CHAPTER
35
The U.S. and the World 1960-1968
Years 1960-1 968
Bay of Pigs invasion
Peace Corps started
Soviets began
build ing Berlin Wall
Hot line set up
South Vietnamese
government
overthrown
American troops sent to
the Dominican Republic
First American combat
troops sent to Vietnam
1961
1963
1965
Cuban
missile
crisis
Leonid Brezhnev
named new Soviet leader
Tonkin Gulf
Resolution passed
Soviets invaded
Czechosiovalcia
Tet offensive
Vietnam peace talks began
1. Foreign Relations, 1960-1963
Learn these important terms:
Alliance for Progress
Third World
Peace Corps
Berlin Wall
Bay of Pigs invasion
hot line
test ban treaty
T o many Americans t he world situation looked grim in t he summer of
1960. The Soviets appeared t o have
the lead in the space race. Econ omists
were predicting that the Soviet economy would soon b e outproducing
America's. To add to t h is sense of
weakening power, the Soviet leader,
Nikita Khrushchev, proclaimed to
America, "We will bury y ou! " Was
the United States about t o lose its
p ower and influence in the world?
Many Americans were worried t hat
this might be so.
Throughout the 1960s, t h e American government faced stress in its
dealings with other g overnments.
Many questions had to be answ ered .
How much involvement would the
United States have in other governments? How strongly w ould t he Unit ed States react to Communist t hreats?
How much could the United States
really help other countrie s?
As you read this chapter, y ou will
see how the United States answered
these questions. You w ill r ea d a bout
American foreign relations bet ween
1960 and 1968 . You will see why certain decisions were mad e. And you
will learn about the stand -offs, hot
spots, and wars that chara cterized the
world during the 1960 s.
Remember the main idea:
During Kennedy's term in office,
the United States tried to stop the
spread of communism in Latin
America, Africa, and Europe . By
1963, tensions between the United
States and the Soviet Union had
worsened, then eased.
Look for answers to these
questions:
1. What did the United States do to
stop the spread of communism in
Latin America?
2 . Why did the Soviets build the
Berlin Wall?
3. What caused the Cuban missile
crisis in 1962?
Even before John F. Kennedy took
office, the Communists seemed to be hard
at work creating new trouble spots
around the globe. In July 1960, the newly
independent African nation of the Congo
(present-day Zaire) was suddenly caught
up in a civil war. The Soviet Union tried to
set up a Communist government there . It
did this by sending arms and technicians
to the country.
Chapter 35
725
The United Nations responded by sending a peace-keeping force to restore
order. But it took the UN force a number
of years to defeat the Communists.
Although the Soviets were not successful
in the Congo, concern over Soviet plans
for other African nations remained.
CUBA, 1959-1962
Troubles with Cuba
Trouble had been brewing in Cuba ever
since early 1959 when the government of
dictator Fulgencio Batista (fuhl-HEN-seeoh bah-TEE-stah) was overthrown by
Fidel Castro (fee-DEHL KASS-troh). At
first, the United States supported Castro
because he promised to build a democratic government in Cuba. But Castro soon
demonstrated that he, too, was a dictator
and that he supported communism.
Castro seized privately owned property, some of it owned by Americans, and
divided it among many of Cuba's poor
farmworkers. When the United States
Think:: Fidel Castro (seated on right) overthrew the
corrupt dictator Batista. Respond : How did the United
States react to Castro's plan to give American-held
land to workers?
726
UNIT 11
Ke y West .
BAHAMA S
Havana
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Bay of
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--.--1~-".L'- - - "
300 Km
responded by cutting off imports of
Cuban sugar, Castro seized even more
American property. He then turned to the
Soviets for economic and military aid.
The United States now had an enemy
nation only ninety miles from its shores.
To protect the nation's security, President
Eisenhower gave the Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA) the authority to train and
equip a group of anti-Castro Cubans.
These Cubans were to invade Cuba and
overthrow the Castro government.
