and wine to coins. The church also began to use the wafers,
which in turn were the same size as coins. Hence, what was offered from the bounty of the land and
strength of hands was recreated and given back as the Body and Blood, sustaining not only this life-but
the life to come.
As the Eucharist becomes our paradigm of stewardship, there are a number of points to ponder.
The first is the very act of thanksgiving that is fundamental to the act of worship of the church. We offer
what has been given to us, knowing that all that we have is itself a gift shared by a gracious giver. In the
account of Deuteronomy, the whole offering of the first fruits occurs after a series of acts of God in
response to those offerings. The gifts that we offer are not for the purpose of getting God's attention or in
order to manipulate God to do as we might wish. They are the imitative act that informs and shapes us as
we become more like God. Second, there is the fundamental expression of Eucharist in which we reach
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beyond ourselves and outside of ourselves. Hence, stewardship is neither a manipulation of God nor is it a
selfish act done for ourselves alone. It is something done for others. Third, the act of Eucharist itself is the
act of offering ourselves. "We offer and present unto thee, O Lord, our selves, our souls and bodies, to be
a reasonable, holy, and living sacrifice unto thee." It is through the liturgy that we are informed and
transformed into the likeness of Jesus who came on behalf of others. The whole act of Eucharist is the
recalling of this act of offering, an act that empowers us to do the same.
These are some of the many points that inform us as to our stewardship. The implications of them
are played out in our daily lives. These implications involve not only the amount of money that we give to
the church and other helping organizations, but what we do within our environment for its protection and
preservation. Today, the environment is a major concern for all of us. The way we conserve and preserve
it will determine not only our future, but the future of those generations that come after us.
The use and caring for the gifts which have been given to us by a gracious giver is also
stewardship. Here is the legacy of Israel in that God gives to Israel the Land. It is part of the fulfillment of
the promise: A land that provides for the sustaining of the people who live upon it. This is one of the
major acts of God in the story of redemption. The working out of this concern is not only for the
individual but also for the community. Hence, the community of the church is much involved and
concerned with the way we care for the environment. This concern should be part and parcel of the life of
our parishes.
SUPPORTING THE CHURCH
The history of support of the church is one of struggle and hardship at times, and at other times
opulence and decadence. Many different forms and methods of support are seen down through the ages.
The first centuries of the existence of the church are replete with poverty and persecution. With
Constantine came the experience of imperial protection and beneficence. Mission lands experience the
poverty of cutting new ground, while some of the established areas know the security of almost
inexhaustible support. The Episcopal Church in the modem age experiences the fluctuation of changing
times and support.
In the history of the Episcopal Church, there have been many different ways of supporting the life
of the church. Before the American Revolution the church was supported through taxes. We were an
established church, which meant that we received our financial support from the government through
taxation. Hence, everyone in the colony supported the local Church of England and its life even though
they might be non-conformists, i.e., Presbyterian, Congregational, Lutheran, or Baptist. With the end of
the Revolution, the Church of England was disestablished. No longer did we receive support from the
state, and neither did any other church.
The church turned to an obvious potential for income-pew rental. If a person was to be a member
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of a parish, then they could rent a pew that would be theirs and theirs alone as long as the rent was paid.
Of course the better the position of the pew in the nave, the higher the rental and the better the income to
the church from that pew. This practice was not abolished completely in the Episcopal Church until the
1970's or 1980's, when St. Bartholomew's Church in New York City ended the practice, much to the
unhappiness of some who had owned a pew for over a hundred years. From the practice of pew rental
there were those who because of a social conscience sought to provide another avenue to maintain the
income and work of the church.
Again in New York City, in 1846, a priest named William Augustus Muhlenberg built the Church
of the Holy Communion. His intent was to provide for the worship of any and all who came to the
Episcopal Church. Holy Communion became the first "free church" in the Episcopal Church. Its purpose
and intent was to minister to the poor and needy. The congregation, supported by several wealthy
families, quickly became a mixture of the rich and poor, a phenomenon new to the Episcopal Church.
Needless to say, this free church grew and prospered in its ministry to the people of New York.
Muhlenberg set the example of a new way to support the life and work of the church. Others would
follow suit from the denominations as well as the Episcopal Church.
In order to provide for the life of the Holy Communion congregation, Muhlenberg began to solicit
funds from individual members. Members who could afford to would make a commitment to the financial
life of the church that, in turn, would be paid throughout the year. Thus the every member canvas was
born. This was a new idea, which has proven to be very successful even down to the present time. In fact
it was so successful that others followed suit in their religious communities as well.
The reality in all of this down through the ages is that it costs to have any type of religious
institution that serves the community. When a "non-profit" or "not for profit" institution is dependent
upon its constituents and those sympathetic to its cause for support it must seek support from someone. In
fact, in most cases, it is totally dependent upon others for its life.
The problem that is always before such institutions is how will they be financed and by whom.
There are different ways for this to take place, from the free will offerings, votive offerings, the simple
sharing of goods, to organized programs such as pew rental and the every member canvas. Today there
are programs of estate planning where one is encouraged to leave an amount or percentage of one's
financial estate to the church. There are insurance plans where one takes out a life insurance policy on
behalf of the church. The possibilities are only limited by one's imagination.
TITHING
Today in the Episcopal Church the official position on giving is the tithe. The concept of the tithe
comes from Scripture. The difficulty with it is that people begin to view it in a legalistic perspective.
Tithing means to give a tenth of what one receives back to the Giver as an expression of thanksgiving.
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Not any amount is referred to as a "tithe." Hence, if a person is going to tithe, they are going to give one
tenth of their income. Some will ask all kinds of questions about how to figure the amount upon which
this is computed. If we must ask those kinds of questions, then we have missed the whole point of
positive and constructive giving, and our understanding of stewardship is impaired.
Remember that giving is not something one does in order to make sure that one is doing the "right
thing." Giving is a way of life that finds its paradigm in the Eucharist. It is the offering of our selves, our
souls and bodies. Hence, it is a way of life that informs our whole view of the world.
Some may well find it very difficult to give a tenth of their income away. There are several
practical points about giving that may help. First, a person may find it easier to begin by giving a smaller
percentage then a tenth. Then, over time, work up to giving the full ten percent of their income. Second,
when the first check written each pay period is the one we are giving away, it is much more likely that we
will be able to fulfill our obligations than if we give from our "leftovers" at the end of the pay period. It is
really a matter of priority, and this is what we are trying to form ourselves into becoming.
Giving in our lives is not limited to the church. There are other proper things to give to besides
the church. Where the church was at one time the major source of care for the dispossessed, today there
are other programs and institutions that share this responsibility. There are also other values and
provisions that the church makes that are not provided for by other agencies in our society. The church
provides for the spiritual welfare of people, a provision that is much needed today.
We give from our poverty, not from our abundance. This understanding of stewardship means
that our giving is not just when we have enough to give. Sometimes people use the term "sacrificial
giving," which means that we stretch ourselves in our giving. In the Gospels Jesus sends out the disciples
in twos, without money in their pockets, without an extra coat, with only a staff and sandals. The impact
of their mission is expressed in the hospitality they experienced as they went from place to place. It is
sharing one's bread with another. This is the impact of stewardship. There are those who feed the poor,
and spend a great deal of money doing it. This is not the same as sitting down at table with the poor and
sharing our own loaf of bread in the hospitality that sees in the other our sister or brother. Hence, we give
from our poverty when there is not much to share, and the fear that in sharing we may lose what little we
have.
Today, given the high cost of running the institutions and the need to insure their continued upkeep of the variety of programs which they offer, a number of new methods of insuring income are
becoming part of the regular life of the church. "Planned giving" is the term often used to describe the
ways by which we can remember the church when we die. We can provide for the church by making
specific requests in our wills as to the distribution of the assets of our estates. This can be a very
important method of insuring the work of our parish and the various services that it provides-not only to
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the parish household, but also in its work beyond the local setting. It is through bequests of this kind that
some institutions can begin or increase an unrestricted endowment fund to assist in insuring the future life
of the institutional program or start new ones. Hence the ongoing work of the church's ministry to others
can be ensured.
Obviously, stewardship is not just the concern of the individual in the pew. It shapes the identity
of the congregations and dioceses in which we live. One of the marks of a healthy growing church is that
outreach is an essential part of its total ministry. Outreach is the work we do for those around us and
beyond, whose care is our concern. It is interesting to note that growing vibrant congregations are those
that count it a joy to offer assistance and care to the surrounding community.
Healthy congregations are ones who give beyond themselves. They are not "lone rangers" doing
their own thing. The work is at least two-pronged. The one prong is pointed towards the immediate care
of the congregation itself. This is not necessarily defined in terms of distance, but of concern. On the
other hand, with the second prong they join with the diocese to reach collectively even larger and more
substantial areas of concern. It seems that using the "health gauge," the healthier the congregation the
more it wishes to do. Healthy congregations search out ways to enrich the life of the whole church.
An issue that often arises in the life of a diocese is the questioning of the diocesan assessments.
These assessments are the method often used to provide for the support of the diocesan structure. For the
diocese, it is essential that the congregations pay their assessments. From one perspective, it may be said
that this is the price of being an Episcopal Church. Healthy congregations do not count diocesan
assessments as part of their outreach giving; they see it for what it is: the cost of being an Episcopal
Church. And an Episcopal Church cannot, by definition, exist by itself.
The diocese is also responsible for outreach and its stewardship of the resources that it receives. It
is as important for the diocese to pay its assessment to the work of the Episcopal Church, both here and
abroad, as it is for the congregations to pay their assessments to the diocese. All that has been said above
in regards to the individual and parish goes for the diocese as well. Hence, the assessments of the diocese
are not part of the outreach of the diocese. A diocese must also move into the arena of giving beyond
itself as it provides for the needs of those for whom they are charged with caring.
FOR FURTHER READING
Ayres, Anne. The Life and Work of William Augustus Muhlenberg, Harper and Brothers, New York
[1880].
Hall, Douglas John. The Steward, A Biblical Symbol Come of Age. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids [1990].
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CHAPTER X
THE GOVERNMENT
OF THE EPISCOPAL CHURCH
The Episcopal Church is a present expression of the historic Catholic Church that emerged from
the first century. It has maintained the historic orders of ministry: bishops, priests, and deacons. The
Episcopal Church is governed by bishops, priests, deacons, and laity. It is divided into dioceses, each of
which is presided over by a bishop (the Diocesan) who may be assisted by other bishops (suffragans and
assistants, or coadjutors-who have the right of succession). The government of the church is not confined
to bishops or other clergy. On the contrary, the laity and clergy together have the responsibility for the
governance of the church on all levels of the church's life-from the parish to the national level. There are
four levels to the church: national church, provincial synods, dioceses, local congregations (organized
congregations, missions, and parishes).
At the very outset it must be emphasized that the Episcopal Church is not a "congregational
church." (In fact it was the extreme Puritans who become the Congregationalists in their radical protest
against the Church of England! The present descendants of the Puritan experience are the
Congregationalists and the Baptists.) When a person is baptized in the Episcopal Church he/she is
baptized into the whole church. When a person is confirmed or received by a bishop of the Episcopal
Church, that person is made a member of the Episcopal Church and hence a member of the Anglican
Communion. One reason our priests do not confirm, is because confirmation is an act on behalf of the
whole church, not just for a particular parish. This "wholeness" finds its fullest expression in the bishop
confirming as the chief pastor of the diocese and full representative of the whole church (both present and
down through the ages). The bishop's role, as he or she lays hands on the person being confirmed, is to
bring that person under the authority of the Episcopal Church, and, hence, of the Anglican Communion.
When a person is confirmed or received into the Episcopal Church, that person is a member of the
particular expression of the "One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church known as the Episcopal Church"
and hence part of the Anglican Communion not just a localized parochial congregation. This means that
when one is confirmed, he or she may express their living out of their vows in a local setting, but they
have not "joined" a local church, as is done in the congregationally determined groups. On the contrary,
they have been united to a great living organism that is far greater than the local congregation, which is
itself simply the local expression of that organism's life.
The Anglican Communion is a fellowship of churches that have a common heritage within the
One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, and are in communion with each other and the See of
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Canterbury. They have the common history of coming, historically, from the Church of England, hence a
common tradition of doctrine, discipline, and worship. The churches of the Communion are autonomous
and independent national churches that have freely chosen this partnership with each other. The three
expressions and symbols of their unity are the Archbishop of Canterbury, the first among equals, who
serves as the spokesman for the 77 million Anglicans world-wide; the Book of Common Prayer; and the
Lambeth Conference of Bishops. The Lambeth Conference meets every ten years.
Province is a term used in two ways in the Anglican Communion. The first refers to each of
independent national churches that make up the Anglican Communion. Each Province is under the
leadership of an Archbishop or in the case of the United States, a Presiding Bishop. The second use of the
term refers to clusters of dioceses within a national church. To distinguish between the two usages, a
capital "P" is used in referring to of the national churches, and a small "p" is used to indicate the diocesan
clusters within national churches.
Lambeth Conference refers to the meeting of bishops from around the world to discuss the
issues facing the churches of the Anglican Communion. It is not a judicial body, but a consultative body;
its decisions are not binding on the member churches. The Lambeth Conferences began in the 19'h
century. The next scheduled meeting is 2008. The meetings take place in England, with the Archbishop of
Canterbury presiding.
The Anglican Consultative Council composed of one to three members appointed from each
Province. Members include bishops, priests, and lay people with expertise in the needs of the church in
their part of the world. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the president of the council and chair of its first
meeting. The council meets every two or three years.
The Primates Meeting convenes every three years and is composed of the Primates and heads of
each of the Provinces of the Communion. One of their roles is to develop the agenda for the Lambeth
Conference and for the Anglican Consultative Council meetings.
The Episcopal Church of the United States exhibits power and authority in ways that are different
from what some may expect. Authority and power are different from each other. Authority is derived
ultimately from God and is imparted to the community. This authority is expressed in freedom on behalf
of the community and others. It is not authoritarian, but is an expression of service for others.
Authoritarianism is impositional, coercive, and destructive of persons and is a dysfunctional expression of
authority.
Power is the force behind enforcing and implementation of the desires of a person or community.
This can be in terms of governmental enforcement, such as a police force or armed services force. It can
also be in terms of coercive threat of punishment, such as divine retribution and guilt. It may be enforced
by not permitting accountability to those perceived to be inferior. This finds its expression in the church
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when the laity are understood as inferior to the clergy, and hence the clergy are not accountable to the
laity. In some expressions of the Catholic Faith, power and authority go hand in hand. The Roman
Catholic Church, for instance, is an institution, where power and authority are from the top down. Hence,
the priest on the local level is shielded from the enforcement or coercion of the wills of the laity upon
him. And when the Pope makes a ruling, it filters down and is enforced upon the laity, whether they like it
or not. This is an example of the use of power to back up authority.
