U.S History & Government
Review
In addition to reviewing what is contained in this document, you may also want to consult
regentsprep.org.
Foundations
Enlightened thought: John Locke- Two treaties on Government – natural rights (life liberty, and
property). Voltaire- Advocated religious tolerance, and natural rights. Montesquieu- Advocated
limited power of the government through the separation of power (Legislative, Executive,
Judicial). Rousseau- Advocated democratic self-rule. Social contract- rulers are the servants of
the people.
*American government was influenced through a variety of different places, documents, and events.
Early examples of Representative Government- New England town meetings, Virginia House of
Burgesses, The Mayflower Compact.
*American colonists had a history of self government before they broke from Great Britain.
The first Constitution of the U.S were the Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)Weaknesses:
Successes:
*Unicameral legislature; each state had equal vote no matter size of population. *Land ordinances
*No control of interstate or foreign trade.
* Treaty of Paris
*No executive department to enforce laws
(ended revolution)
*No national judicial branch, only individual state courts.
*No single national currency
Constitutional Changes:
 Bicameral legislature; representation in the House based on population, while equal in the
Senate.
 Congress regulates interstate and foreign trade.
 Executive department headed by a single President.
 National judiciary, headed by a Supreme Court.
*The Constitutional convention was called to fix the problems with the Articles of Confederation.
Conflict and Compromise
Virginia plan- suggested representation in Congress based on population.
New Jersey plan- suggested representation in Congress be equal for all states regardless of population
size. As a result a bicameral legislature was created. (House of Representatives & Senate) known as The
Great Compromise or the Connecticut Compromise which satisfied small and large states.
*Representation was the key topic of debate at the Constitutional convention.
Federalists- supported the new constitution. They argued that a strong central government was the key
to peace and economic growth.
Anti-Federalists- did not support the new constitution. They feared that a strong central government
would be to powerful, and state governments would loose their power.
Federalism- The division of power between State and Federal government.
Delegated powers or enumerated powers- those powers specifically granted to the national
government (Congress) in the constitution. Example- Maintain and army, coining money, regulating
trade, and making treaties.
Reserved powers- powers reserved to the states. Example- matters of health and safety, marriage laws,
regulation of business within the state, and licensing.
Concurrent powers- powers exercised by both federal and state governments. Building roads and
bridges, borrowing money, collecting taxes, and operating courts.
*States rights vs. Federal rights has been an ongoing issue since the Constitution was created.
The Bill of Rights- (Amendments 1-10, 1791)- guaranteed a number of basic rights to individuals
including free speech, free press, fair trials, and protection from unreasonable police actions.
Amendment 1 Freedoms, Petitions, Assembly
Amendment 2 Right to bear arms
Amendment 3 Quartering of soldiers
Amendment 4 Search and arrest
Amendment 5 Rights in criminal cases
Amendment 6 Right to a fair trial
Amendment 7 Rights in civil cases
Amendment 8 Bail, fines, punishment
Amendment 9 Rights retained by the People
Amendment 10 States' rights
Three Branches of government:
Executive branchGeorge Washington- Established two term tradition. In his farewell address he warned against
“permanent foreign alliances, Political factions (parties), & sparing use of government borrowing”.
Military Leader- Commander-in-chief.
Legislative Leader- Recommends laws and signs or vetoes acts of Congress.
Diplomatic Leader- Makes treaties, receive ambassadors from other countries, and nominates
ambassadors to other countries.
Ceremonial Leader- Chief of state
Judicial Role- May grant pardons and reprieves, and nominates new justices for the Supreme Court.
Electoral College- a slate of electors (538), equal to the number of congressional representatives, 270
electoral votes are needed to win the Presidency.
22nd Amendment-1951 made the tradition of two term limit into law. (2 terms or 10 year max)
25th Amendment- 1967 deals with the succession of the President as well as filling vacancies in the vice
Presidency and responding to Presidential disabilities.
Impeachment process- The House of Representatives formally brings charges and conducts
investigations and the Senate serves as the jury and decides whether to remove the official from office
(2/3 vote required).
Legislative branch- Congress (Senate & The House of Representatives)
Special powers of the Senate- Ratifies treaties and Presidential nominations, and filibustering.