On April 17, 1961, President Kennedy
gave the anti-Castro Cubans the goahead . About a thousand Cubans landed
at the Bay of Pigs on the southern coast of
Cuba. But the Cuban people did not rise
up to support the invaders. The anti-Castro Cubans were soon crushed by Castro's
army. This Bay of Pigs invasion was an
embarrassing defeat for the United
States. Afterward, Castro turned even
more strongly to the Soviet Union.
Strengthening Ties with
Latin America
The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion
made the American government realize
the importance of preventing communism
from spreading any farther in Latin America. President Kennedy came up with a
plan that would do for Latin America
what the Marshall Plan had done for
Europe after World War 11.
Kennedy's program was the Alliance
for Progress . It was a ten-year plan for
improving life in Latin America. Kennedy
proposed giving Latin American nations
money to build homes, schools, and hospitals. Additional funds would be used to
build up manufacturing and to improve
farming. Congress approved the program
in May 1961, but change in Latin America
proved to be very s low .
Four months later Congress gave permanent approval to another program proposed by Kennedy called the Peace Corps.
The Peace Corps was made up of American volunteers who wanted to help the
people of Third World nations. The Third
World referred to nations that were newly
independent or nations that were trying
to become modernized and better developed economically.
Think: From the beginning. Peace Corps volunteers
have provided underdeveloped nations with valuable
skills. Respond : Why has the Peace Corps been so
successful?
Think: President Kennedy's Alliance for Progress set
up social and economic programs to aid Latin
American countries. Respond : What were the specific
goals of the alliance?
The Peace Corps was one of Kennedy's
most successful programs. It is still in
operation. Peace Corps volunteers have
gone to more than fifty nations of Asia,
Africa, and Latin America. There they
work as teachers, nurses, farm laborers,
scientists, and, above all, ambassadors of
good will.
Protecting West Berlin
Within months of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy faced new threats. This
time they centered on the security of West
Berlin. West Berlin was a West German
city, although it was located within Communist East German territory. In June
1961, Soviet Premier Khrushchev demanded that the United States and its
allies leave West Berlin.
Chapter 35
727
During the Cuban Missile Crisis,
President Kennedy had to draw
an important conclusion. He probably asked questions about the Soviet
missiles in order to reach that conclusion. He may have asked if the
missiles were within striking distance of the United States. The
answer, of course, was yes. Then he
may have asked what the Soviets
might do with those missiles . Although he could not know for certain,
the Soviets may have planned to
attack the United States . When the
president had answers like these, he
was ready to draw a conclusion
about how the missiles affected the
United States . His conclusion was
that the missile bases posed an unacceptable threat.
Drawing a conclusion is the last
step of a reasoning process. The reasoning process may involve asking
and answering several questions .
over half the volunteers in the
early years were people who
had broad educations but no
special skills. Today. the Dllijority have skills in such fields as
agriculture and health.
Peace Corps volunteers have
served in a total of ninety-two
countries. but the number
where they are serving at any
time seems to change continually. In the African country of
Guinea. for example. the Peace
Corps entered in 1963 and left
in 1966. A return in 1969 lasted
only two years. Finally. Peace
Corps volunteers returned to
that country in 1985.
o To draw a conclusion about the
qualifications of Peace Corps
volunteers, first answer these
questions :
What kind of background did
most of the early volunteers
have? What kind of education
did most of the later volunteers
have? What conclusion can you
draw about the educational
background of people accepted
by the Peace Corps today?
Read the paragraphs below. Then
answer the questions to draw some
conclusions about the Peace Corps.
When President Kennedy introduced the Peace Corps in
1961, it was an idea that captured the imagination of Americans. By 1966, the number of
volunteers reached its peak of
15,550. In contrast, the number
since 1981 has remained at
about 5,500 per year.
Other changes have taken
Hlace in the Peace Corns. Well
728
UNIT 11
iii
To draw a conclusion about the
Peace Corps in Guinea, answer
these questions :
How many times has the Peace
Corps entered the area? How
many times has it left the area?
What conclusion can you draw
about the Peace Corps'
involvement in Guinea?
Think: During his well-received speech in West Berlin, Kennedy spoke these memorable words, "Ich bin ein
Berliner." (I am a Berliner.) Respond: What do Kennedy 's words imply?