In the Episcopal Church, however, while the clergy may have authority they have only as much
power as the laity will permit them to exercise for the use of the community. Ultimately, power rests in
the hands of the laity of the church. This is seen when the laity confront the clergy, whether priest or
bishop, on a specific issue. In other words, in the Episcopal Church the clergy are accountable not only to
clergy (i.e., bishops and priests), but to the laity. In this way the clergy are not at the mercy of the laity
and the laity are not at the mercy of the clergy. This type of taxonomy means that there must be
cooperation between the clergy and laity in order for the church to function properly. The laity play an
essential role in the governance of the church from the local level through the national level. There is no
area of the church's life that the voice of the laity is not heard. In the following explication of the political
working of the church this will become even clearer.
As we have established, there are three orders of clergy in the Episcopal Church: bishop, priest,
and deacon. There are six kinds of bishops in the Episcopal Church in the United States. The first is the
diocesan bishop who is the head of the diocese and is elected by the clergy and laity of the diocese at a
diocesan convention called for that purpose. He/she is then consecrated in a special service held in the
diocese. The second category of bishop is a bishop coadjutor. This is a person elected to the office of
bishop by the clergy and laity of the diocese at a special convention. When a diocesan bishop begins to
plan for his retirement, he may call for the election of a bishop coadjutor to be his successor. The
coadjutor has the right to succeed the diocesan bishop upon his/her retirement or death. The coadjutor is
also consecrated at a special service held in the diocese for that purpose. A third kind of bishop is the
bishop suffragan, who is elected by the clergy and laity of the diocese and consecrated in the diocese, but
does not have right of succession to the position of diocesan bishop. He/she assists the diocesan bishop.
The fourth type is an assistant bishop. who is appointed by the diocesan bishop to assist in the workings
of the diocese, often to fulfill a specific ministry or ministries. The assistant bishop has already been
consecrated and served as a bishop in another diocese before coming to this position. The fifth type of
bishop is a retired bishop. A retired bishop remains a bishop throughout his life, and still functions as
such when needed and able. The final type is the Presiding Bishop who is elected by the House of
Bishops from among their own numbers to preside over the Episcopal Church as Chief Pastor and
Primate.
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Priests serve in several capacities-rector, vicar, priest-in-charge are terms used of those who are
the leaders of the local congregations. A rector is the priest of a parish, while a vicar is in charge of a
mission. A priest-in-charge is leader of a small congregation such as a small mission. (The rector of a
cathedral is called a dean.) There are also assistant priests and curates. A curate is an assisting priest who
is new in the priesthood and is in his/her first assignment, much like the intern program for physicians
newly out of medical school. The term "curate" comes from "the cure" of souls. "Cure" is a form of care.
Hence, the curate is one who cares for those under his charge. A "cure" is another term for parish, where
parish boundaries are distinct. Another term for the priest is parson. This is an antiquated term, but one
still full of meaning. It is a form of the word "person." The priest of the Middle Ages is the "person" of
the village, which means that he holds legal title to the property, and thus is in authority. The priest may
still be the one who is person in the community, in that here is embodied the example of our humanity
and God's grace.
Deacons are of two types. The first is a transitional deacon, who is a person on her/his way to
becoming a priest. A transitional deacon may serve as a deacon for as short a time as six months or as
long as a year before being ordained to the priesthood. The second kind of deacon is a perpetual or
vocational deacon, who generally works in a secular job and serves as deacon without compensation in a
special ministry. This type of deacon does not intend to be a priest. The Episcopal Church is governed
according to a Constitution and Canons. The Constitution and Canons provide a guide for the life of the
Episcopal Church in the USA, which in turn provides the general guide for the dioceses and
congregations of the church. The diocesan constitutions and canons, which are always in conformity with
the church's Constitution and Canons, provide for the particular needs of the life of the diocese. Each
congregation of the church is governed by the by-laws of the congregation which, are in turn, in
conformity with the church's Constitution and Canons and the diocesan Constitution and Canons.
The diocese is often spoken of as the "basic expression" of the church. Within the Anglican
tradition, the "local church" is composed of all those who are under the authority and leadership of the
same bishop. In short, the diocese is the "local church" for us. All congregations in a diocese are
expressions of the diocese. A diocese is defined as a geographical area presided over by a bishop or
diocesan authority and all congregations and institutions within its boundaries. It may be the case that
there are no congregations or institutions within the boundaries of a particular diocese, as has been the
instance historically in the missionary history of the Episcopal Church in the United States. One is
reminded of Bishop Jackson Kemper, the first missionary bishop of the Episcopal Church (1835), who
often referred to himself as "Bishop of All Outdoors." On the other hand, there can be no Episcopal
congregation that is not part of a diocese.
The national governing body of the Episcopal Church is the General Convention. It is a bicameral
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body, composed of the House of Bishops and the House of Deputies. It is convened every three years to
do the legislative business of the church. Because of Convention's triennial schedule, it has an interim
governing body, the Executive Council of the Episcopal Church, that meets approximately three times a
year, to carry out the program of General Convention in the intervening years. The national aspect of the
Episcopal Church is made up of all the dioceses of the church.
The synods are composed of the dioceses within the provincial boundaries. The Presiding Bishop
of the Episcopal Church is also Primate. He presides over the House of Bishops and the General
Convention, when both Houses are meeting jointly. Intermediary between the Diocese and General
Convention are the provincial synods of the Episcopal Church. Both the General Convention and the
synods meet every three years, with the synods meeting between General Conventions. Each diocese
sends delegates to the General Convention and to the synod meetings. There are no delegates sent from
the synod to General Convention.
CONVENTION OF THE DIOCESE
The diocese meets annually in convention to conduct the business of the diocese and hear reports,
and set the agenda for the up-coming year. The Convention is composed of the diocesan bishop, and other
bishops if there be any, priests, deacons, and lay representatives from all congregations of the diocese.
The number of lay delegates is determined by the size of the congregation. All congregations are entitled
to two, and then one additional delegate for every hundred members over the first hundred, not to exceed
ten.108 Hence, the larger congregations may have as many as ten delegates, plus the clergy. All clergy are
expected to attend Diocesan Convention unless prevented for good cause, and then they are to notify the
bishop in writing of the reason for their absence. At the convention elections for various offices and
positions in the diocesan structure take place. This includes election of the diocesan council which meets
between conventions and conducts the business of the diocese; the Standing Committee which approves
those seeking ordination, assumes the function of the governance of the diocese in the absence of the
bishop; and the various commissions and committees charged to carry out the mandates of the diocese.
The delegates to General Convention and to the synod meeting are elected at the appropriate diocesan
convention.
The officers of the convention are the diocesan bishop, secretary of the convention, treasurer of
the diocese, and the chancellor of the diocese.
Between meetings of the convention, the diocesan council conducts the life of the diocese. The
council is composed of clergy and lay, elected and appointed, and those who are members by virtue of
their office or position within the diocesan structure.
108. Article II. Sec 3 (b.2) Constitution and Canons of the Episcopal Diocese of Oklahoma, 1993.
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LOCAL CONGREGATION
Most people experience the church in the local congregation and its life. Often in our society it is
assumed that this is the only place where anything of real importance takes place. For some this seems to
be the case, but the local congregation is only one expression of the great organism which we call
"church," and it is a very important and vital expression. The congregation is organized so that its
contributions to the life of the diocese and beyond can be realized, as it takes its place in the life of the
church under the authority of the bishop.
There are several types of congregation in the Episcopal Church. The unorganized congregation
is a group of people who gather with the bishop's knowledge and blessing to read the Daily Office
together. The organized congregation is a group of people who have been recognized by the bishop as a
potentially viable congregation and have been appointed leaders. The mission is an aided congregation
that has shown signs and experienced significant growth to exhibit the potential of becoming a selfsupporting congregation. When a congregation has taken on the responsibility of full self-support for the
past three years''109 and exhibited a stable life with further promise, then it becomes a parish. Each of
these steps is approved and acted upon by the convention of the diocese and recommendation of the
diocesan council and standing committee of the diocese. Each congregation is governed on the local scene
by a vestry that is composed of lay members of the congregation and led by the priest of the congregation.
The members of the vestry are elected or nominated (in the case of the mission) at the annual meeting of
the congregation.
Each local congregation (organized congregation, mission, parish) holds an annual meeting at
which the business of the congregation takes place. At this time wardens and vestry members are elected,
delegates to the diocesan convention are elected, reports of the life of the congregation the previous year
are received, and any other business which may pertain to the life of the congregation is acted upon. All
confirmed members in good standing of the congregation have voice and vote in these meetings. A
confirmed member in good standing is one who has been confirmed, whose membership letter resides in
that congregation, has received Communion at least three times in the previous year, and has given,
worked, and prayed for spread of the Kingdom of God. Between meetings of the congregation, the vestry
oversees congregational life. The vestry includes the priest, senior warden, junior warden, and members
of the vestry who are elected for three-year terms. The number of vestry members should not exceed 15,
nor should membership be fewer than three. In some dioceses, the vestry of a mission is called the "bishop's committee" and the senior warden is called the "bishop's warden."
The senior and junior wardens are sometimes called "the priest's warden" and the "people's
warden," respectively. (This is still the case in England). At one point in the church's history, the priest
109. Canon XII. Sec 1 (b) Constitution and Canons of the Episcopal Diocese of Oklahoma, 1993.
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chose the senior or "priest's warden." The "junior warden" or "people's warden" was elected by the people
of the congregation. When there was conflict between the priest and people, the two wardens first tried to
settle the issues on behalf of their "sides." This was the practice of the church in the Colonial era. The
wardens were a legal corporation that could be sued, and could themselves sue in civil courts by the 17th
century.'110
From the Colonial period to the present day, the wardens continue to occupy an essential place in
the structure of the local congregation. Today the senior warden is in charge of the congregation in the
absence of the priest, and he or she is the person with whom the bishop officially communicates in
matters pertaining to the life of the congregation. It is still most proper and right for the priest to choose
the senior warden. The manner of nomination and election will vary from congregation to congregation. It
is most appropriate that the junior warden is elected at the annual meeting in the manner appropriate for
the election of officers. It seems to be totally out of line for a priest to have any say at all in the
nomination and election of the junior warden of a parish. In missions, the bishop appoints the wardens, as
well as the vestry.
The priest of the congregation is either appointed by the bishop (in the case of a mission
congregation) or called by the vestry with the approval of the bishop (in the case of a parish) the parish
vestry does not hire a priest; rather, the priest is called to join in the ministry of a congregation and to lead
them into further ministry. The priest is a professional who serves and receives compensation that frees
him/her from the need to seek support so that his/her time may be devoted, unencumbered, to the life and
needs of the congregation. A priest's membership is held in the diocese, not the local congregation or any
congregation. The vestry is not "over" the priest as though he/she is answerable and accountable to the
vestry as employers. The rights and responsibilities of the priest are spelled out in the church's canons
while the diocesan canons, as determine the rights and responsibilities of the vestry.
It is the collaboration between priest and vestry that sets the tone for the life of the local church. It
must also be remembered that the priest is not a dictator. This also applies in the same way to the bishop
who is answerable to the Constitution and Canons of the church in the same cooperative system.
FOR FURTHER READING
Bernardin, J.B. An Introduction to the Episcopal Church, revised. Morehouse Publishing Harrisburg, Pa.
[1983].
Booty, John E. What Makes Us Episcopalians? Morehouse Publishing, Harrisburg, Pa. [1982]. Bowen,
Van S. A Vestry Member's Guide. Harper and Row, San Franciso [1972].
Hood, Robert E. Social Teachings in the Episcopal Church. Morehouse Publishing, Harrisburg, Pa.
[1990].
Webber, Christopher L. The Vestry Handbook. Morehouse Publishing, Harrisburg, Pa. [1988].
110. Albright, p. 48.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
As an example of the manuscripts and versions of the Old Testament the following list (most
include the New Testament) should provide a general set of extant examples. It must be emphasized that
these are but a few examples. This list does not include the many manuscripts (abbrev. MSS) that exist.
1. Dead Sea Scrolls are the oldest existing MSS of Hebrew Scriptures. These date from 200 BCE and
are a 1,000 years older than the oldest Hebrew MSS which were dated around 900 CE.
2. Masoretic Text (Hebrew)
3. LXX: The Septuagint (Greek)
4. Textus Receptus (Greek: poor MSS transmission)
5. Latin Vulgate (Latin: the work Jerome finished in 405 and known as the Vulgate or Common Bible)
6. The Great Bible (Coverdale) 1539: Used in the Book of Common Prayer Psalter and other quotations
throughout the Prayer Book from 1549 until the 1979 Book of Common Prayer. The "Comfortable
Words" of the 1979 Prayer Book are still from this translation.
7. The Geneva Bible (1560) [first to use numbered verses]
8. King James Authorized Version of 1611. This is a translation authorized by King James in 160land
completed in 1611. It is basically a revision of The Great Bible, Coverdale's translation. The Hebrew
and Greek were referenced in the task. The newly organized Bible that resulted was called the
Authorized Version of the Bible, and was the translation designated to be read in churches, i.e.,
Church of England congregations. There is, ironically, no evidence that it was ever officially
declared to be the Authorized Version by Convocation. Instead, this seems to be a fiat of the Crown.
It is the Primus Translation of the Anglican Communion and the one that most of the English
speaking world has adopted. It is fully the work of the Anglican Church, and the one that most nonAnglican English speaking people have adopted as well!
9. Revised Standard Version -a 1950 revision of the King James Version based on the Hebrew and
Greek.
10. New English Bible a 1960 translation directly from the Hebrew and Greek.
11. Jerusalem Bible a 1966 Roman Catholic translation from the French, using the Greek and the
Hebrew manuscripts.
12. New Jerusalem Bible - a 1985 Roman Catholic revision, translating the Greek and Hebrew.
13. Revised New English - a 1989 British translation from the best of the manuscripts of Hebrew and
Greek. This is one of the finest translations available today. It was translated by an Ecumenical
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Commission.
14. New Revised Standard Version - a 1991 American translation, by an Ecumenical Commission, from
Hebrew and Greek manuscripts. One of the best Bible translations available today.