Membership and qualifications-Senate: 30 years old and a resident of the state. Six year term-no limits.
House: 25 years old and a resident of the state. 2 year term-no limits.
Powers of CongressElastic Clause- the ability of Congress to expand its power in order to fulfill its enumerated/delegated
powers.
Limits on power- Congress may not impose taxes on imports, grant titles of nobility, favor the ports of
one state over those of another state, or suspend the writ off habeas corpus (is a writ, or legal action,
through which a prisoner can be released from unlawful detention )except in an emergency.
Procedures for making laws- All revenue bills start in the House. The Committee system was established
to make the process more efficient. A seniority system exists in Congress.
Influence of pressure groups- Lobbyists/ special interest groups try to influence members of Congress to
pass or prevent passage of legislation that impacts their particular interest. Example: the NRA would be
interested in any laws that deal with the 2nd Amendment.
Judicial branch- Interpret the laws. (Judicial review)
The dual court system- There are local and state courts as well as the federal court system.
The Supreme Court- Congress has the power to determine the number of justices who sit on the
Supreme Court. They are appointed with a nomination by the President and confirmation by the Senate,
and they have life tenure so as to avoid political pressure.
Reconstruction
The period from 1865-1877 following the Civil War when the southern states were reintroduced into the
Union under the control of the federal government.
Radical Republicans- A group of Republican Congressmen who wanted to radically restructure the
south. They made efforts to pass civil rights legislation and impeached President Johnson who vetoed
much of their legislation.
Amendments: 13th Abolished slavery. 14th provides a broad definition of citizenship, the amendment's
equal protection clause requires states to provide equal protection under the law to all people within their
jurisdiction. 15th granted black men the right to vote.
Compromise of 1877/ Hayes-Tilden compromise- An unwritten deal that settled the disputed 1876
Presidential election. Republican Hayes was awarded the Office over Tilden on the understanding that
Hayes would remove the federal troops that were propping up Republican state governments in South
Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. Democrats took control of the state governments in the south when the
Federal troops left. Once the State governments were back in control there were years of (Jim Crow
laws) segregation and injustice that followed.
Solid South- A term that refers to the democratic voting block of southern states from 1877 through
about 1960.
Industrialization
The rise of American business, industry, and labor 1865-1920
Corporations- Business in which many investors own shares/ stocks. The money raised by corporations
speeded the growth of American industry.
Monopoly-A company or small group of companies that has complete control over a particular field of
business.
Pool- competing companies in one field entered into agreements to fix prices and divide business.
Trust- A group of corporations in the same fields sometimes agreed to combine under a single board of
trustees that controlled the actions of all the member companies.
These types of arrangements were usually not good for the consumer, as they could set prices high as
they eliminated competition.
In the late 1900s the government did little to regulate industry, a policy of Laissez-faire was followed
(nonintervention). Furthermore, most believed in Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest) let weak
business fail so the healthy one’s would thrive.
Entrepreneurs: Andrew Carnegie- Steel, John D. Rockefeller- Oil, J.P. Morgan- Banking, and Henry
Ford- Automobiles/assembly line.
There were some steps taken by the government to regulate business, but ultimately the government
mostly sided with business during industrialization (in the name of progress).
A few factors led the government to take some steps towards regulation including: 1. periodic downturns
in the economy, 2. practices that saw big business profit at the expense of the poor and working class
and 3. increased political pressure for change (mostly from farmers organizations).
1877 Interstate Commerce Act- set up the interstate Commerce Commission charged with ending such
abuses as pools and rebates (discounts for special customers).
Sherman Antitrust Act- The act prohibited monopolies by declaring illegal any business combination or
trust “in restraint of trade or commerce”.
Although these were steps towards government regulation of industry, they went largely unenforced.
The era also saw the beginnings of organized labor. To improve conditions increasing number of
workers joined unions.
Knights of Labor 1869-skilled and unskilled workers welcomed as well as women and African
Americans. The Knight influence declined in the late 1800s due to a series of unsuccessful strikes.
American Federation of Labor 1886- formed by Samuel Gompers it was a collection of many different
craft unions, unions of skilled workers in similar trades. Membership grew to about a million by 1900,
making it the most powerful union in the country. However, Women, African Americans, and
immigrants were excluded.