The Soviet Union wanted to take over
all of Berlin because hundreds of East
Germans were escaping into West Berlin.
The Soviets intended to halt this flow. To
force the United States and its allies out,
Khrushchev threatened to blockade, or
close off, West Berlin.
President Kennedy refused to give up
the city. He sent troops to West Berlin t o
prevent the Communists from setting up
a blockade. When Khrushchev saw this,
he backed down. But to make sure that no
more East Germans escaped to West Berlin, the Russians built the Berlin Wall. The
wall was little more than barbed wire
when it was first begun on August 13,
1961. But over the years, concrete has
been added, and the wall now extends
along the entire length of the East German border.
The Cuban Missile Crisis
The greatest crisis of Kennedy' s administration took place in October 1962. Photographs taken by American U-2 planes
showed that the Soviet Union was building rocket-launching bases on Cuba.
Because Cuba is so close to the United
States, missiles from these bases could
strike many American targets with ease.
Kennedy regarded the missile bases as
a threat to America's security. On October
22, 1962, Kennedy warned the Soviet
Union to remove the bases. He also
ordered a naval blockade of Cuba. This
would prevent any Soviet ship that was
carrying missiles from reaching Cuba.
For a few days, it seemed as if the United States and the Soviet Union might go
to war. But on Ocotober 26, Khrushchev
finally agreed to remove the bases. In
return, the United States promised not to
attack Cuba. The Cuban missile crisis
made the United States and the Soviet
Thmk Soviets tightened their grip on East Berlin by
building the Berlin Wall. They wanted to stop people
from escaping the city. Resp Ind: What does the
Berlin Wall symbolize?
Union realize how easy it would be for the
Cold War to turn hot. As a result, the two
nations made an effort to avoid getting
into direct conflicts with each other.
2. Foreign Relations, 1963-1968
Learn these important terms:
Curbing the Testing of Weapons
Th e Cuban m issile crisis also made
both s ides more interested in curbing the
nuclear weapons race. In Augu st 1963,
the Soviet Union an d the United States
agreed to set up a hot line between the
capit al cities of Moscow and Washington,
D.C . This direct line of communication
was designed to prevent an accident from
causing a nuclear war.
That same month, the Americans and
Soviets reached agreements on a test ban
treaty. Under the terms of this treaty,
nuclear weapons testing could no longer
take place on the earth' s surface, under
water, or in outer space. Only underground nuclear testing was allowed to
continue. The United States, the Soviet
Union, and many other nations signed t h e
test ban treaty .
Relations between the Soviet Union and
the United States were better by the end
of Kennedy's brief term in office. In t he
rest of this chapter you will read how other world trou ble spots came to dominate
t h e attention of Americans.
Section Review
1 . What was the Bay of Pigs inva sion? Why did it fail?
2. In what w ay w as the Alli ance for
Progres s like th e Marsha ll Plan?
3. What did t he United Stat es do
after discovering missile bases in
Cuba in 1962?
4 . What limit s w e re placed on nuclear testing a s a result of the
test ban treaty of 1963?
730
UNIT 11
liberal
purge
Brezhnev Doctrine
Remember the main idea:
President Johnson used both negotiation and military force in solving
foreign problems. He also had to
deal with a tough new Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, who was a
dedicated Communist.
Look for answers to these
questions:
1. Why caused widespread rioting
in Panama in 1964?
2. Why did the United States send
military forces to the Dominican
Republic in 1965?
3. What did the Brezhnev Doctrine state?
In a campaign speech in Los Angeles in
October 1964, President Lyndon Johnson
summarized his views on foreign relations. He said: " ... we cannot keep the
peace by bluff and bluster and by threats
and ultimatums ... . we can only keep the
peace by two methods : first. with a strong
defense, .. . and second, . . . by reasoning
together, by responsibility, by negotiation." Johnson wanted Americans to
know that he intended to conduct foreign
relation s in a thoughtful manner. The
president used negotiation whenever possible, but some crises in his administration called for military action.
Trouble in the Dominican Republic
lhink. . Riots in Panama OCCUlTed after an American
flag was flown over a school for American children.