DIVISION OF THE HEBREW SCRIPTURES (24 BOOKS)
1. Torah (äøBú) - Instruction, Learning (Law) (587-500 BCE) a) Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy
2. Nebi'im (íéàéáð) - Prophets (587-500 BCE)
a) Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings
b) Latter Prophets: [Major Prophets] Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel; [Minor Prophets] Hosea, Joel, Amos,
Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
3. Ketuvim (íáeúë) - Writings (600-165 BCE) (thirteen books)
a) Poetry: Psalms, Proverbs, Job
b) The Five Scrolls: Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther
c) Prophecy: Daniel
d) History: Ezra and Nehemiah, I-II Chronicles
THE SEVEN CANONS OR LISTS OF BOOKS OF THE BIBLE
I. Palestinian Canon
a) Hebrew Canon (24 books)
This canon was set by the council of Rabbis meeting in Jamnia in 90-100 CE. This means that the
Canon of Torah and Nabi'im was acknowledged and confirmed, while the Kituvim were delineated. It
would be a couple of centuries before this would be fully enjoined on all Jews.
2. Samaritan Canon: Torah only (five books) and Joshua
This canon was determined by the separation of the Samaritans from the Jews in 432 BCE. This also
dates the latest possible date for the Pentateuch, because it had to already be canon by the time of the
separation.
3. Alexandrian Jewish Canon (the 39 books of the LXX)
This canon began with the translation of the Pentateuch into Greek around 250 BCE.
4. Christian Canon (Septuagint LXX) (+ or - 39 books)
The Hebrew Canon was the list used primarily in Palestine. The Septuagint (LXX) was the list
originating in Alexandria and used in Greek speaking communities of the Diaspora. The canon of
Jesus and his disciples was the Hebrew Scriptures to be given final form in 90 CE at the Council of
Jamnia. The canon of Paul and the Greek speaking Church was the LXX (Septuagint - Greek) which
was to be the basis for the Church's Old Testament as the move from being based in Judaism to the
Gentile Greek speaking community became more definite.
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The order of the list of Books contained in the various Christian canons all differ from the order of the
books as contained in the Hebrew listing of Tanak. [This is the acronym used by the Jews to denote
the Bible. It is composed of the first letters of the three parts of the canon: Torah (äøBú), Nebi'im
(íéàéáð), Ketuvim (íáeúë). At the same time there will even be a slight difference in the list order
between these. In the ancient Manuscripts the order of the books will follow different patterns
depending on the manuscript and manuscript family of which a particular manuscript is a part.
a) Orthodox (Eastern) (LXX plus)
(1) 151st Psalm (2) 3 Maccabees
b) The Slavonic (LXX plus)
(1) 1 & 2 Esdras in an appendix
b) Roman Catholic (Western) (46 books)
(1) "In Roman Catholic editions the Old Testament contains the rearranged 39 books of the Hebrew
Scriptures plus seven others that are current in the official Latin Vulgate Bible .... The order of these
46 books in Vulgate manuscripts varies greatly; in fact, the manuscripts that have been examined
disclose more than two hundred different ways of arranging the books."
c) Protestant
(1) Hebrew list excluding the Apocrypha. This is the one most familiar to non-Roman Catholics. "In
the Protestant editions of the Bible the Old Testament follows the Hebrew text as regards content, but
the books in the second and third divisions are rearranged in sequence and several are divided, making
a total of thirty-nine."
d) Anglican
(1) Hebrew list in the Protestant order and number of books including a separate section of books
designated as the Apocrypha which is to be read for edification but not doctrine (semi-canonical). The
Apocrypha is collected together and usually placed between the Testaments.
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APPENDIX B
The Seven General Councils of the Church, which span the years 325 CE to 787 CE each dealt
with the nature of Christ. They are as follows:
1.Nicaea I 325 Arianism (Arius)
2. Constantinople I 381 Arianism, Macedonianism, Apollinarianism (Macedonius, Apollinaris)
3.Ephesus 431 Nestorianism, Pelagianism (Nestorius, Pelagius)
4.Cha1cedon 451 Monophysitism (Eutyches, Dioscorus)
5.Constantinople II 553 Origenism (Origen, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, Ibas)
6.Constantinople III 681 Monothelitism (Honorius) 7. Nicaea II 787 Iconoclasm (Leo III)
The First and Third council defined Christ's Godhead; the second and fourth Christ's true and
complete manhood. The Fifth was a supplement to the Third, and the Sixth to the Fourth; they were the
result of attempts to reconcile to the Orthodox Church those who rejected the Fourth Council.
THE NATURE OF GENERAL COUNCILS.
The appellation of a council as a General or Ecumenical Council required several conditions.
First, the council must have been called by the Emperor. Second, it must be opened to representatives
from all the church. This means that it was a council of bishops, the official guardians of the Faith, or
their appointed representatives, and its decisions were unanimous (with the exception of those whose
views were condemned). Third, in retrospect, it taught or confirmed the teaching of the Church of the
ages. Therefore, its acts were accepted by the whole Church in the successive generations.
All the councils were held in or around Constantinople except the Third Council which was held
at Ephesus. They were all held in the East, with Rome participating whenever possible.
It must be noted that no council was called assuming that it was a General Council. Only later
ages would define it as such. Those so defined were seven in number. Following the Seventh Council the
Church experienced the first great division known as the Great Schism of 1046, between the East and the
West.
Oecumenical came from the Greek word ïkêïõìÝíç meaning the inhabited world, which was
understood as the Roman Empire.
"We do not accept the dogmas because they were decreed by the Councils: we accept the
Councils, because, in the permanent judgment of the Universal Church, their definitions were necessary
to the traditional faith as recorded in Holy Scripture. So we recognize two tests of a General Council: its
dogmatic definitions must be necessary conclusions from Holy Scripture, and this must be recognized
over a long period, by the Universal Church." 111
The definition of Nature and Person as used in theology and theological disputations is necessary
in order to follow the discussions. These are philosophical terms that playa major role in the discussions
111. C.B. Moss, The Church of England and The Seventh Council, The Faith Street Press, London, (1957), pp. 5-6.
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of the Councils. 1. _ Nature means any aspect of a being that can be described. For a person this means
body, mind, will, characteristics, personality. The divine nature means the divine mind, will, and all
attributes power, goodness, justice, mercy, holiness, etc. 2. Person in theology refers to the self, ego, the
one who acts through his/her nature. "A person uses his nature, but his nature is not part of his person.
One can say nothing about a person, in the theological sense, except that he exists, he acts, he
experiences. Anything about a being that can be described is part of his nature, not his person. Person is
simply the one who uses the nature."112 The discussions of the councils will be concerned with the nature
and person of Jesus.
THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA, THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL WAS HELD IN NICAEA IN
325 CE
This council was called by Emperor Constantine to settle disputes in the Church over the nature
of Jesus. He perceived that the Church must remain unified for the Empire to be unified. The Edict of
Toleration was signed in 311 ending the persecution of the Christians. The following year, 312, the Edict
of Milan gave the Church freedom to expand. In 313 Constantine gave tax money to the clergy for
support and influenced the selection of bishops. There was a great surge of conversions when it became
legal to be Christian. The next step was the full support of the Emperor as this religion became the
dominant one. Therefore it was imperative that the Church be unified so that it would in turn be a
unifying agent in the Empire.
The controversy centered around the Nature of Christ. Arius taught that Jesus Christ was a
created being of the Father and hence subject to the Father. For Arius Jesus Christ was neither fully God
nor fully man, but in between. The following syllogism has been attributed to Arius, "'If,' said he, 'the
Father begat the son, he that was begotten had a beginning of existence; hence it is clear that there was [a
time] when the son was not. It follows then of necessity that he had his existence from the nonexistent.''113 Athanasius et al. taught that Jesus Christ was of the same substance as the Father. Eusebius of
Caesarea was the bishop of Caesarea. He is the author of the Ecclesiastical History which he finished just
before the Council of Nicea met. He offered the creed from his own diocese which was to become the
basis for the decree and subsequent creed of the Council.
The participants were about 318 bishops in attendance with their attendants. The Bishop of Rome
was represented by two priests who were his legates. The Emperor opened the Council himself. This was
an exciting time for the Church because it was the first time in her history that she was free and officially
recognized by the government. It would also prove to be a serious shift for her, because now her identity
was changing from being outlaw and persecuted to the one enforcing the law and eventually the
112. Bonnell Spencer, Ye Are The Body, Holy Cross Press, West Park, NY (1950), p. 72.
113. Henry Bettenson, Ed. Documents of the Christian Church, second edition, Oxford University Press, London (1963), p. 40.
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persecutor.
The results of the Council were in the Nicene Definition, the date of Easter, and a ruling on the
Lapsed clergy. The Nicene Definition as enlarged was from the creed submitted by Eusebius of Caesarea.
The word homoousion ¿ìïïýóéïí was inserted as the test word in the Creed. Hence, the Son was
understood as of the same being with the Father, begotten not made. (The Creed that came from this
Council was not the same one which bears the name Nicene. The one that bears this name comes into
being following the next Council, that of Constantinople in 381). This did not end the controversy,
because the Arians would gain power again with the death of Constantine and the division of the empire
between his two sons. It would be 660 CE before Arianism would come to an end, and this would be in
the Germanic countries, which were the last stronghold of the Arians.
THE CREED OF NICEA
We believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of all things both
visible and invisible;
And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, only begotten of the Father,
that is of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very
God, Begotten not made, of one substance with the Father; Through whom all
things were made, both the things in heaven and the things on earth;
Who for us men and for our salvation came down, and was made flesh and
was made man.
He suffered,
And rose again the third day,
Is coming to judge quick and dead; And in the Holy Ghost.
But those who say, There was once when He was not, or He was not before
He was begotten, or He was made out of nothing, or affirm that the Son of God is
of a different hypostasis or substance, or is a creature, or is subject to change or
alteration, these the catholic and apostolic Church of God anathematises.
The date of Easter was regularized. Until this time Easter was celebrated in Asia Minor on the 14
Nisan regardless of the day of the week on which it fell. In the West it had always been observed on the
following Sunday. From this time it must be always on a Sunday. The date was therefore the Sunday
following the 15 Nisan of the Jewish lunar calendar. Second, because Alexandria had the most learned
astronomical center of the empire, the Patriarchal See of Alexandria was to issue the date of Easter
annually. The Patriarch was to notify the Bishop of Rome of the date, who in turn provided the West with
the information. The Patriarch was responsible for its transmission to the Eastern Church.
In later centuries there was a divergence depending on whether the Anatolian 19-year cycle or the
Roman use of the older 84-year cycle was in use. The Celtic Churches had their own method of
computation which resulted in a long quarrel with the Roman missionaries. The issue was somewhat
settled with the Synod of Whitby in favor of the Roman method. 114
114. F.L. Cross, Ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, London (1958), p. 1021.
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It was ordered that, at the consecration of a bishop, at least three bishops must be present and
share in the consecration to assure and insure the Apostolic Succession. This would relieve the problems
of doubt of valid ordination due to the lapsed. At least one of the three bishops would be in full Apostolic
Succession.
Once the Arian controversy was settled, even though there were still pockets of those who
understood Jesus in Arian terms, the Church now would turn to the task of defining the details of the
definition and its ramifications. By the end of the fourth century it established doctrine that Jesus was
fully God and fully Man. These were concerned with three more attempts to define and explore the
ramifications of the definition. These were Apollinarianism, Nestorianism, and Eutychianism. These lead
to the Fourth Council which met at Chalcedon.
THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE I, THE SECOND GENERAL COUNCIL WAS HELD
IN CONSTANTINOPLE IN 381 CE.
This council was called by Emperor Theodosius who became Emperor following the death of
Gratian who had been emperor over the West and appointed Theodosius emperor over the East.
The controversy centered around the Nature of Christ and the consubstantiality of the Holy Spirit
with the Father and Son. Apollinaris was bishop of Laodicea in Syria (?-c 390). He was a supporter of the
Nicene decision. He was a man of great intellectual ability. He was a vigorous opponent of Arius and
Arianism, and taught the union of the two natures emphasizing Jesus' divinity to the expense of his full
manhood. He came to argue that because the human mind was corrupt Christ could not posses a human
mind, instead his mind must have been replaced by the Logos which was the archetype of all minds.
Macedonianism or the Pneumatocheans were also the subject of the council and taught that the Holy
Spirit was a created creature.
This council had fewer participants than the previous one with only 150 bishops attending, which
was a very small number when compared with the attendance at the others. Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil
of Caesarea, and Gregory of Nyssa came to be known as the three Cappadocians. The two Gregorys were
present at the Council. Basil had died before the Council was called. Gregory of Nazianzus, Archbishop
of Constantinople was one of the ablest opponents of Apollinarianism. A gifted preacher, he was credited
with turning Constantinople from the Arian persuasion to the Nicene faith. Basil of Caesarea, trained in
Constantinople and Athens became bishop of Cappadocian Caesarea. He was a gifted theologian on
behalf of the Nicene faith, and accomplished organizer and administrator. Gregory of Nyssa was Basil's
younger brother. He was an excellent orator, which coupled with his writing skill and theological
penetration, set him up to become bishop of Nyssa. Through his theological ability he ranked among the
four great Fathers of the Eastern Church.
Results of the Council were first, it reaffirmed the creed of Nicea. A definition was produced in
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creedal form which was modified by use after the council ended which came to be known as the Nicene
Creed which is used today. Its present form did not originate with the Council, but developed from use
afterwards so that by the time of Chalcedon in 451 it was attributed to the Council of Constantinople I of
381. The third paragraph of the Creed which deals with the Holy Spirit was modified to its present form
as being the mind of the Council. Second, it condemned Apollinarianism and Macedonianism.
Apollinarianism taught that Christ had no human spirit, but only a divine spirit. Further, Macedonianism
taught that the Holy Spirit is a created creature of the Son. Third, it set forth canons which placed
Constantinople in order of precedence next after Rome. It grouped the Provinces into 'dioceses'. In this
time the Provinces were local areas under the jurisdiction of a bishop, while Dioceses were made up of
groups of provinces under the jurisdiction of an archbishop. This became reversed by modern times with
dioceses being under the jurisdiction of a bishop with the provinces made up of a number of dioceses.
From this struggle the imperial church came into existence, and from hence forth the only religion
allowed in the empire was Christian. Further to depart from the official orthodoxy as it was set forth by
the councils was a crime. The punishment ranged from banishment to death. In 392 Theodosius forbade
"heathen" worship with penalties like those of lese-majesty and sacrilege. The tables had turned from the
previous ages. Now the Church was in command and wielded a sword over all who differed from her.
This was a definite change from Constantine's toleration, which by now had completely disappeared.
Some would remark that this was a totally new chapter in the life of the Church which marked the beginning of the decline of the Church.
THE COUNCIL OF EPHESUS, THE THIRD GENERAL COUNCIL WAS HELD IN EPHESUS
431 CE.
This council was called by the two Emperors, Theodosius II of the East, and Valentinian III in the
West.