Major strikes:
Great Railway Strike 1877, Haymarket Strike 1886, Homestead Strike 1892, Pullman Strike 1894. All
large strikes, workers had similar complaints poor working conditions, too many hours, not enough pay.
All ended similarly, violence followed by police breaking up the strike and workers going back to work
with their demands not met.
Growth of American power (late 1800s –early 1900s)
Manifest Destiny, Imperialism, Nationalism, and the demand for new markets and raw materials all led
to the U.S becoming a global power. Open door policy- U.S secretary of State John Hay suggested to
the European powers that there be an “open door “ to China and all the western power have Spheres of
influence in China from which to trade. Monroe Doctrine- 1823 warned foreign powers to stay out of
the western hemisphere. It was expanded in the 1904 Roosevelt Corollary which stated that the U.S
would step in and “act as an international police power” if there were any problem in nations in the
western hemisphere.
Big Stick policy- (Roosevelt) the U.S would use peaceful means to protect its interests whenever
possible, but it would use military force if necessary.
Dollar diplomacy – (Taft) the U.S could help maintain orderly societies in other countries by increasing
investment in foreign economies. “Replace bullets with dollars”
Progressive Era (1900-1920)
Progressives supported the use of government power to bring about reform.
Industrialization, urbanization, and immigration brought problems such as overcrowding, crime disease,
and political corruption.
Muckrakers
Helped bring reform issues to the attention of the public. Most were journalists and writers who
investigated and exposed corruption and injustice. The work of the muckrakers resulted in the passage of
the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act (1906), the first two acts of consumer
protection legislation.
Settlement houses, located in working-class slums, offered immigrants- education, child care, and help
finding jobs Hull House in Chicago founded by Jane Adams and the Henry Street house in NYC
founded by Lillian Wald are among the most famous.
Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were two progressive Presidents during the era. Roosevelt was
known for Trust Busting was said to have offered the people a Square Deal. Roosevelt sought consumer
protection as well as protection for the environment. Furthermore, he was influential in the Anthracite
Coal Strike (1902) in which the owners of the mine arbitrated with the workers and some of the
workers demands were met. This was a departure from previous government involvement with strikes
which usually ended when the government sided with business and strikes often ended in violence and
workers demands were not met.
Woodrow Wilson oversaw the creation of the Federal Reserve system (1913) and the Clayton
antitrust Act (1914).
The federal reserve was designed in an effort to control to the peaks and valleys in the economy by
establishing district and federal reserve banks which loan money to member banks. The federal reserve
board controls the interest member banks pay to borrow money, thus controlling how much money is
flowing into the economy.
The Clayton Antitrust Act strengthened the government’s power to control business practice that
threatened competition. (price fixing and buying stocks in competing firms)
Reform at the State and local level:
WWI “MAIN”
“Militarism, Alliances, Industrialization, and Nationalism” all of theses ism’s are what led nations in
Europe into WWI. The U.S got involved late in the war as some of our ships were being attacked by
German submarines.
Wilson’s 14 points- Primarily called for freedom of the seas, self determination, arms reductions, and
open diplomacy among other things.
League of Nations- A league of countries organized for the purpose of collective security. The U.S
Senate rejected U.S involvement in the League for fear it would obligate the U.S to furnish troops in the
event of conflict in Europe. The U.S followed a policy of Isolationism in the 20s and 30s.
1920s
Consumer economy, Wealth, Stock market speculation!
Republican presidents and a return to pro-business Laissez- faire policies.
Mass consumption, Harlem Renaissance, Sacco & Vanzetti trial, Scopes “monkey” trial, Nativism, &
restrictions on immigration.
The Great Depression
 Causes: 1920s economy out of balance, little regulation of the stock market.
 Increased debt
 Speculation-high
 Overproduction slows industrial growth
 Poor government management
 Market crash 1929
(Black Tuesday)
 Effects:
 Many banks failed
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Increased poverty lead to health & social problems
Millions lost their jobs
Global economy suffered
GDP (Gross Domestic Product- the value of goods and services produced within a country) fell
dramatically
Social effects of the Depression
 1931-approximately 15,000 homeless in NYC.