ReSIJolld What problem was at the root of these
riots?
Trouble in Panama
In January 1964, bloody riots suddenly
broke out in the Latin American nation of
Panama. The people of Panama demanded that the United States turn over to
them control of the Panama Canal Zone.
American control of the Canal dated
back to a treaty that had been signed in
1903. This treaty gave the United States a
permanent lease on a ten-mile strip of
land that became the site of the Canal. In
return, the United States agreed to pay
Panama ten million dollars and a yearly
rental fee of $250,000.
The Panamanians wanted to negotiate
a new treaty with the United States. President Johnson agreed, and a new treaty
was drafted that gave Panama control of
the Canal Zone. However, the operation of
the Canal itself became a joint AmericanPanamanian job. The United States felt
the Canal was important to America's
security-too important to turn over
totally to Panama.
The Dominican Republic is an island
nation located in the Caribbean Sea. For
many years it had been ru led by a series
of dictators. In 1961 the dictator, General
Rafael Trujillo (troo-HEE-yoh), was assassinated. His government was overthrown,
but the government that replaced it was
just as unpopular as Trujillo's had been.
The situation in the Dominican Repub lic
came to a boil in 1965 when civil war
broke out.
President Johnson was afraid that this
civil war might make it possible for the
Communists to take over the Dominican
government. Therefore, he ordered more
than twenty thousand American soldiers
to the Dominican Republic. Their job was
to restore peace.
Most Latin American nations strongly
opposed President Johnson's action. They
feared that this marked the start of a new
American policy toward the nations of
Latin America.
Think : American marines searched cars and people in
the Dominican capital, Santo Domingo. Respond:
How did Latin America react to America's
involvement in the Dominican Republic?
A Shake-up in the Soviet Union
Think: President Johnson often sat in this chair while
meeting with advisors. Study his expression; note his
clenched fist. Respond: What issue might he be
considering?
The United States seemed to be saying
that it had a right to interfere in the affairs
of Latin American nations in order to prevent the spread of communism. It looked
as though the United States was breaking
a promise it had made many years earlier.
The Good Neighbor Policy of the 1930s
contained a promise to Latin American
nations that the United States would never interfere in their affairs unless asked
to do so.
To calm the fears of Latin Americans,
President Johnson agreed to remove
American troops as soon as they could be
replaced by peace-keeping forces from
other Latin American nations. Four Latin
American nations sent troops, and a peacekeeping army was formed. In 1966,
free elections were held. Soon after that
all the troops left the Dominican Republic. As an act of good faith, Johnson continued the Alliance for Progress program
to help the nations of Latin America .
732
UNIT 11
The Cuban missile crisis was a source
of embarrassment to Nikita Khrushchev
and the Soviet Union . The Communist
Party decided that a change of leadership was needed in 1964, and it removed
Khrushchev from office.
The new Soviet leader was Leonid
l. Brezhnev (LEE-oh-nid BREZH-neO.
Brezhnev believed that Khrushchev had
been too liberal, or open to granting the
people more rights . As a result, Brezhnev
saw to it that the press and free speech
were controlled more tightly. He also
tightened the Soviet Union's grip on the
nations of eastern Europe.
Brezhnev's authority and leadership
were tested in the spring of 1968. At that
time, a new Communist leader came to
power in Czechoslovakia. This new leader, Alexander Dubcek (DOOB-check). expanded freedom of speech and adopted
some economic reforms . Dubcek promised the Soviets that Czechoslovakia
would remain an ally.
The Soviets Invade Czechoslovakia
Dubcek's independent spirit was too
much for Brezhnev. In August 1968, the
Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies
invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion
was so sudden that the Czechs had no
chance to resist. Dubcek was removed
from power, and a new leader, handpicked by the Soviets, took his place. The
Soviets also purged, or got rid of. all of
Dubcek's supporters.
To the rest of the world, Brezhnev
described the invasion as necessary in
order to uphold what became known as
the Brezhnev Doctrine. This doctrine said
that the Soviets had the right to interfere
in the affairs of any eastern European
nation if its Communist system of government was being threatened.