The controversy once again centered primarily around the Nature of Christ, and the role of Christ
in salvation in the teachings of Pelagius. Nestorius had attempted to come to an understanding of how
Jesus was human and divine. The main participants in the Council were Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria,
Memnon and the papal legates on one side, and Nestorius and John the Patriarch of Antioch on the other.
Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, taught that Jesus Christ was a distinct Person from God the
Son (two Persons, two Natures). There was a perfect union, but the same kind as every human being can
have with God. He illustrated this by speaking of the conjunction (óõíÜöåéá) of the two persons and
natures like that of a husband and wife who become "one flesh" while remaining two separate natures and
persons. "The controversy began in 428 with Nestorius' objection to the ascription to the Virgin of the
title Èåïôüêïò ('God-bearer', not so startling as the English 'Mother of God'; the Greek stressing the Deity
of the Son rather than the privilege of the mother). The title had been commonly used, at least since
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Origen, and the 'Alexandrians' were quick to see the implications of his contention."115
Pelagius taught that a person can save him/her self through self-discipline, and rely on Christ as
needed. Pelagius was a British monk who came to Rome around 400 CE, only to be shocked by the
irresponsible morality of the populace, which seemed to be defended by the teachings of Augustine of
Hippo. Augustine's position was that human beings are born with Original Sin and can do no good thing
apart from the Grace of God. This seemed to Pelagius to remove human responsibility from the argument.
Pelagius took refuge in Carthage when Rome was sacked in 410, and found himself in the camp of
Augustine. Pelagius denied original sin, and taught that a person could live without sin by an act of their
own will. Hence, the Grace of Christ was not necessary to salvation, but was to be called upon when
needed. He was condemned by a synod held at Carthage, as Augustine's position triumphed. The decisions of Carthage were not popular throughout the Church, and the full Augustinian doctrine did not
immediately win wide acceptance. Pelagius, many thought then, as many think now, was in the main right
in what he affirmed (i.e., human responsibility, the need for co-operation with grace, that there is meaning
in calling God just, etc.), but generally wrong in what he denied (the inherited disposition to sin, the need
for infant baptism, and the actual sinfulness of mankind). 116
The results of the Council were in favor with Cyril, Memnon, and the papal legates. Nestorianism
was condemned for proclaiming that Christ was one person acting through two complete and distinct
natures, divine and human: one Person, two Natures. Pelagianism was condemned for proclaiming that
humans can save themselves through their faith and effort alone.
THE COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON, THE FOURTH GENERAL COUNCIL WAS HELD IN
CHALCEDON IN 451 CE.
This council was called by Empress Pulcheria and her husband Marcian.
The controversy again was over the Nature of Christ. Monophysitism (Monophysite) was a
position that Christ was not fully a human being. It was a minimization of the humanity of Christ.
Monophysitism taught that the divine and human natures in Christ were mixed to form one nature (one
Person, one Nature).
The participants were 600 Bishops which included representatives from the whole Church with
the exception of the papal delegates and two others from the Orient. Leo I, Bishop of Rome, Pope wrote
his famous Tome of June 449 which he wrote to Flavian, setting forth the definition of Christ as
understood by the West. This became the definitive position of the Church as the Tome was received by
the Council. Flavian, Patriarch of Constantinople was the final major figure of the council on the side of
what was declared Orthodox. The subject of the Council was the teaching of Eutyches of Constantinople.
115. Bettenson, p. 46.
116. Bettenson, p. 60.
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Eutyches of Constantinople stated, "I confess that our Lord was of two natures before the union [i.e., the
incarnation], but after the union one nature". This confusion of natures was what "Eutychianism" came to
stand for. Eutyches of Constantinople was a man of little theological ability, but very popular with those
who knew him. He was the aged abbot or "archimandrite" of the monastic party. Some said that Eutyches
was more confused than he thought the natures of Christ were! So Eutyehianism stood for
monophysitism.
The results of the Council are contained in the definition of Chalcedon.
THE CREED OF CHALCEDON
We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach men to
confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in God-head
and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable soul and
body; consubstantial (¿ìïïýóéïí) with the Father according to the Godhead, and
consubstantial with us according to the manhood, in all things like unto us, without
sin; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these
latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of
God (Theotokos 152), according to the manhood; one and the same Christ, Son,
Lord, Only-begotten, IN TWO NATURES, WITHOUT CONFUSION, WITHOUT CHANGE, WITHOUT DIVISION, WITHOUT SEPARATION; the
distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the
property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one person (prospon
ðñüóùðïí) and one subsistence (hypostasis ›ðüóôáóéò ), not parted or divided
into two persons, but one and the same Son and Only-begotten, God the Word, the
Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning have declared concerning
Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the creed of the holy
Fathers has handed down to us.
This Creed has been accepted as the "orthodox" solution to the Christological problem by the
Greek, Latin, Anglican, and most Protestant Churches. The council exalted the claims of Constantinople
to a dignity like that of Rome. This Council set forth the five Patriarchates: Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome. Rome was the See of the West, while the other four were Eastern
jurisdictions, which will be important in understanding the later division between East and West. The
West spoke Latin; the East Greek. Not only were they divided by language, but also by geography. The
fact that this Creed was a Western triumph, which in turn did not understand the nuances of the Eastern
mind, only sufficed to produce further strife in the Eastern part of the Church. It was declared to be the
official standard of the empire. 117
476 CE is the date of the end of the old imperial Roman Empire.
117. NOTE: In January 1994 the announcement was made that the Patriarch of the Oriental Churches, which are Monophysite, and the
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople had reached an understanding over the decree of Chalcedon. The Oriental churches are now in
agreement and Communion with the Orthodox Church.
132
THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE II, THE FIFTH GENERAL COUNCIL WAS HELD IN
CONSTANTINOPLE IN 553 CE.
This council was called by Justinian I Emperor, one of the most able theologians of the time. The
controversy was once again over the Nature of Christ. Origenism was a tendency towards Nestorianism
which dominated the issues of the Third Council. Justinian I was one of the major participants of the
Council. The Results of the Council were the condemnation of Origen and the affirmation of the actions
of the Third Council.
THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE III, THE SIXTH GENERAL COUNCIL HELD IN
CONSTANTINOPLE IN 681 CE.
This council was called by Emperor Constantine IV to deal with the latest controversy over the
Nature of Christ, namely the will of Christ. Monothelitism held that Christ had no human will.
Pope Agatho was one of the major participants. The results of the Council affirmed that Christ
has a complete human nature. Christ was declared to have "two natural wills or willings ... not contrary
one to the other...but His human will follows, not as resisting or reluctant, but rather as subject to His
divine and omnipotent will."118 It also condemned Sergius and others of his successors in the partriarchate
of Constantinople, Cyrus of Alexandria and Pope Honorius. 'Will or "energy" was regarded as an attribute
of nature, and the affirmation of the human will of Christ meant that the humanity of the Saviour had a
freedom of its own.'119 This question was important because it asked if the divine will works through the
human will or does it over ride it?
THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA II, THE SEVENTH GENERAL COUNCIL WAS HELD IN
NICAEA IN 787 CE.
This Council was the last in the series of Ecumenical Councils and was called by Constantine VI
to settle the controversy concerning the Nature of Christ as reflected in the use of Icons.
The major participant was John of Demascus who was one of the most honored of the Eastern
Theologians. He wrote a complete systematic presentation of the theology of the Eastern Church.
The result of the Council was the Definition of Nicaea II which set forth the definitive statement
concerning the use of Icons in the life of the Church.
THE DEFINITION OF NICAEA II
To make our confession short we keep unchanged all the ecclesiastical
traditions handed down to us, whether in writing or verbally, one of which is the
making of pictorial representations, agreeable to the history of the preaching of the
Gospel: a tradition useful in many respects, but especially in this, that so the
Incarnation of the Word of God is shown forth as real and not merely imaginary,
for those have mutual indications and without doubt also have mutual
118. Walker, p. 147.
119. Walker, p. 147.
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significations.
We therefore, following the royal pathway and the divinely inspired
(Èåçãüñv ) authority of our holy Fathers and the traditions of the Catholic Church
(for, as we all know the Holy Spirit dwells in her), define with all certitude and
accuracy that just as the figure of the precious and life-giving Cross, so also the
venerable and holy pictures (åkêüíáò), as well in painting and mosaic as in other
fit materials, should be set forth in the holy churches of God, and on the sacred
vessels and on the vestments and on the hangings and in pictures (óáíßóéí ) both in
houses and by the wayside, to wit the picture (åkêüíïò) of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ, of our spotless Lady (äåóðïßíçò) the holy Mother of God
(Èåïôüêïò), of the honourable angels, of all holy (Qãßùí) and pious (¿óßùí )
men. For the more frequently they are seen in artistic representation the more
readily are men lifted up to the memory of, and longing after, their prototypes; and
to these should be given salutation and honourable reverence
(Póðáóì’í êár ôéìçôéêxí ðñïóêýíçóéí), not indeed the true worship
(ëáôñåßáí, latria) which is fitting (ðñÝðåé) for the Divine nature alone; but to
these, as to the figure (ôýðv ) of the holy and life-giving Cross, and to the holy
Gospels, and to the other sacred objects, incense and lights may be offered
according to ancient pious custom. For the honour which is paid to the picture
(ånêùí) passes on to that which the picture represents, and he who reveres
(ðñïóêýíùí) the picture reveres in it the subject represented. For thus the
teaching of our holy Fathers, that is, the Tradition of the Catholic Church, which
from one end of the earth to the other has received the Gospel, is strengthened.
Thus we follow Paul, who spoke in Christ, and the whole Divine Apostolic
company and the holy Fathers, holding fast the traditions which we have received.
So we sing prophetically the triumphal hymns of the Church: Rejoice greatly, 0
daughter of Zion; shout, 0 daughter of Jerusalem: rejoice and be glad with all thy
heart. The Lord hath taken away from thee the oppression of thine adversaries;
thou art redeemed from the hand of thine enemies. The Lord is a King in the midst
of thee; thou shalt not see evil any more, and peace shall be unto thee for ever.
We may perhaps summarize this definition as follows. Idolatry, the offering of adoration
(ëáôñåßáí latria) to any created person or thing is strictly forbidden. The sacred pictures are to be given
veneration (ðñïóêýíçóéò), according to ancient tradition. The sacred pictures are useful for instruction.
They are needed, in order to preserve the truth that Jesus Christ is a Person and not a fantasy, theory or
idea. The veneration given to the picture passes on to the person, human or angelic, whom the picture
represents. Our Lord Jesus Christ is truly and completely human. Though He is uncircumscribed in His
Godhead, in His Manhood He is limited, and may be portrayed in painting, mosaic, or other suitable
materials.
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GLOSSARY*
Absolution: The Act of declaration whereby a priest or bishop pronounces God's forgiveness of the sins
of a penitent. This may be either public (i.e., the Absolution following general Confession) or
private as in the Reconciliation of a Penitent.
Acclamation: Term for seasonal vesicle and response at the beginning of the Eucharist (Book of
Common Prayer, pp. 323,355) and for the response of the congregation in the middle of some
Eucharistic prayers. Also known as the salutation.
Acolyte: The lay person who assists in the worship services by carrying the cross, assisting in the presentation of the bread and wine, lighting and extinguishing the candles, and other ways as
directed by the clergy.
Advent: The first season in the church's liturgical year, beginning on the fourth Sunday before Christmas
and running until the Eucharist at Christmas. Advent is a season of preparation for remembering
Christ's incarnation at Christmas and for the fulfillment of his promise to return in power and
great glory. The liturgical color for Advent is purple, or in some places, blue.
Agnus Dei: Latin for "Lamb of God". The name of the anthem which may be used after the Breaking of
the Bread in the Eucharist (Book of Common of Prayer, p. 337).
Alb: A white or natural colored garment reaching from the neck to the ankles, and is usually gathered at
the waist with a cincture. This vestment is worn in the celebration of the Eucharist. Formally
worn over the cassock, but today is designed combining the elements of the alb with the cassock
making a cassock-alb.
Altar Guild: The organization responsible for the care and provision of the Altar and the worship of the
church. They are also responsible for the setup of weddings, funerals, Daily Offices, and other
services of the church.
Altar of Repose: The Altar used during Holy Week to place the Consecrated Bread and Wine on
Reservation following the Maundy Thursday service which is then used for the Mass of the PreSanctified on Good Friday.
Altar Service Book: Large book containing texts and music for the celebrant at the Eucharist, used at the
altar.
AMEN (the Great Amen): Hebrew word giving assent to what has been said. Used liturgically at the end
of prayers and hymns to allow the congregation to give ascent or to conclude on a note of
affirmation. The Great Amen occurs at the end of the Eucharistic prayer, and it is the only place
in the Book of Common Prayer where the word appears in all capital letters, underscoring the
importance of congregational affirmation.
Amice: The collar which is a part of the alb.
Amphictyonic association: A group of tribes who are in association for the purpose of tending to the
care, the worship, and cultic observance of a common sanctuary. In the history of Israel the
associations numbered six or twelve tribes. This provided that a tribe was responsible for one or
two months throughout the year for a particular sanctuary. The sanctuary at Shiloh is an
example of this type of arrangement.
Anamnesis: From a Greek word meaning "to remember" or "to recall"; refers to the parts of the Great
Thanksgiving or Eucharistic Prayer which recount the history of our salvation in a series of
God's saving actions in history. The word is understood to mean not just thinking about the
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actions again, but reliving the present. Thus in the Eucharist, we do not simply remember Jesus'
passion, but also participate in its benefits.
Anglican Communion: Worldwide assembly of churches that, in communion with the Church of
England, recognizes the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Each member church sends
representatives every ten years to the Lambeth Conference to discuss matters of mutual concern.
Apocrypha: Collection of writings that were part of the Greek Bible of the Jewish community outside of
Palestine at the beginning of the Christian era, which became the Bible of Gentile Christians.
However, these books are not included in the canon of Scripture established by rabbis in
Jerusalem about 70 CE. Anglicans use the apocryphal books in liturgical readings and hold them
as authoritative "for example of life and instruction of manners" but not for doctrinal matters.
Ash Wednesday: The first day of Lent, forty fast days before Easter (forty-six calendar days, not
counting Sundays). Follows Mardi Gras, or "Fat Tuesday", also called Shrove Tuesday.
Assessment Budget: That portion of the diocesan or General Convention budget using revenues assessed
from the congregations or dioceses.
Aumbry: The wall safe in the Sanctuary where the blessed Sacrament is kept on reservation. It has a
white or red globed candle, called the Sanctuary Lamp, which burns al the time denoting the
Sacrament is on reservation.
Baptism: The sacramental rite of full initiation by water and the Holy Spirit into membership in the
Christian church. At a baptism, the congregation renews its own baptismal vows and welcomes
the newly baptized into the community. If the person baptized is too young to make the
baptismal promises, they are made in the name of the child by parents and godparents. Baptism
may be by immersion or by pouring water over the head.