 Shanty towns- shacks of tar paper and cardboard (Hoovervilles).
 Farmers in the Midwest (Dustbowl) lost their farms due to foreclosure. More than half a million.
Many moved to California for farm jobs.
Hoover’s Response
 Cut taxes to enable consumers to buy more products.
 Established the Federal Farm Board- to help farmers through hard times.
 Debt moratorium- (temporary halt on payment of war debts) European nations temporarily
stopped making payments.
 (RFC)-1932- Reconstruction Finance Corporation- involved the government directly in giving
federal relief to businesses, particularly banks. Also financed public works projects.
 Rugged Individualism & “trickle down”
Roosevelt’s response (priming the pump)
*The New deal- WPA, CCC, AAA, NRA (national recovery act)
*Deficit Spending – the government spends more money on programs and work projects than it
takes in on taxes until enough people get back to work and business recovers.
*People felt like the government was working to help them.
Roosevelt and his many advisers (a group called the “Brain trust”) had three main goals.
Wagner Act- Legalized collective bargaining and legitimized unions.
The three R’s- Relief, Recovery, Reform.
Relief: federal tax dollars distributed to the states to give out in relief offices, unemployment
insurance, Social Security.
Recovery: Works Progress Administration and Civil Conservation Corps.- designed to get people to
work, funded by tax dollars intended to stimulate the economy.
Reform: Programs put in place to prevent another depression from happening- Security and
Exchange Commission: to keep an eye on the stock market and provide regulations. FDICinsurance for bank deposits.
Critics of the New Deal:
Argued that it was socialistic (too much government control) too costly to business which paid a
heavy tax burden for much of the new deal programs ultimately keeping business growth slow.
WWII
The U.S gradually moved away from its isolation policy towards supporting nations opposing Germany
In the late 1930s- Land-Lease Act & Destroyers for bases deal. FDR delivered his quarantine speechthe evil powers of Germany an Italy must be kept in check/quarantined so the U.S should support the
nations in Europe around Italy and Germany. The U.S became the “Arsenal of Democracy”.
Women and African Americans play a significant role in the war effort :
Women joined the military (WAC women’s Army Corps) by the end of the war there were 200,000
women in uniform.
Both groups experienced new opportunities in the work force as many young men went off to fight.
After the conclusion of the war President Truman desegregated the military in 1948, this in part helped
spur the civil rights movement.
Japanese Americans
Were discriminated against during the war as they were forced into internment camps with out the
benefit of the due process of the law. The 1944 Supreme Court case Korematsu v. the U.S upheld the
Executive order that interned these citizens. In 1985 Congress officially recognized that the internment
camps represented a violation of Japanese Americans Constitutional and civil rights and offered an
official apology as well as $25,000 to any surviving internees.
Manhattan Project
A top secret project starting in 1943 that took place primarily in Los Alamos, New Mexico to develop
the atomic bomb under the direction of Dr. Robert Oppenheimer.
Cold War
Churchill “iron curtain speech”
Containment- A policy uniting military, economic, and diplomatic strategies to limit the spread of
Communism, enhance America’s security and influence abroad, and prevent a "domino effect".
Domino effect-A theory that existed from the 1950s-1980s that speculated that if one land in a region
came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino
effect.
Truman Doctrine- $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey to persuade southern European nations to
reject communism.
Marshall Plan- A plan suggested by secretary of state John Marshall which sent billions of dollars of aid
and loans to Western Europe to help rebuild the war torn economies and infrastructures. This also
helped influence the western European nations to look favorably on the U.S and its policies rather than
to look favorably on the Communist Soviet Union.
McCarthyism- Senator Joe McCarthy used his power as a Senator to conduct a “witch hunt” for
suspected communists in the U.S. He made bold accusations without evidence and charged that many
people working for government agencies had been corrupted by communism.
Taft-Hartley Act- Weakened unions, Fear of communism and the association of union activities with
communism led to the passage of this act. (Barred closed shops, Banned union contributions to political
campaigns, President could delay strikes)
Korea and Vietnam- Both areas in South East Asia where the U.S sent troops to contain the spread of
communism. Neither conflict was supported by a declaration of war by Congress. As a result Congress
passed the War Powers Act 1973- which limited the Presidents ability to commit troops in an area of
conflict for more than 60 days without a declaration of war from Congress.