TROUBLE SPOTS AROUND THE WORLD, 1963-1968
In Section 2 of this chapte r, you read about certain trouble spots around the
world . When you locat e these trouble spots on a map, you can see why the
United States took the a ction described in the text .
6 . Reread the Map Workshop for
Chapter 32 (page 667). Then
explain Czechoslovakia's
strategic importance.
Find Panama on the map and
answer these questions .
1. What nations and bodies of
R
water border on Panama?
2. If the United States lost control
over the Panama Canal, how
would the navy suffer?
The following quotations are from
Section 2 of this chapter. Use the
map to explain each one.
7 . " The United States felt the
Canal was important to
America ' s security-too
important to turn over totally to
Panama ."
8 . " President Johnson was afraid
that this civil war might make it
possible for the Communists to
take over the Dominican
government.' ,
Find the island nation called the
Dominican Republic on the map .
3. How far is it from the
Dominican Republic to Miami?
How far is it to Venezuela from
the Dominican Republic?
4. If the Dominican Republic fe ll
into Communist hands , what
nearby nations would be
threatened?
9. " Dubcek's independent spirit
was too much for Brezhnev. In
August 1968, the Soviet Union
and its Warsaw Pact allies
invaded Czechoslovakia."
Find Czechoslovakia on the map .
5 . What nations border on this
nation?
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3. The Vietnam War, 1960-1968
Learn these important tenns:
guerilla warfare
Tonkin Gulf Resolution
Green Berets
relocation
Tet offensive
escalate
Remember the main idea:
Think: In 1968, Communist troops invaded
Czechoslovakia, putting down a rebellion . Respond :
What did the actions of the Soviet Union and the
United States tell the world?
With the Soviet Union gaining power in
eastern Europe, the NATO nations decided that they should strengthen their
defenses. 'The United States itself did little in response to the invasion.
Why was the United States so silent?
American attention was focused on
events that were occurring in a different
part of the world. The war in Vietnam was
widening, and so was America's role in it.
In the rest of this chapter you will read
about this war and America's involvement in it during the 1960s.
In the 1960s, America's involvement in the war in Vietnam grew.
As the war continued, the number
of Americans who opposed it increased. Pressure grew to withdraw
the American forces and to negotiate peace.
Look for answers to these
questions:
1. What was President Ke nne dy's
position on Vietnam?
2. What was the Tonkin Gulf Resolution? When was it pass ed?
3. Why was it so difficult for the
United States and South Vietnam
to win the w a r?
Section Review
1. How did the United Stat es solve
t h e Panam a Canal conflict?
2. Why w ere Latin American nat ions disturbed by the Ameri can
interferen ce in the Dominican
Republic?
3. How did Leonid Brezhnev come
to pow e r in t he Soviet Union?
4. Why did the Soviet Union inva de
Czechoslova kia in 1968?
734
UNIT 11
In February 1954. President Dwight D.
Eisenhower said, "I cannot conceive of
a greater tragedy for America than to
get h eavily involved now in an all-out war
in any of t h ose [Southeast Asia] regions ."
The tragedy Eisenhower spoke of came to
pass during the 1960s.
President Eisenhower tried to help the
government of South Vietnam defeat the
Vietcong, or Communist rebels from
within South Vietnam. He sent military
advisors to help train the army of South
Vietnam, and provided money to keep
them well-supplied. However, the Vietcong controlled large areas of the country
by the time Eisenhower left office.
Involvement Grows
By the time John F. Kennedy became
president, there were about 650 Ameri can military advisors in Vietnam. President Kennedy's position on Vietnam was
stronger than Eisenhower's. He believed
that Vietnam was a sort of testing ground
for the Soviets. If the Communists could
topple the government of South Vietnam,
they would try to do the same elsewhere
in Southeast Asia.
To prevent this from happening, Ken nedy sent a few thousand Green Berets to
South Vietnam to train the South Vietnamese army. The Green Berets were a
new type of American fighting unit . The
members of the Green Berets were specially trained for guerilla warfare. This
kind of warfare involves small bands of
fighters who engage in "hit-and-run"
attacks to keep an enemy off balance. The
Green Berets trained the South Vietnamese army in guerilla fighting methods.