Baptistry: Traditionally, a separate building in which baptisms occurred; now rarely seen except that
something of the old idea is retained in churches where the baptismal font is set apart from the
rest of the building in its own space. The virtue of the baptistry is that it provides a distinctive
space for the sacrament of baptism and thus underscores its importance.
Basic Linen: One of the linens used on the altar during the Eucharist. It is cut to cover the altar top, and
placed over the cere cloth and beneath the fair linen.
Bishop: The chief sacramental officer of the church, and the office which gives our church its name. The
Greek word for bishop is episcopos (EÅðßóêïðïò), and so the original name of the Episcopal
Church said of us that we were the Protestant church with bishops in the United States. Bishops
are the chief pastors for their dioceses; they are responsible for ensuring that the faith
proclaimed in parishes is the faith of the church. Bishops have the special office to ordain priests
and deacons, and together with other bishops to ordain or consecrate other bishops. In the
American church there are five kinds of bishops: the Presiding Bishop, diocesan bishops, and
assisting bishops called coadjutors, suffragans, and assistant. The official title of a bishop is the
Right Reverend, and of the Presiding Bishop, the Most Reverend.
Blessing: The pronouncement of God's favor, customarily done by a priest or bishop. Blessings may be of
people, as at the end of the Eucharist, of places, such as homes and churches, or of things, such
as wedding rings or the water of baptism.
Book of Common Prayer: The book that makes it possible for the Episcopal Church to be a pragmatic
church which understands its identity through participation in corporate worship. Archbishop
Thomas Cranmer produced the first Book of Common Prayer in 1549. The first Prayer Book of
the American Church was approved in 1789; the latest, the Prayer Book of 1979, is now in use.
The Prayer Book is essential to the character of the Episcopal Church because its use holds
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together congregations with very different styles of worship and emphasis within the broader
traditions of Christian belief and practice.
Bread Box: Lidded container employed in some places to store and transport unleavened wafers when
they are used as bread at the Eucharist. At the Offertory procession, a member of the congregation brings the breadbox to the celebrant.
Breaking of the Bread: see Fracture
Canon: A Greek word that carne to mean a unit by which things are measured. Thus we speak of the
canon of Scripture as the list of books regarded as having authority for the church, canon law as
the list of rules by which the church is guided and governed, and the canon of the Mass as the
prayer of consecration or Great Thanksgiving, which summarizes the history of salvation and
places the community gathered a the altar within it.
Canon Law: The ecclesiastical laws which govern the life of the Church. In the Episcopal Church there
are the National Canons and the Diocesan Canons
Cassock: The basic attire for the clergy. This is a neck to ankle garment with a fitted jacket-top attached
to a full skirt. The priest or deacon usually wear black ones, and bishops wear purple or crimson
ones. This is the normal street dress for the clergy. Today the clerical shirt is modified form of
the cassock.
Catechism: Originally the name given to pre-baptismal instructions for children and adults, the word
carne to mean the book containing those instructions, usually put in the form of questions and
answers.
Catechumenate: The period of training and instruction given to a convert to Christianity in the Christian
Faith and life. The length varies depending on the candidate(s). This is a revival of the ancient
practice of the Church.
Catechumen: The person(s) undergoing instruction.
Cathedra: The bishop's chair which is a symbol of the bishop's authority. The Chair sits in the Sanctuary
of the Cathedral.
Cathedral: The principle church of the diocese which is the center of the liturgical and spiritual life of
the diocese. It is the place of the bishop's chair, which is one of the symbols of the bishop's
authority. The rector of the cathedral is called a dean.
Cere Cloth: The cere cloth is bottom-most linen used on the altar during the Eucharist. It is made of
coarse weave linen that fits exactly the top of the altar (the mensa). It is waxed to prevent the
stone altar top or mensa from "sweating" on the other linens. The basic linen is placed on top of
the cere cloth.
Chalice: The cup used to hold the wine to be consecrated and from which to administer the consecrated
wine at the Eucharist.
Chancel: In a traditional church the area including the whole choir area east of the nave and west of the
sanctuary; thus the term "chancel choir".
Chasuble: The Eucharistic vestment worn by the celebrant at the Eucharist. It is a large circular garment
with a hole in the middle to fit around the neck of the wearer. It resembles a poncho.
Chimere: Red or black sleeveless, long vest-like gown, usually of silk or satin, worn by Episcopal
bishops over a white rochet and a purple or black cassock.
Choir (Quire): The area between the chancel steps and the altar rail. Originally for the religious
community who said the Daily Offices. The pews face each other providing for antiphonal
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singing and reading. This area came to designate both the space for, as well as the choristers (lay
persons) who assist in the choral segments of the services.
Chrism: Either olive oil or a mixture of olive oil and balsam, consecrated by a bishop, which may be
used in baptism, confirmation, and ordinations. To be distinguished from the oil of unction,
which may be blessed by a priest or bishop and which is used in Ministration of the Sick. In
some dioceses, the clergy gather with their bishop for a special Eucharist on Maundy Thursday,
at which oil is consecrated for all parishes at one time.
Christened: Another word for baptize. To be Christened is to be "in-Christed", i.e., brought into Christ.
Christmas: December 25, the Feast of the Nativity of Christ, and the following eleven days until January
6, the Feast of Epiphany.
Cincture: The girdle or waistband used on the cassock or alb.
Collect: A short prayer following a set form comprised of opening salutation, invocation or ascription,
petition, and doxology.
Confession of Sin: Either General (said by the congregation during the Eucharist and Daily Office) or
Private, confession is said to a priest and followed immediately by absolution. Things told a
priest under the seal of the confessional may not be revealed by the priest to others.
Congregation: A group of people gathered together to worship God. In the Episcopal Church, there are
two kinds of official congregations. The unorganized congregation is a group of people who
gather with the bishop's knowledge and blessing to read the Daily Office together. The
organized congregation is a group of people who have been recognized by the bishop as a
potentially viable congregation and have been appointed leaders.
Consecration: In the Eucharist, the action by which the bread and wine become for us the Body and
Blood of Christ. Consecration is also used to describe the rite for the ordination of a bishop or
other rites by which altars, chalices, patens, and church buildings are set apart for the service of
God.
Constitution and Canons: The ecclesiastical laws that govern the life of the church. In the Episcopal
Church there are the National Canons and Diocesan Canons.
Cope: A vestment worn by the clergy in procession. It is a floor length cape worn on festival occasions
and in solemn Evensong. It is worn over the alb or the cassock and surplice. It is never worn
over the chasuble.
Corporal: A large square of white linen that is carried to the altar in the burse and is spread on the altar at
the beginning of the process of preparing the altar at the Offertory. The paten with bread on it
and the chalice with wine are placed on the corporal during the prayer of consecration.
Cotta: A white vestment similar to a surplice, but shorter and less fully cut, worn over cassocks in some
places by choirs and acolytes.
Credence Table: A small table or shelf found near the altar which holds the chalice and other accessories
needed at the Offertory for preparing the altar to receive the bread and wine in procession. The
credence table can also be placed near the entrance to the room where the Eucharist is
celebrated, and the offertory procession begins at this location.
Crosier: One of the signs of the office a bishop; a staff, often I the shape of a shepherd's crook, carried by
the bishop or the bishop's chaplain in procession and held by the bishop when pronouncing an
episcopal blessing or giving absolution.
Cruet: The vessel in which wine or water is brought to the altar; usually made of silver, glass, or pottery,
with a stopper.
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Curate: A member of the clergy who has just been ordained and has his or her first position in a parish;
this person is said to be serving a curacy in that place.
Daily Office: Pattern of prayer set by Archbishop Cranmer in the first Book of Common Prayer (1549),
when he reduced the eight monastic services to two. The current Prayer Book provides for five
daily offices: morning prayer, noonday prayer, an order for the evening (vespers), evening
prayer, and compline. These can be led by lay people as well as clergy.
Dalmatic: Vestment worn by the deacon in the celebrations of the Eucharist.
Deacon, Deaconos (ÄéÜêïíïò): The first of the three orders of the ordained ministry. The Greek means
a table waiter or servant. It is the foundational ministry of servant hood.
Dean: Title given to person holding any of three positions: the head of a cathedral staff, the head of a
seminary, or the clergy person elected or appointed to preside over meetings of a geographical
division of a diocese. The title dean is The Very Reverend; the house a dean lives in is called a
deanery.
Diocese: A geographical area that has a bishop, the diocese is the basic unit of administration in the
Episcopal Church.
Dismissal: Words spoken at the end of the Eucharist by a deacon, or priest if no deacon is present.
Docetism: Heresy of the early church. Docetic means "what seems to be", something ghostlike or an
apparition. Thus docetists believed that Jesus only appeared to be, but was not actually, human.
It was also characterized by a dualistic anthropology, and philosophical understanding of the
world, i.e., Good vs. Evil. It was the logical conclusion of a notion that declares that the
physical/material was evil and that spiritual/soul was good. Hence, Jesus was not really
crucified, because he was not really a human being, but only appeared to be human.
Donatist: A schismatic group in North Africa in the fourth century. They were a rigiorist group who
claimed that if one had lapsed then they were forever condemned, and that the orders of lapsed
clergy were no longer valid. They were one of the causes for the calling of the First General
Council by Constantine
Doxology: Any text that ascribes glory to the persons of the Trinity is a doxology, although the term is
usually used for the phrase "Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit" used
at the end of the Psalms and Canticles in Morning and Evening Prayer. In many parishes, the
hymn verse which begins "Praise God from whom blessings flow", sung at the time of the
Offertory, is also referred to as the Doxology.
Easter: The day on which the church celebrates the Feast of the Resurrection of Jesus, Easter is the oldest
and greatest feast in the church year and the central day on the liturgical calendar. The liturgical
color is white, or whatever is the color of the finest and most splendid vestment set owned by
the parish. Easter Day begins the Easter season or Eastertide, which runs for fifty days until the
Feast of Pentecost.
Edict of Milan: Edict issued by Constantine and Licinius at Milan in 313 CE making Christianity legal
and giving it full freedom. It was no longer a crime to be Christian.
Epiclesis: From the Greek word meaning "to call down"; used to designate the moment in the Great
Thanksgiving or Eucharistic Prayer when the celebrant asks that the Holy Spirit sanctify the
bread and wine. Frequently associated with a manual act by the celebrant in which the hands are
held together over the elements or the sign of the cross is made over them.
Epiphany: The Feast of the Epiphany is January 6, and the Epiphany season runs from January 6 until
Ash Wednesday, the beginning of Lent. The liturgical color is white, until the first Sunday after
Epiphany, when it becomes green.
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Epistle: The second of three readings at the Eucharist, because it is usually from the New Testament
Epistles. The first lesson is usually from the Old Testament, and the third lesson is always from
the Gospels.
Eschatological event: The definitive final event that ushers in the eschaton or end of time. The Second
Coming of Christ is such an event in the theology of Christianity.
Established: The legal status of a religion or church as the official position of the state and supported
from the coffers of the state, usually through taxation. The Church of England is the Established
Church of the England and is supported from the general taxes of the country. Hence, nonChurch of England members pay for the upkeep of the Church of England.
Eucharist: The central act of worship in the Christian Church. It culminates in the reception of the bread
and wine or Body and Blood of Jesus. It is another name for the Mass, Holy Communion,
Divine Liturgy, and is the more universal term.
Eucharistic Minister: A lay person who assists in the administration of the Eucharist. The Eucharistic
Minister is licensed by the bishop and must conform to the canons of the church as they work
under the direction of the priest.
Eucharistic Prayer: The Great Thanksgiving, the prayer over the bread and wine in the Eucharist,
beginning with the salutation and preface, and continuing to the doxology and the amen.
Exsultet: Song of rejoicing and giving thanks for "this night" and remembering central moments in the
history of God's people, sung or said by a deacon or other person appointed after the lighting of
the Paschal Candle and procession into the church during the Easter Vigil.
Fair Linen: The fine linen table cloth which is placed on the Altar at the time of the celebration of the
Eucharist. It is required by rubric that the Altar have upon it a fine linen cloth at the time of the
celebration of Holy Communion.
Filioque Clause: The clause in the third paragraph of the Nicene Creed added by the Western Church
saying that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. The General Convention of the
Episcopal Church as voted to remove this clause from subsequent revisions of the Book of
Common Prayer.
Fracture or Fraction: The moment in the Eucharist when the celebrant breaks the bread.
Genuflecting: The act of reverence in bending one knee to touch the floor and then standing up again.
Gloria in Excelsis: Opening Latin words and therefore popular name for the great canticle "Glory to God
in the Highest"; sung primarily at the beginning of the Eucharist.
Gnostic: A heresy of the early church, referring to secret knowledge that one acquires, usually through
secret religious teachings that are deemed salvific.
Good Friday: Friday before Easter, on which we remember the crucifixion of Jesus with a day of fasting,
abstinence, penance, and special devotion. Communion may be part of the Good Friday liturgy,
but it is administered from the reserved sacrament.
Gospel: The third reading from the Bible at the Eucharist, which is always taken from one of the four
Gospels. The Gospel is appropriately read by a deacon if one is present, or by a priest, and is
followed immediately by the sermon. All stand for the reading of the Gospel, turning toward the
reader.
Gospel Book: A book which contains only the Gospel lessons appointed for the Eucharist.
Great Thanksgiving: Official name for the Prayer of Consecration, which begins with the salutation or
Sursum Corda and ends with the Lord's Prayer.
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Habit: The distinctive costume of the members of religious orders.
Heilsgeschichte: German for Holy History referring contents of the recitation of the sacred story of the
history of a people.
High Priest: The priest appointed as head of the Temple in Jerusalem. Originally appointed for life, in
the times of Jesus the Romans appointed him on an annual basis for political control. In the
theology of the nascent Church Jesus is described as the High Priest for ever.
Holy Communion (see Eucharist)
Holy Saturday: The day before Easter, commemorating the resting of Christ's body in the tomb. There is
no celebration of the Eucharist on this day.
Holy Water Stoop: The container at the door of the Nave which contains Holy Water for the faithful to
blessing themselves with upon entrance and exit from the Church.
Holy Week: The last week of Lent and the week before Easter, in which the events in the last week of
Jesus' earthly ministry are remembered. Holy Week begins with Passion or Palm Sunday, and
includes Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, the Great Vigil of Easter, and Easter
Day.
Incense: Pellets of aromatic gum, which are burned in a thurible or censor. As the incense pellets burn,
they emit a pungent aroma and smoke. Incense was used in the Temple worship of ancient Israel
as part of the sacrifice of atonement made daily on behalf of Israel. Incense was a very costly
item, and hence was a very important expression of offering. One of its more practical uses was
that of fumigation, a deodorant.