Civil Rights Era:
Culminated with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 24th Amendment, 1965 Voting Rights Act,
and 1968 Civil Rights Act
Sit-ins, Freedom rides, marches, & demonstrations were all forms of civil disobedience used by various
organizations (SNCC, CORE, NAACP, SCLC) to achieve there goals. Non violence was a common
theme among these organizations. In the late 1960s more violence broke out as organizations such as the
Black panthers emerged and departed from the non violent methods used by other groups.
Other movements gained strength and publicity as a result of The Civil Rights movement- Women’s
Liberation Movement- Women sought more rights and equal treatment/equal pay. ERA the Equal
Rights Amendment was introduced in Congress and passed in 1972, but never ratified by the States.
NOW- National Organization of Women
Ms.(1971) was an American feminist magazine co-founded by American feminist and activist Gloria
Steinem. A 1976 cover story on battered women made Ms. the first national magazine to address the
issue of domestic violence.
The Feminine Mystique, 1963 was a book written by Betty Friedan which brought to light the lack of
fulfillment in many women's lives, which was generally kept hidden. According to The New York Times
obituary of Friedan in 2006, it “ignited the contemporary women's movement in 1963 and as a result
permanently transformed the social fabric of the United States and countries around the world” and “is
widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.”
Cesar Chavez-was a Mexican American farm worker, labor leader, and civil rights activist who, cofounded the United Farm Workers. Supporters say his work led to numerous improvements for union
laborers.
Environmentalists
1972 Congress passed the clean Air act as a result of pressure from environmentalist. Activists such as
Rachel Carson who wrote Silent Spring in 1962 and helped launch the environmental movement.
70s-Nixon & Watergate- President Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a defense when ordered to
turn over tapes from oval office conversations that proved he had knowledge of the Watergate break in.
Détente, SALT I & II-(1977 & 1979) strategic arms limitation talks. President Jimmy Carter worked to
ease relationship with the Soviet Union.
Camp David Accords (1978)- -Carter’s biggest success while in office, he oversaw a peace agreement
between Israel and Egypt.
Stagflation- this term was used as a reference to the stagnant economy (not growing) and the increased
inflation (high prices) that plagued the U.S in the late 70s during Carters Presidency.
80s Reagan- His economic policy was referred to as Reaganomics, or Supply side economics. This was
similar to trickle down of the 1920s, give tax cuts to business and the money will flow to the masses. It
worked, but during his two terms there was a huge increase in deficit spending (on weapons production),
also the Iran-Contra scandal.
90s Bush and Clinton Bush followed a similar economic plan to Reagan’s and was popular but lost reelection to Clinton because of a recession in 1992. Clinton-(NAFTA) North American Free Trade
Agreement- opened trade barriers between Mexico, U.S, and Canada. Clinton had great economic
success and was very popular. However, in his second term he was impeached but not removed from
office for a sex scandal with Monica Lawinski.
Election of 2000- George W. Bush v. Al Gore. Gore won the popular vote, but bush won the electoral
college. Florida’s 25 electoral votes were awarded to Bush more than a month after the election as a
result of the Supreme court (Bush v Gore) case.
Bush Presidency*Education reform- “No child left behind”
*Social Security- facing problems, more collecting and fewer paying into the system (graying of
America). Bush suggested a private pension. The age at which Americans can collect S.S.I. has been
raised and likely will continue to be raised.
*Homeland Security- was a new cabinet department created during the Bush presidency as a result of
the attacks of 9/11/01.
*Iraq & Afghanistan- War with these two countries following 9/11 continued for more than a decade.
Controversy over justification for war in Iraq (weapons of mass destruction) continued throughout
Bush’s second term. There has been a continued effort to promote democratic governments and ideal in
these nations to replace military dictatorships and terrorist organizations.
President Obama- Major issues- Drawing down the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, health care
(Affordable health care Act “Obama care”), Civil rights and Gay rights- (Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act)
(the end of “don’t ask don’t tell”), and the economy (TARP- bank bailout).