For a while the South Vietnamese army
held off the Vietcong.
Think- American militaIy advisors trained South
Vietnamese soldiers in the early 19605. Respond
Why did American leaders involve the United States
in Vietnam's problems?
The South Vietnamese
Government Falls
But the war took a turn for the worse in
1963. The Vietcong defeated the South
Vietnamese army . in battle after battle.
The people grew more dissatisfied with
the South Vietnamese government. Finally, in early November of 1963, the South
Vietnamese government was overthrown
by leaders of the South Vietnamese military. ) The United States government secretly approved of these events. A series
of military leaders ruled the country after
the overthrow.
At the time of Kennedy's death, there
were sixteen thousand American advisors
in Vietnam . And Kennedy had been thinking about increasing America's role in
the war.
The Incident in the Gulf of Tonkin
The war continued to go badly for the
South Vietnamese. In early 1964, large
numbers of soldiers from North Vietnam
began to enter South Vietnam. Communist troops from the north were now helpin9 the Vietcong in their battle to take
over South Vietnam.
Then in August 1964, President Johnson informed the nation that a North Vietnamese gunboat had attacked an American warship in the Gulf of Tonkin, about
thirty miles off the coast of North Vietnam. He asked Congress for the authority
to "take all necessary measures" to protect American armed forces in Vietnam
and to protect South Vietnam against
invading armies. The aptly named Tonkin
Gulf Resolution was passed almost unanimously by Congress. It gave the president wide powers to do whatever he felt
necessary in Southeast Asia.
The president began to use those powers in February 1965. Johnson ordered
the American air force to begin bombing
certain targets in North Vietnam. Johnson
Chapter 35
735
the United States tried relocation. This
involved moving whole villages of people
out of an area when Communists were
found nearby. The village and the area
around it would then be destroyed by
bombs, bulldozers, and chemicals. But
relocation failed also. The Communists
responded to relocation by moving their
forces to other areas.
The United States was caught in a
dilemma, or a situation in which all the
available choices have drawbacks . The
United States could expand its involvement in the war with more bombing and
more troops . This might bring the Soviet
Union or China into the war. Or the United States could reduce its involvement by
letting the South Vietnamese handle all
the fighting. This meant sure defeat for
South Vietnam.
Think: As the years passed, America sent more and
more troops and money to South Vietnam. Respond :
What were the results of the increased United. States
involvement in Vietnam?
escalated, or expanded, the war further in
March 1965 by sending the first American combat soldiers into battle. In April,
there were 33,500 American troops in
Vietnam. By the end of the year, there
were more than 125,000.
A Hard War To Win
Winning the war in Vietnam proved to
be difficult. Many people in the South
Vietnamese countryside supported the
Vietcong and provided them with food,
shelter, and information. Guerilla warfare
made it hard to maintain control of large
areas of land. For example, American
forces might win control of a village, but
as soon as the Americans left the town,
the Vietcong would return .
To solve these problems, the United
States at first tried to win the support of
the Vietnamese people through a propaganda campaign and large amounts of
economic assistance . When this failed,
736
UNIT 11
Think: When many
South Vietnamese
began helping the
Communists. entire
villages were moved
to avoid contact with
the Vietcong. Respond :
What problems did
this create?
The Debate at Home
The war in Vietnam deeply divided the
nation. There were those who supported
America's involvement in the war because they saw it as a war against communism. They believed the United States
must support its allies and maintain its
reputation as a defender of freedom. Others saw the war as a civil war among Vietnamese. These people saw no need for
American involvement. They wanted to
end the destruction of lives and property
in Vietnam. Still other people opposed the
Vietnam War because they believed it
was unwinnable.
As the war dragged on, the number of
people opposed to the war grew. The antiwar movement was centered at first on
college campuses. Student demonstrations became common by 1967 . Then
many newspapers and magazines became
critical of the war, as did some members
of Congress. Television news reports
brought scenes of the war into millions of
American homes every evening. People
began to question the government's policies on Vietnam.