Inspired/Inspiration: Means literally, "breathed into by the Spirit". This term applies to Scripture, and
can also apply to preachers, theologians, and councils as well.
Institutional Narrative: The repetition of the narrative of Jesus' institution of the Eucharist, which is at
the heart of every Eucharistic prayer.
Kyrie: The Greek name of the hymn translated: Lord have mercy on us. Kyrie is the Greek for Lord.
Laity: From the Greek laos (ëáüò), meaning "people". Refers to all the people of God, including the nonordained and the ordained, but conventionally the word is used to refer to non-ordained
Christians.
Lambeth Conference: Meeting of the bishops of all twenty-one autonomous churches in the Anglican
Communion, called every ten years by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who chairs the session.
The name comes from the fact that the meetings were originally held at Lambeth Palace in
London, now in Kent at Canterbury. The Conference has only advisory power, but its opinions
do have great influence on the decisions of member churches of the Anglican Communion.
Lavabo Bowl-towel: Lavabo is Latin for "I will wash"; in this context, it refers to a ceremonial washing
of the celebrant's fingers before the Eucharistic Prayer, usually facilitated by a server who holds
a basin (lavabo bowl), a cruet of water, and a lavabo towel, and pours water over the celebrant's
fingers as they are held over the bowl.
Lay Reader: A person licensed by the bishop of the diocese to read the lessons at the services, and in the
absence of the priest to lead the services of the Church.
Lectionary: A set of readings of the scripture to be used in the worship services of the Church. The
Episcopal Church has two Lectionaries: the Eucharistic Lectionary for years A, B, C, and the
Holy Days and Special Occasions; and the Daily Office Lectionary and the Holy Days and
Special Occasions for years one and two. These are in the back of the Book of Common Prayer.
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Lector: One who reads lessons from the lectionary at a lectern. This is a name of a role, so that the lector
could be a lay or an ordained person.
Lent: The season of the church year that runs for forty weekdays and six Sundays between Ash
Wednesday and Easter and is a special season of preparation for Easter. The liturgical colors are
purple or a natural color of unbleached linen, called lenten array.
Levites: The first of order of ordained ministry in the hierarchy of Israel. They had specific assignments
in the round of sacrifices at the Temple in Jerusalem.
Liturgy: Word deriving from two Greek words meaning "the work of the people"; the public prayer and
worship of the people of God gathered in community; also, the texts of the rites that enable
public worship to take place.
Liturgy of the Table: The part of the Eucharistic liturgy that begins with the Offertory, continues
through the consecration and reception, and ends with the end of the rite itself. Also called
Liturgy of the Eucharist and Holy Communion.
Liturgy of the Word: The part of the Eucharistic rite that begins with the reading of the lessons, continues through the sermon and the creed, and concludes with the confession and the peace.
Maundy Thursday: Thursday of Holy Week, on which the church remembers Christ's institution of the
Eucharist. Some places observe the ceremony of the washing of feet in remembrance of our
Lord's washing the feet of his disciples. The name Maundy is shortened form of the Latin for
commandment, or "new commandment".
Miter: The hat worn by the bishop during processions and in episcopal blessings. It is a shield shaped had
with two tabs down the back. It signifies the office of bishop.
Narthex: In a traditionally arranged church, a room or space between the main door to the outside and the
main door to the nave.
Nave: The large room between the narthex and the chancel or choir. Historically, when the Gothic church
was developed, the nave was the church of the laity and had its own altars.
New Testament: The canonical books of the Bible whose authority is recognized by the Christian'
Church but not by Judaism, with which we share what Christians call the Old Testament. The
New Testament provides two readings at the Eucharist and the Daily Office, one from the
Gospels and one from the Epistles.
Nicene Creed: Creed used in the Eucharist, it takes its name from the origin of part of its text at the
Council of Nicea in 325 CE.
Nisan: The Jewish lunar month in the spring in which the Feast of Passover falls. Passover falls on the
15th of Nisan.
Non-Juring Bishops: During the reign of William and Mary (17th Century), bishops who believed they
could not swear allegiance to foreign-born leaders, believing their vows of ordination of the
English Ordinal were the oath of allegiance to the crown. Instead of remaining in England under
the obligation of allegiance, they left England and went to Scotland where the new king and
queen did not have jurisdiction and hence they were not required to take the oath of allegiance to
them.
Old Testament: The collection of canonical books which the Christian Church shares with Judaism. The
first lesson at the Eucharist is taken from the Old Testament, as is the first lesson of the three
provided for each day's reading of the Daily Office.
Orphrey: The colored embroidered binding strip which is used to decorate the vestments and hangings.
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Outreach: The work done by a parish for those beyond the population of the congregation whose care is
of concern, such as the poor, hungry, sick, and homeless.
Pall: A covering made of silk stuff which is placed over the casket at a funeral. The Funeral Pall covers
the whole casket so that the casket itself is not seen. In the rubrics of the burial office direction
is made to use the pall. It is from the use of the pall that the term pallbearer comes. It is also the
stiffened board that is placed over the chalice to shield it from foreign materials dropping into
the wine.
Palm Sunday: The last Sunday in Lent and the day on which Holy Week begins. The day commemorates
Jesus' triumphant procession into Jerusalem.
Parish: A worshiping community of Christians who gather weekly at Christ's altar, and also a specific
and local administrative unit of the diocese.
Parousia: The Greek term used to describe the eschatological return of Jesus. It was the Parousia that the
early Church expected to happen within the first few decades of the death of Jesus. The delay of
Parousia caused serious problems for the Church which in turn caused a rethinking of this
theology.
Paschal Candle: The candle which is lighted at the Great Vigil of Easter symbolizing the light of Christ.
It is lighted at all services through out Eastertide, at funerals and all baptisms. Paschal is derived
from the Hebrew word for Passover.
Paten: The plate used at the Eucharist in conjunction with the chalice. It holds the bread which is to be
consecrated.
Peace of Christ: Ancient sacramental greeting of the faithful in the Eucharist, a sign of love and union in
Christ. This may be done ritually with a handshake or embrace.
Pentateuch (Torah): Also called the Law but more accurately the Teaching, the first five books of the
Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus Deuteronomy, and Numbers.
Pentecost: The Sunday fifty days after Easter on which the church remembers the bestowal of the gift of
the Holy Spirit on the apostles. The name derives from the Greek name of the Jewish Festival of
Weeks fifty days after Passover, when the event originally occurred. Also refers to the season of
the Church Year that runs from Pentecost Sunday until the first Sunday of Advent. This season
is also called "ordinary time", and the liturgical color is green.
Piscina: A small sink, usually found in the sacristy, whose drain goes directly into the ground, used to
dispose of water left over form Baptisms, after cleaning the chalice and paten following a
celebration of the Eucharist, and consecrated wine not consumed during the Eucharist.
Post Communion Prayer: The prayer of thanksgiving for the Eucharist and for support form God in "the
work you have given us to do" which follows reception of the bread and wine in Eucharist.
Prayers of the People: Another term for intercessions, time for the congregation to offer up concerns for
the world, as well as local and personal needs and concerns.
Preface: The introductory part of the Great Thanksgiving, from the salutation through the Sanctus
Presbyter, Presbyteros (Ðñåóâýôåñïò): Presbyteros is a Greek word meaning Elder and is used to
denote the second order of the ordained ministry. The Anglicized corruption of the word is
Priest.
Priest-in-charge: A leader of a small congregation such as a small mission; also the leader of a congregation in transition, similar to an interim rector.
Primate/Presiding Bishop: The title used in the Anglican Communion to designate the chief bishop of
143
each of the Provincial Churches. The Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church is known as the
Primate of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The Archbishop of Canterbury
is the Primate of all England, the Archbishop of Canada is the Primate of Canada, etc. In
procession the Primates carry the Primatal Cross as symbol of their office.
Processional Cross: Wooden or metal cross or crucifix attached to the top of a pole so that it may be
carried in processions.
Province: A group of geographically adjacent dioceses that form an ecclesiastical unit. Can also mean
one of the national members of the Anglican Communion.
Psalms: One hundred and fifty Hebrew poems that make up the Book of Psalms and are used in almost
every rite of the church, notably the Daily Offices, which provide for a regular repetition of the
whole Book of Psalms.
Pseudepigrapha: Those writings, which have never been part of an official canon but form the matrix in
which some of the canonical Old Testament writings were formed
Purificator: Small square of white linen, usually embroidered with a cross, used to wipe the rim of the
chalice during the reception of the wine in the Eucharist and to clean the chalice during the
ablutions.
Quelle (Q): German for "source", "Q" is the hypothetical primitive written document that lies behind the
composition of the Gospels. This document is thought to have been a collection of Jesus Sayings
without narrative.
Reaffirmation: Public reaffirmation of baptismal vows in the presence of the bishop. It is appropriate
that a person participate in this rite several times in an adult faith journey.
Real Presence: This refers to the presence of Christ in the Eucharist in the species of bread and wine. It
does not define the nature of that presence, but acknowledges and affirms that presence.
Rector: The chief sacramental officer and professional ordained person in a parish, who is called by the
vestry. Other clergy who work for a parish are on the staff of the rector.
Regula fidei: The Latin term denoting the rule of faith. It refers to the content of what is and has been
believed by the Church and is the core of that belief. It is the rule by which other thoughts and
beliefs are measured.
Religious Orders: The term religious refers to members of religious orders such as nuns, friars, and
monks. Originally the term religious referred to members of an order, later it came to refer to
anyone who is devout.
Reserved Sacrament: The consecrated bread and wine kept in reservation, usually in an aumbry in the
wall of a church, or in a tabernacle on one of the altars. A sanctuary lamp is kept lighted nearby
as a sign of honor and also to alert visitors to the location of the Reserved Sacrament.
Retable: The shelf behind the Altar upon which flowers and other ornaments are placed instead of on the
Altar. It is not part of the Altar proper, i.e., the mensa. Gradine is another word for this structure.
Rochet: A vestment worn by a bishop, a white, shoulder-to-shoe vestment similar to an alb but derived
from the surplice, except that it has wide sleeves with fluted cuffs which are puffed at the
shoulders and gathered at the wrists by red or black silk bands. The rochet is worn over the
bishop's purple cassock and under his chimere.
Rubrics: The instructions and directions which are contained in the Book of Common Prayer. They are in
smaller print, and in some editions are printed in red, hence the name.
Sacrament: "Outward and visible signs of inward and spiritual grace, given by Christ as sure and certain
144
means by which we receive that grace" (BCP, p. 857). The Episcopal Church recognizes the two
sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist as biblical and as essential to the church.
Sacristy: Room in which the chalice, paten, linens, vestments, and the other equipment needed for the
Eucharist and the services of the church are kept. This is the work space of the Altar Guild.
Salutation: The greeting and response at the beginning of the Eucharist and in the call to prayer "The
Lord be with you" with the response, "And also with you".
Sanctuary: In a traditional church building, the name of the area around the altar, especially the space
inside the altar rail.
Sanctuary Lamp: The ruby or white globed candle which bums in the sanctuary proclaiming that the
blessed Sacrament is on reserve.
Sanctus: Latin for "holy", one name for the hymn of adoration beginning "Holy, holy, holy Lord," said or
sung in the Eucharistic Prayer at the end of the Preface.
Septuagint (LXX): The Greek translation of the Old Testament which was completed in the first century
BCE. It is the translation used by Paul and the New Testament.
Sermon: Any time that the Eucharist is celebrated a sermon is to be preached, it is a commentary on the
Scripture, used to exhort and teach. A sermon may be preached by a deacon, priest, bishop, or
licensed lay person.
Sexton: The person in charge of cleaning the church buildings. It is the sexton's duty to open and close
the church buildings, ring the bell, care for the church yard (cemetery), and other duties which
the rector may direct.
Stewardship: The commitment to living out our claim that we are stewards of creation and not its
owners, this involves giving of our time, talents, and money to the church as well as our
collective use of the resources of the world.
Stole: The strip of material usually made of silk stuff which hands down from around the neck. The stole
is in the color of the season or occasion.
Sub-deacon Role filled by a lay person in the celebration of the Eucharist, the bus-deacon reads the
Epistle lesson and sits and stands to the celebrant's right during the Mass. The sub-deacon is
vested in a tunicle.
Surplice: The white garment worn over the cassock. It is full and has full bell sleeves. The surplice is
normally worn to conduct the Daily Offices and sometimes with a stole for baptisms and the
Eucharist.
Sursum Corda: Latin for "lift up your hearts", it is the name of the vesicle and response section of the
Preface in the Eucharistic Prayer which contains that line.
Synod: Meeting of the bishops and elected lay and clerical delegates from one province of the Episcopal
Church. Synods' roles are advisory, because their resolutions are not binding for their member
dioceses.
Synod of Whitby: The synod meeting held in 663 at the abbey in Whitby. The two sides represented
were the Roman Church and the Celtic or Old British Church. Here the ancient British Celtic
Church came under the authority of Rome.
Synoptic Gospels: The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, so named because of the similarity
between the three. They are also thought to have used the common "Q" material in the writing
of their Gospels.
Tabernacle: The receptacle on the Altar in which the blessed bread and wine are on reserve. The Aumbry
145
is for the same purpose, but in the wall. The Tabernacle sits on the Altar or retable.
Tetragrammaton: The ineffable name of God in Hebrew. It is the four letters which make up the holy
name of God which is customarily translated as Yahweh.
Theophany: The experience of the appearance of God. Theophanies of the Old Testament are Moses on
Sinai, Isaiah in the Temple, Ezekiel and the wheel, and such others as the like. The
Transfiguration in the New Testament is theophany as well the Angels at the Birth with the
shepherds and the Baptism of Jesus.
Theotokos (Èåïôüêïò) Mother of God: The reference to Mary set forth in the definition of the Fourth
General Council. This denotes that Jesus was born of a human mother, and is thus the orthodox
affirmation of his full humanity. It also acknowledges the importance of Mary as his mother.
Tippet: The black folded cloth worn by the officiant at the Daily Offices.
Tithe: To give a tenth of what one receives back to the Giver as an expression of thanksgiving. Tithing is
the official stance of the Episcopal Church with regards to financial stewardship.
Trisagion: A canticle used in the Eucharistic rites which comes from the Eastern Orthodox liturgy. It
may be used in place of the Kyrie eleison
Tunicle: Vestment worn by the sub-deacon in the celebration of the Eucharist.
Unction: The anointing of the sick for healing and strengthening using the oil of unction blessed by the
bishop during Holy Week. The anointing is usually accompanied by the laying on of hands.
Verger: One who carries the "verge" or mace, from the Latin verga: a rod. A master of ceremonies who
leads the procession, readers, and similar duties throughout the services.
Vesicles: The brief responses which occur between the officiant and people in the Daily Office.
Vestments: Special items of clothing worn by the clergy and laity in the conduct of worship.
Vestry: Group consisting of the rector of a parish and lay people elected by the congregation at the
annual parish meeting. It is the vestry's responsibility to be the final decision-making body that
calls the rector, approves the parish budget, makes parish policy decision, and spends the
parish's money.
Vicar: The priest in charge of a mission.
Votive: Votive lights are candles lighted before a statue of our Lord, a saint, or Icon in conjunction with
prayer for a special need or purpose.
Warden: Members of the vestry elected by the congregation to fulfill special duties. There are usually
two wardens elected, the junior warden being responsible for the maintenance of building or
grounds, and the senior warden, who is often nominated or appointed by the rector, and is
responsible for the parish in the absence of the rector.
*Source for many glossary entries: The Rev. John N. Wall, Jr., A New Dictionary for Episcopalians.
New York: Harper Collins, 1985.
146
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149
INDEX
A
Abba, 87
Abraham, 15, 17, 65
Absolution, 68, 93, 135
Academic hoods, 102
Act of Uniformity, 53
Adonai, 18
Addressing Clergy, 101
Adopted child of God,
re: Baptism, 79
Advent, 6, 64, 98, 99, 135, 143
Affirmations, 64
Agatho, 133
Alb, 102, 103, 135, 138, 144
Alban, 47, 48, 64
Alexandria, 26, 27, 33, 40, 42, 43, 124, 128, 130, 132, 133
Alexandrian, 26, 124
All night vigil, 90
All Saints, 75, 99
Alleluia, 63, 89, 91
Altar, 61, 63, 68, 89, 91, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 111,
135, 136, 137, 138, 143, 145
Altar Guild, 106, 135, 145
Altar Service Book, 59, 135
Amen, 69, 71, 72, 135
AMEN, 71, 135
American Revolution, 55, 112
Amphictyonic association, 135
Anamnesis, 69, 135
Anatolian, 128
Angles, 12, 48, 50
Anglican, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 27, 28, 29, 34, 35, 54,
55, 56, 57, 58, 64, 66, 81, 84, 85, 86, 93, 94, 100, 101,
102, 116, 117, 119, 123, 125, 132, 136, 141, 143, 144
Anglican Communion, 116, 117, 141
Anglo-Saxon, 47, 48
Annual Meeting, 121, 122
Anointed One, 20
Antioch, 32, 38, 40, 42, 43, 60, 130, 132
Aphrodite, 17
Apocalypse, 33
Apocalyptic, 21
Apocrypha, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 125, 136, 147
Apollinarianism, 126, 129, 130
Apollinaris, 126, 129
Apostle's Creed, 76, 96
Apostolic Fathers, 21, 30, 31, 33, 38, 39, 46, 60, 62, 77
Apostolic Succession, 92, 94, 129
Apostolic Tradition, 87, 90
Aramaic, 27, 87
Archbishop of Canterbury, 28, 35, 36, 52, 56, 57, 81, 117,
136, 141, 144
Arianism, 47, 126, 128, 129
Arius, 126, 127, 129
Ark, 18, 19, 66, 100, 104
Ascension, 52, 84
Ascetic, 44
Ash Wednesday, 89, 98, 99, 136, 139, 142
Ashteroth, 17
Asia Minor, 33, 128
Assistant bishop, 118
Astertoh, 17
Athanasius, 33, 96, 127
Atheists, 37
Augustine,
Monk, Archbishop of Canterbury 49, 50,
of Hippo, 48, 90, 131
Aumbry, 90, 136, 145
authority, 12, 16, 32, 33, 35, 50, 52, 57, 61, 64, 66, 67, 84,
92, 95, 99, 100, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 134, 137, 142,
145
B
Baal, 17
Baptism, 5, 20, 61, 67, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 92, 131, 136,
138
Baptistry, 103, 136
Baptists, 116
Barnabas, 20, 38
Basil of Caesarea, 129
Bells, 91
Benedictus qui venit, 79
Berakoth, 69
Bible, 6, 7, 12, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35, 36, 52,
65, 95, 110, 123, 125, 136, 140, 142, 148
Bishop, 10, 34, 38, 40, 41, 43, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61,
62, 65, 74, 78, 92, 94, 95, 100, 101, 102, 103, 111, 116,
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 127, 129, 130, 135, 136, 137,
138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146
Bishop's, 61, 95, 100, 116, 121, 137, 138, 144
Black Letter Day, 86
Blessing, 63, 68, 69, 72, 79, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93, 108, 121,
138, 141
Blessing of the New Fire, 91
Book of Common Prayer, 6, 12, 35, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 62,
65, 75, 81, 84, 85, 86, 88, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 117, 123,
135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 144
Book of Common Prayer, editions of
1549, 6, 52, 81, 83, 84, 87, 90, 96, 123, 136, 139
1552, 52, 83, 84
1559, 83, 84
1662, 53, 83, 84, 96
1789, 57, 83, 84, 86, 96, 136
1892, 83, 84
1928, 83, 84
1979, 6, 58, 59, 62, 75, 83, 84, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93,
95, 97, 123, 136
Born again, 74, 77
Bowing, 61, 62, 99
Breaking of Bread, 6, 37
Breviary, 81, 82
Britain, 12, 47, 48, 49
Burial, 88, 90, 92, 94
150
C
Caerwent, 47
Calendar of the Church Year, 86
Canaan, 15, 16, 17
Canaanite, 17, 18
Canaanites, 14
Cannibals, 37
Canon, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 31, 36, 38, 59, 121, 124, 137,
148
Canon law, 137
Canonicity, 21, 30, 34
Cappadocians, 129
Carthage, 34, 40, 131
Casket, 94, 143
Cassock, 102, 103, 135, 137, 138, 144, 145
Cassock-alb, 102, 135
Catechism, 96, 137
Cathedra, 61
Catholic tradition, 7, 92, 102
Celebration of a New Ministry, 95
Celtic, 12, 48, 49, 50, 128, 145
Celtic Church, 12, 49, 50, 145
Ceremony, 59, 142
Chalcedon, 43, 45, 96, 129, 130, 132
Chalice, 69, 95, 105, 106, 138, 143, 144, 145
Chancel, 103, 104, 137, 142
Chancellor of the diocese, 120
Chasuble, 69, 103, 138
Chicago/Lambeth Quadrilateral, 96
Chimere, 103, 144
Choir (Quire), 62, 102, 103, 104, 137, 142
Chrism, 67, 78
Christened, 78
Christian Year, 98
Christmas, 98, 99, 103, 135, 138
Christmastide, 98, 99
Christos, 20
Chrysostom, 24, 75
Church in England, 3, 47, 50, 53, 148
Church in the West, 11
Church in Wales, 48
Church of England, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 84, 112,
116, 117, 123, 126, 136, 140, 148
Churching of Women, 82
Church's Book, 25
Cohen, 72
Collect, 63, 64, 76, 88, 138
COLLECT FOR PURITY, 63
COLLECT FOR THE DAY, 64
Colonia Londinensium, 48
Colonies, 53, 54, 55, 56
Columba, 49
Comfortable Words, 123
Commonwealth, 52, 53, 84
Communion, 5, 10, 11, 13, 34, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,
68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 94,
101, 113, 116, 117, 121, 123, 132, 136, 140, 141, 142,
143, 144
Conditional Baptism, 80
Confederacy, 15, 16, 18
Confession, 42, 49, 64, 93, 100, 133, 138, 142
Confirmation, 13, 74, 82, 85, 88, 92
Confirmed member in good standing, 121
Congregationalists, 55, 116
Conjunction, 74, 130, 143, 146
Constantine, 41, 63, 112, 127, 128, 130, 133, 139
Constantinople, 24, 42, 43, 44, 45, 130, 131, 132,
Constantinople I, 67, 126, 128, 129,
Constantinople II, 126, 133
Constantinople III, 126, 133
Constitution and Canons, 55, 57, 119, 120, 121, 122, 138,
147
Consubstantial, 132
Cope, 138
Cotta, 138
Council of Arles, 47
Covenant, 5, 6, 16, 18, 19, 66, 76
Coverdale, 123
Credence, 138
Crosier, 103
Crusades, 44
Cult, 15, 16, 17, 19
Curate, 119
Customary, 61, 62, 74, 77, 82, 89, 90, 91, 94, 100, 103,
104, 108
Cyprian, 41
D
D, 28
Daily Devotions, 88
Daily Office, 65, 87, 88, 97, 121, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146
Dalmatic, 103
Dark Ages, 45
Date of Easter, 50, 98, 128
Day of Pentecost, 75
Deacon, 49, 62, 66, 69, 75, 91, 95, 101, 102, 103, 111, 118,
119, 137, 139, 140, 145, 146
Dead Sea Scrolls, 29, 123
Dean, 101, 119, 137, 139
Decius, 40
Defender of the Faith, 51
Deprecations, 88
Descent into Hell, 90
deuterocanonical books, 28
Deuteronomic, 28
Diaspora, 19, 26, 28, 124
Didache, 38, 77, 147
Diocesan assessments, 115
Diocesan bishop, 118
Diocesan canons, 122
Diocesan council, 120, 121
Diocletian, 47
Dioscorus, 126
Dismissal, 60, 72, 139
Divine Liturgy, 60, 62, 140
Docetic, 20, 21, 38, 139
Docetism, 38, 139
Dome of the Rock, 14
Donatists, 47, 139
Doxology, 63, 138, 139, 140
151
E
E, 28
East Anglia, 48
Easter, 6, 75, 82, 89, 90, 91, 94, 98, 99, 103, 128, 136, 139,
140, 141, 142, 143
Eastern Orthodox, 45, 77, 92, 146
Eborius from York, 48
Ecclesiastical History, 33, 50, 127
Ecumenical Council, 47, 126
Edict of Milan, 41, 127, 139
Edict of toleration, 41
Edward VI, 52, 81, 84, 87
Egeria, 89
Egypt, 15, 17, 18, 27, 44, 90, 111
Eighth Day, 20, 90
El, 17
Elder, 94, 95
Elizabeth I, 52, 84
Elohist, 28
Emergency baptism, 76
English Ordinal, 53, 55, 142
English Rite, 81
Environment, 112
Ephesus, 32, 126
Epiclesis, 70, 139
Epiphany, 75, 98, 99, 103, 138, 139
Episcopal Church, 1, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 51, 53, 54, 55,
56, 57, 59, 61, 64, 67, 74, 81, 84, 85, 86, 92, 93, 94, 96,
97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 107, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118,
119, 120, 121, 122, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144,
145, 146, 147, 148
EPISCOPAL SERVICES, 94
Epistle, 20, 66, 82, 90, 104, 140, 145
Epistles of Paul, 31
Esdras, 26, 29, 125
Eucharist, 3, 6, 7, 12, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, 73, 74,
75, 76, 79, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 96,
100, 102, 103, 104, 106, 111, 114, 135, 136, 137, 138,
139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146
Eucharistic Lectionary, 65, 91, 96, 141
Eucharistic Minister, 65, 140
Eucharistic prayer, 67, 135, 141
Eucharistic Rite(s), 92, 93,146
Eusebius of Caesarea, 33, 127, 128
Eutyches, 126, 131
Executive Council, 120
Exhortation, 93
Exodus, 15, 16, 18, 27, 124, 143
Exsultet, 91, 140
F
Fall of the imperial Roman Empire, 44
Feast of the Resurrection, 90, 139
Filioque, 140
First Apology, 66, 67, 77, 147
First Letter of Clement, 38
First Prayer Book of Edward VI, 52
Flavian, 131
Flowers, 94, 144
Former Prophets, 27, 124
Fowler, James, 10, 147
Fracture, 71, 72, 137, 140
France. 47, 88
Free church. See , Pew rental
French, 86, 123
Friars, 44, 84, 87, 101, 104, 144
G
Galerius, 41
General Confession, 68, 93, 100
General Convention, 56, 57, 67, 84, 119, 120, 136, 140
Geneva Bible, 123
Genuflection, 99
Glastonbury, 47
Gloria in Excelsis, 60, 63, 76, 89, 140
Glorious Revolution, 53
Gnostic, 20, 21, 34, 38, 140
God of Sinai, 17
God of the Fathers, 17
God-bearer, Èåïôüêïò, 130, 132, 134, 146
Good Friday, 90, 98, 99, 135, 140, 141
Gospel, 5, 6, 32, 33, 38, 47, 50, 60, 63, 66, 77, 82, 90, 96,
100, 104, 133, 134, 140, 147, 148
Grace of God, 131
Gratian, 129
Great Bible, 52
Great Fast, 89
Great Litany, 81, 88
Great Schism, 44, 45, 126
Great Thanksgiving, 68, 71, 135, 137, 139, 140, 143
Great Vigil of Easter, 89, 141
Greek, 20, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 34, 43, 63, 64, 68, 78, 83, 94,
95, 123, 124, 126, 130, 132, 135, 136, 137, 139, 141,
142, 143, 145
Gregory of Nazianzus, 129
Gregory of Nyssa, 129
Gregory the Great, 12, 49, 50
H
Hagody, 107
Haiku, 63
Hebrew, 17, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 39, 65, 71,
74, 78, 81, 97, 123, 124, 125, 135, 143, 144, 146
Hebrew Scriptures, 18
Heilsgeschichte, 8, 18, 141
Henry VIII, 51, 52, 88
High Priest, 95, 141
Hilda, 49, 50
Hippolytus, 40, 87, 90
Historic Episcopate, 56, 57, 94
Historical Documents, 96
Hoc est corpus meam, 82
Hocus pocus, 82
Holy Communion, 54, 88, 113
Holy Kiss, 37
Holy Saturday, 98, 141
Holy Scripture, 34, 126
Holy water stoops, 108
Holy Week, 88, 89, 98, 99, 135, 141, 142, 143, 146