The Tet Offensive
In January of 1968, the Vietcong
launched a surprise attack on almost
every city, including many American air
force bases in South Vietnam . This attack
took place during the Vietnamese New
Year, called Tet. The Tet offensive
showed that the Vietcong were not prepared to give up their fight despite American aid to South Vietnam. It also proved
that many South Vietnamese were aiding
the Communists. The offensive would not
have been so widespread or so forceful
without the help of local people.
~UP#"OUR GI'S
WITHDRAW
All U.s,TROOPS
Thulk In the late 1960s and early 19705. antiwar demonstrations were held on numerous college campuses. on
streets in cOWltiess cities, and at the Democratic Convention in Chicago. Read the slogans on the signs carried by
protestors. Respond: Why were feelings about the Vietnam War so strong?
Chapter 35
7 37
HISTORY MAKERS
- - - AI Santoli- - Voice of the Vietnam Veterans
They turned off the
tape recorder. It had
been an exhausting
evening. The two men
had been talking for
hours, recalling the
past. They compared
experiences, remembering places and
friends. Not all of their
memories were happy.
Both men relived the agony of friends
dying, the anger and frustration of a
lost cause, and the pain of old
wounds .
"Thanks, AI, for interviewing me. I
haven't been able to talk about this
before. And it still bothers me, you
know. Sometimes I wake up at night
and I'm back there, listening for
some sound that will give me their
position. I'm waiting to fire, and
wondering if I'll ever get home alive.
Finally I realize I'm home. I'm alive
and well. But 'Nam will be with me
for the rest of my life."
Al Santoli was nineteen years old
when he fought in Vietnam. He was
wounded three times, but he came
back to the war after each injury. He
couldn't leave his friends, and he felt
that the war could be ended. The last
time Santoli went into the field, it
was with a platoon of Vietnamese
and American soldiers who lived
with Vietnamese villagers in the jun-
738
UNIT 11
gle. As Santoli got to
know the villagers, he
discovered that Americans didn't understand
Vietnamese
culture.
He became convinced
that the war could only
be won after the Americans learned to respect their Vietnamese
allies .
Santoli returned from Vietnam in
1969. He was proud to have fought,
but angry that the war was dragging
on. He felt hurt by the attitudes
Americans had toward veterans.
Worst of all, he was unable to talk
about his experiences. After ten
years, he finally began to heal. As he
said, " .. . as if coming out of a shockinduced trance, I stopped running
from my experiences there. I began
interviewing and soul-searching with
fellow veterans for an oral history of
the war .. ."
From these interviews, Santoli
wrote a book, Everything We Had . It
presents a range of feelings and attitudes about the Vietnam War by
Americans who were part of it.
Through the voices of soldiers and
medical workers , Santoli gives us
some understanding of the chaos
that war creates. The Vietnam War
created chaos both within countries
and within human beings.
Think: Scenes such as the one above flashed into living rooms across America. The horrors of war could not be
ignored . Despite feelings against it. the war dragged on. It was to become the longest war in American history.
Respond : Why was it so difficult for the United States to remove itself from the war?
The South Vietnamese and American
troops were able to recapture every city
taken by the Vietcong. Even so the Tet
offensive added to the discouragement
that Americans were feeling about the
war. More than 540,000 American soldiers were in South Vietnam. About
30,000 had been killed, and more than
100,000 had been wounded. The war was
costing the United States over twenty-five
billion dollars a year.
President Johnson recognized how unpopular the war had become. He tried to
make peace in March 1968. He limited
the bombing of North Vietnam. Soon
after, North Vietnam agreed to start
peace talks in Paris. But the talks, which
began in May 1968, made little progress.
The Vietcong demanded a role in the government of South Vietnam, and the military leaders of South Vietnam refused to
agree to this.
In an attempt to help Hubert Humphrey
win the election of 1968, Johnson ordered
a halt to all bombing in Vietnam. But the
order did little to help Humphrey or the
peace process. Richard Nixon won the
election and inherited the war. You will
read about his presidency next.
Section Review
1. Who were the Green Berets?
2. How was Lyndon Johnson able
to escalate the war in Vietnam?