Homily, 66
152
Homoousion, ¿ìïïýóéïí 128
Honorius, 126, 133
House of Bishops, 57, 118, 120
House of Deputies, 57, 120
I
Ibas, 126
Icon, 61, 146
Iconoclasm, 126
Idolatry, 134
Immersion, 77, 136
Incense, 40, 41, 62, 66, 134, 141
Incest, 37
Inerrant, 34
Infallible, 34, 35
Inspired, 25, 134
Institutional Narrative, 70, 71, 141
Invocation, 71
Iona, 49
Ireland, 12, 48, 49
Isaac, 15, 17, 65
Ishmael, 28
Islam, 44, 45
Islamic, 14
Israel, 5, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25, 62, 65,
71, 74, 76, 81, 82, 95, 111, 112, 135, 141, 142, 148
J
J, 28
Jackson Kemper, 119
Jacob, 15, 17, 65
James I, 52
James Town, 84
Jamestown, 54
Jamnia, 25, 26, 27, 124
Jehovah, 18
Jerusalem, 14, 19, 32, 42, 43, 44, 70, 72, 89, 132, 134, 136,
141, 142, 143
Jerusalem Bible, 123
Jesus of Nazareth, 5
Jesus sayings, 32
John, 24, 29, 32, 33, 38, 46, 54, 57, 58, 60, 75, 76, 77, 115,
122, 130, 133, 146, 147, 148
Joseph of Arimathea, 47
Judaism, 19, 20, 26, 29, 30, 37, 62, 74, 124, 142
Junior Warden., 121, 122, 146
Justin Martyr, 20, 30, 40, 66, 67, 77, 78, 147
Justinian I, 133
Jutes, 48
K
Kent, 48, 141
Ketuvim, 26, 27, 124, 125
King James Authorized Version of 1611, 123
Kingdom of God, 20, 90, 121
Kneel, 68, 70, 100
Kyrie. See
L
Laity, 141
Lambeth Conference, 35, 36, 96, 117, 136, 141, 147
Langton, 28
Lapsed, 128, 129, 139
Latin, 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 43, 60, 67, 82, 83, 85, 86, 88, 89,
103, 105, 123, 125, 132, 135, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145,
146
Latter Prophets, 27, 124
Laud, William, 52, 83
Lavabo, 69, 104, 105, 141
Laws of the Northumbrian priest, 50
Lay Reader, 65, 141
Laying-on-of-hands, 68, 92
Lectern, 65, 142
Lectionary, 28, 30, 34, 65, 87, 88, 96, 97, 142
Lector, 65, 142
Lent, 63, 64, 88, 89, 91, 98, 99, 136, 139, 141, 142, 143
Lenten array, 98
Leo I, 131
Leo III, 126
Letter to Diognetus, 38
Levites, 20, 142
Lex orandi, lex crendendi, 85
Licinius, 41, 139
Lindisfarne, 49
Litany for the Dying, 94
Liturgical east, 103
Liturgy, 6, 9, 12, 25, 30, 40, 49, 50, 53, 59, 61, 62, 64, 70,
75, 81, 82, 84, 85, 87, 89, 90, 91, 100, 110, 112, 140,
142, 146
Liturgy of the Table, 61, 67, 142
Liturgy of the Word, 61, 62, 64, 67, 76, 89, 142
Logos, 129
Lord's Day, 20
Lord's Prayer, 71, 141
Lord's Supper, 60, 89
Luke, 22, 30, 32, 33, 38, 63, 145
LXX, 26, 30, 38, 123, 124, 125, 145
M
Maccabees, 26, 29, 125
Macedonianism, 126, 129, 130
Macedonius, 126
Madison, 56
Magic, 73
Major Prophets, 27, 124
Mandatum, 89
Manuale, 81
Marcion, 33, 38, 39
Mark, 145
Marriage, 50, 51, 54, 85, 92, 93
Mass of the Pre-Sanctified, 90, 135
Matthew, 32, 33, 145
Maundy Thursday, 89, 90, 91, 98, 99, 135, 138, 141, 142
Memoirs of the Apostles, 30
Meshiach, 20
Messiah, 5, 20, 64, 78
Messianic Judaism, 19
Middle Ages, 28, 44, 45, 50, 68, 82, 104, 119
153
Middle Bronze Age, 15
Ministration at the time of Death, 94
Ministration to the Sick, 93
Ministry of the Word, 88, 92, 93
Minor Prophets, 27, 124
Mishnah, 19, 30
Missal, 81, 89, 104
Mission, 6, 13, 20, 49, 50, 87, 114, 119, 121, 122, 143, 146
Miter, 103
Molech, 17
Money, 12, 39, 68, 107, 111, 112, 114, 127, 145, 146
Monks, 44, 84, 87, 101, 104, 144
Monophysitism, 126, 131
Monothelitism, 126, 133
Moses, 16, 17, 18, 146
Moshe, 16, 17, 18
Mother of God, Èåïôüêïò, 130, 132, 134, 146 (Also
see God-Bearer and Theotokos)
Muhlenberg, 113, 115
Mythic, 14, 15, 18
N
Nabi'im, 25
Narthex, 103, 142
National Cathedral, 59
National church, 116, 117
Nature, 126
Nature of Christ, 127, 129, 130, 131, 133
Nave, 103, 104, 108, 113, 137, 142
Nero, 39, 43
Nestorianism, 126, 129, 131, 133
Nestorius, 126, 130
New English Bible, 123
New Jerusalem Bible, 123
New Revised Standard Version, 124
New Testament, 21, 22, 23, 24, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39,
62, 64, 65, 66, 75, 81, 87, 90, 95, 96, 97, 123, 140, 142,
145, 146, 147, 148
NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA, 34
New Testament canon, 30, 33, 39
New Testament Lesson, 66
Nicaea I, 126
Nicaea II, 126, 133
Nicene Creed, 67, 96, 100, 130, 140, 142
Ninian, 48
None, 87
Non-Juring Bishops, 142
Noonday Prayer, 87
North Africa, 34, 44, 45, 139
Northumbria, 49, 50
Nuns, 44, 84, 87, 101, 104, 144
O
Oblation, 70, 71
Obsecrations, 88
Oecumenical, 126
Offertory, 63, 68, 111, 137, 138, 139, 142
Oil, 78, 94, 95, 138, 146
Oil stock, 95
Old Testament, 14, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34,
64, 65, 87, 96, 97, 123, 124, 125, 140, 142, 143, 144,
145, 146, 147
One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, 116
Oral tradition, 31
Order for Baptism, 92
Orders, 44, 49, 51, 54, 86, 101, 102, 116, 118, 139, 141,
144
Ordinale, 82
Ordination, 82, 94, 97
Organized congregation, 121, 138
Oriental Churches, 45, 132
Origen, 40, 126, 131, 133
Origenism, 126, 133
Original Sin, 48, 131
Orphrey bindings, 103
Orthodox Church, 45, 126, 132
Oswy, 50
Our Father, 71
Outline of the Faith, 96
Outreach, 115
Overseer, 94, 95
P
P, 28
Palestine, 26, 33, 124, 136
Pall, 143
Palm Sunday, 89, 90, 98, 99, 141, 143
Palms, 89
Papias, 31, 38
Parish, 54, 143
Parousia, 20, 38, 143
Paschal Candle, 91, 94, 140, 143
Passion Gospel, 89
PASTORAL OFFICES, 92
Paten, 95, 105, 106, 138, 143, 145
Patriarch of Constantinople, 44
Patriarch of the West, 44
Patriarchs, 44, 65
Patrick, 48
Paul, 20, 22, 26, 30, 32, 33, 43, 47, 59, 66, 75, 77, 78, 97,
124, 134, 145
Peace, 68, 79, 143
Pelagianism, 126, 131
Pelagius, 48, 126, 130, 131
Pentateuch, 26, 28, 124, 143
Pentecost, 98, 99, 139, 143
People's warden, 121
Persecution, 21, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 47, 48, 112, 127
Person
definition of, 127
Pesach, 18
Pew rental, 112, 113
Pharisaic Judaism, 19
Philadelphia, 56
Phillip, 47
Pie, 82
Piscina, 106
Pliney, 39
Pocahontas, 54
Polycarp, 38, 40
154
Pontifical, 81
Power, 5, 12, 14, 17, 42, 43, 44, 45, 51, 55, 100, 111, 117,
118, 127, 128, 135, 141
Prayers and Thanksgivings, 96
Prayers of the People, 67, 79, 100, 143
Preface, 140
Presbyter, 75, 143
Presence of Christ, 144
Presentation and examination of the candidates, 76
Presiding Bishop, 59, 101, 117, 118, 120, 136, 143, 148
Priest, 49, 50, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 72, 77, 78, 82,
88, 91, 93, 94, 95, 101, 102, 103, 105, 110, 111, 113,
118, 119, 121, 122, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
145, 146
Priesthood of all Believers, 67
Priest-in-charge, 119
Primates Meeting, 117
Primitive Church, 82
Private confession, 93, 100
Processional, 62, 144
Processional Cross, 62, 144
Promised Land, 90, 91
Proper Preface, 88
Protestant, 6, 7, 11, 26, 29, 35, 51, 56, 57, 67, 68, 86, 101,
125, 132, 136, 147, 148
Provinces, 117, 130
Provincial synods, 116, 120
Provoost, 56, 57
Psalms, 14, 27, 65, 87, 95, 97, 124, 139, 144, 148
Psalms of David, 95
Psalter, 28, 82, 95, 123
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA, 29
Puritan, 29, 52, 53, 84, 116
Q
Queen of the Festivals, 98
Quire, See Choir
R
Rabbinic Judaism, 19
Radical monotheism, 16
Reaffirmation, 92, 144
Reason, 12, 20, 33, 65, 67, 75, 77, 79, 89, 116, 120
Reception, 70, 90, 92, 94, 140, 142, 143, 144
Reconciliation of a Penitent, 82, 93, 135
Rector, 119, 137, 143, 144, 145, 146
Red doors, 107
Red Letter Days, 86
Red Sea, 77, 91
Reformation, 12, 25, 26, 45, 51, 67
Regula fidei, 21, 22, 30, 45
Renewal of Baptismal Vows, 91
Renunciations, 76
Reserved Sacrament, 90, 92, 144
Restitutus from London, 48
Retable, 92, 104, 146
Retired bishop, 118
Revised New English, 123
Revised Standard Version, 123
Right of succession, 116, 118
Rimini, Council of, 48
Rite, 6, 12, 54, 59, 62, 64, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 85, 87, 88,
90, 92, 93, 136, 138, 142, 144
Rochet, 103, 137, 144
Roman Catholic Church, 11, 26, 28, 29, 35, 53, 67, 84, 86,
92, 118, 123, 125
Rome, 12, 19, 32, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 50, 51, 52,
87, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 145
Rosary, 84
Rosh Hashanah, 18
Rubric, 59, 78, 86, 92, 94, 140
S
Sabbath lights, 87
Sacraments, 96
Sacrifice, 17, 37, 41, 70, 71, 110, 112
Sacrifice of Atonement, 62, 141
Sacristy, 105, 143
Salisbury Cathedral, 81
Salutation, 63, 76, 134, 135, 138, 140, 143
Samaritan Canon, 26, 124
Samaritans, 25, 26, 124
Sanctuary, 61, 89, 92, 136, 137, 145, 147, 148
Sanctuary church, 106
Sanctuary Lamp, 92, 136, 145
Sanctus, 70, 79, 143, 145
Sarum Rite, 81
Saxons, 12, 48
Scotland, 12, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 56, 88, 142
Scripture, 8, 11, 13, 19, 25, 28, 34, 35, 38, 39, 42, 62, 64,
66, 96, 100, 113, 126, 136, 137, 141, 145
SCRIPTURE READINGS, 64
Seabury, Samuel, 55, 56, 57, 62, 97, 109, 147
Season of Pentecost, 98
SEASONS OF THE CHURCH YEAR, 98
Secretary of the convention, 120
Senior Warden, 121, 122, 146
Septuagint, 26, 27, 30, 123, 124, 145
Seraphim, 70
Sermon, 38, 62, 66, 75, 140, 142, 145
Servers, 62, 72, 102
Service of Lessons, 90, 91
Service of Light, 90
Seven Canonical Hours, 82, 84
Seven General Councils, 126
70 CE, 19, 20, 30, 31
Sext, 87
Shepherd of Hermas, 38
Shiloh, 19, 135
Shuvot, 18
Sign of the cross, 59, 61, 78, 100, 108, 139
Signation, 78
Silence, 90, 100
Slavonic Church, 26
Solomon, 19, 27, 28, 29, 78, 124
Spanish Armada, 52
Special Liturgies, 88
St. Andrew, 47
Standard Book of Common Prayer, 85
Standing Committee, 120
Statutes of Praemunire, 51
155
STEWARDSHIP, 110
Stole, 145
Stripping of the altar, 89
Sub-deacon, 145
Sukkot, 18
Sunday, 12, 20, 66, 75, 82, 85, 89, 94, 96, 98, 99, 111, 128,
135, 139, 143
Supplications, 88
Surplice, 102, 103, 138, 144, 145
Sursum Corda, 69, 141, 145
Sussex, 48
Synagogue, 19, 25, 27, 66, 72, 82, 100
Synod, 34, 47, 120, 131, 145
Synod meeting, 120, 145
Synod of Carthage, 34, 131
Synod of Hippo Regius, 34
Synod of Whitby, 50, 128, 145
T
Tabernacle, 144
Talmud, 19, 30
Tanak, 26, 124
Taw, 74, 78
Temple, 14, 19, 20, 30, 39, 62, 72, 82, 141, 142, 146
Terce, 87
Tertullian, 40, 47
Tetragrammaton, 17, 18, 146
Textus Receptus, 123
Thanksgiving, 17, 68, 69, 87, 110, 111, 113, 143, 146
Thanksgiving for the Birth or Adoption of a Child, 93
Theodore of Mopsuestia, 126
Theodoret, 126
Theodosius, 67, 129, 130
Theophany, 146
Theotokos Èåïôüêïò, 130, 132, 134, 146
Thirty-Nine Articles, 34
Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter, 33
Thomas Cranmer, 6, 81, 84, 88, 136
Tippet, 102
Tithe, 113
Tome of Leo, 131
Torah, 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 66, 100, 124, 125, 143
Torah Scroll, 66, 100
Tradition, 11, 13, 25, 35, 40, 100, 134
Trajan, 39
Transitional deacon, 119
Treasurer of the diocese, 120
Triduum sacrum, 89
Trinity, 41, 64, 80, 92, 97, 99, 139
Trisagion, 63, 64, 146
Tunicle, 146
Twelfth Night, 99
U
Unction, 68, 82, 146
United States, 3, 7, 8, 12, 53, 54, 56, 57, 84, 107, 117, 118,
119, 136, 144, 148
Unorganized congregation, 121, 138
V
Valerian, 40
Venerable Bede, 50
Vestments, 95, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 134, 142, 145
Vestry, 55, 121, 122, 144, 146
Vicar, 146
Viking invasions, 49
Virginia Dare, 54
Visitation of Sick, 94
Votive candles, 108
Votive stand. 107, 108
Vulgate, 26, 28, 123, 125
W
Wales, 12, 48, 49
Wardens, 121, 122, 146
Washing of feet, 89, 142
Westerhoff, 57, 58, 147
William of Orange, 53
William White, 56
Y
Yahweh, 16, 24, 146
Yahwist, 28
YHWH, 16, 17
156