3. What dilemma did the United
States face in Vietnam?
4. What did the Tet offensive demonstrate to the United States?
5. Why was a peace agreement difficult to achieve in Vietnam?
Chapter 35
739
Chapter
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Within months of becoming
president, John Kennedy authorized an invasion of Cuba in an
attempt to overthrow the island's
Communist leader. But the invasion failed . Kennedy tried other
ways of preventing the spread of
communism. He gave aid to Latin
American nations and organized
the Peace Corps. Kennedy also
stood firm against Soviet attempts
t o take over West Berlin and to
build missile bases in Cuba .
Lyndon Johnson had to deal
with crises in Panama and the
Dominican Republic . The crisis in
Panama was resolved through negotiation, but the Dominican crisis
required the intervention of American marines . In the Soviet Union,
a staunch Communist, Leonid
Brezhnev, came to power.
The war in Vietnam dragged on
throughout the 1960s, and America's involvement in it grew. After
an American warship was attacked by the North Vietnamese in
1964, Congress gave President
Johnson wide powers to do what
was necessary to prevent Communist aggression in Southeast Asia.
As the war escalated, so did the
number of Americans who opposed it. By 1968, Johnson had
halted the bombing of North Vietnam in an attempt to get the peace
process started. Peace talks began, but little progress was made .
Ending the war was left to a new
president, Richard M . Nixon .
740
UNIT 11
Key Words
Write a sentence to explain the
meaning of each of these terms.
Third World
Peace Corps
purge
escalate
Brezhnev
Doctrine
guerilla
warfare
Major Events
Choose the answer that best
completes the statement.
1. The 1961 attempt to overthrow
the Castro government was the
a) Cuban Missile Crisis.
b) Battle of Batista.
c) Bay of Pigs invasion.
2. To prevent East Germans from
escaping to West Berlin, the
Russians
a) built missile bases.
b) built the Berlin Wall .
c) blockaded West Berlin.
3 . In 1963, the United States and the
Soviet Union
a) agreed on a test ban treaty .
b) almost came to war in Cuba.
c) sent troops to Czechoslovakia.
4 . Congress gave the president wide
powers to do what was necessary
in Vietnam by passing
a) the Vietcong Treaty .
b) the Tet Resolution.
c) the Tonkin Gulf Resolution .
5. Support for the Vietnam War
a) declined as the war went on.
b) increased as it continued.
c) was always strong.
•
w
R e vie
Important Facts
Skill Review
Answer each question with at least
one complete sentence.
Study this map, then answer the
following questions .
1. Who was Fidel Castro? Why did
the United States regard him as
an enemy?
2. What was the Alliance for
Progress? How successful was it?
3. Why did Kennedy regard the
construction of missile bases in
Cuba to be a threat to America's
security? How was the crisis
resolved?
1. How many African nations became
independent in 1960?
2. What conclusion can you draw
about colonialism in Africa?
3. Which country has a Communist
government?
4. What conclusion can you draw
about Soviet interest in Zaire?
4. What caused bloody riots to
break out in Panama in 1964?
5. Why did Johnson send American
soldiers to the Dominican
Republic in 1965?
6. What brought Leonid Brezhnev to
power in the Soviet Union? How
did he differ from Khrushchev?
1974
1965
1960
9. Why was it so difficult to win the
war in Vietnam?
10. What was "relocation"? How
successful was it?
11. What dilemma did the United
States face as a result of the war
in Vietnam?
12. What was the Tet offensive?
13. Why did Johnson try to make
peace in March 1968? Why did
the peace talks make little
progress?
...
OFTH£
,
CONGO
7. Why did the Soviet Union invade
Czechoslovakia?
8. Why did Kennedy send the Green
Berets to South Vietnam?
PEOPLE'S
REPuauc
D
Commun,st
government
Years given are: dates
of independence.
The Nations of Africa
Critical Thinking
Write a paragraph to answer each
question.
1. The war in Vietnam was the first
to be covered by television. What
effect do you think this had on the
public 's opinion of the war? Why?
2. Why was the anti-war movement
centered on college campuses?
Chapter 35
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