Colony Collapse Disorder and possible connection with
Israeli acute paralysis virus in the domesticated
honeybee, A. mellifera
Word Count: 1972
Introduction
Honeybees are a common insect around the world; perhaps originating in
Southeast Asia, there are now over 20 000 known species (Smith et al. 2000).
One of these species is the common domesticated honeybee, Apis mellifera.
Best known for their production of honey, A. mellifera is an invaluable part of the
agricultural industry. They are used to pollinate some 90 different crops, including
almonds, apples, cucumbers and canola (Mittelstaedt 2007). In Canada, they
pollinate an estimated $2 billion worth of crops, and $15 billion in the United
States (Mittelstaedt 2007). In the wild, many plants depend on the honeybees’
pollination for survival. Since mid-2006, beekeepers across the United States
have been reporting sudden losses of their colonies. Scientists have termed this
pandemic Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), in reference to the emptying and
collapse of a hive in a matter of days. Throughout the past year, newspapers
have been publishing articles on the newest research and theories regarding
CCD. Whether reporting outlandish ideas such as bees being tired from making
crop circles, or current research such as the affect of mites (Milius 2007), all the
articles have something in common; each discuss the predicted fallout of the
economy and ecosystem if bees are wiped out. The direct impact CCD could
have on the human population has kept this topic in the forefront of newspapers
across the world. Media attention has given this important problem much needed
research funding and political interest (Oldroyd 2007). Martin Mittelstaedt
recently wrote an article for the Globe and Mail on a paper written by Cox-Foster
and colleagues. Using results from a survey of microbes, the research team
studied an array of organisms found in both healthy and collapsed hives.
According to their research, as presented in this newspaper article, the Israeli
acute paralysis virus (IAPV) is a major contributor to the current honeybee die-off
(Mittelstaedt 2007). However, it has yet to be determined if CCD is caused
exclusively by IAPV, or by a combination of the virus and other factors. To
determine the role IAPV may play in Colony Collapse Disorder, it is useful to
review CCD, as well as current theories and research.
Commentary on the writing
The author of this newspaper article, Martin Mittelstaedt, has written a clear and
concise account of the current devastation of the domestic honeybee population.
Although writing on a topic which most of his readers would have no prior
knowledge of, his word choice and sentence structure made the science easy to
understand. While retaining the original meaning of the paper, he has brought
the research to a level which can be appreciated by a more general audience.
There were a few aspects of the paper which caused me to read the entire
article. He set the article up as if describing a mystery; starting with the problem,
continuing on through the evidence and theories, and finishing with the
conclusion set forth by the scientists. This held my attention, as I wanted to find
out the how the mystery ended. Also, I appreciated that he gave all the important
facts and information without going too deep into the science behind it. This
resulted in a quick read that did not leave me confused over biological jargon or
concepts. Overall, his simplistic, yet informative writing style proved to be an
effective way of catching, and then holding, my attention.
Commentary about the topic in the newspaper article
I have been following this story of the disappearing honeybees for a few months
now. Previous articles simply discussed the problem and this was one of the first
I had read which described a plausible theory in full. I have always been amazed
at how useful honeybees are, as their work results in a great deal of food
production that we do not often think about. From what I have read, scientists are
worried that their demise could possibly spell a collapse in our economy and
ecosystem. The fact that such a small creature, regarded as a pest by some,
could be so important, intrigued me greatly. Their survival should be of great
importance to us.
Science behind the article Colony Collapse Disorder
Termed by American scientist Diana Cox-Foster in 2006 (Stokstad 2007a),
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) refers to the sudden loss of an entire hive in a
matter of days. Early reports of mass honeybee deaths were first reported in
2004, though it was not considered serious until 2006 when, during that winter,
an estimated 23% of beekeepers reported average 45% loss of their operations
(Cox-Foster et al. 2007). This is not the first time large numbers of honeybee
deaths have been reported; in 1975 and 1897, apiaries also suffered great losses
(Milius, 2007). However, scientists believe that with CCD, they are dealing with
something previously unidentified (Milius 2007). As of March 2007, CCD had
been reported in 27 states in the U.S.A (Barrionuevo 2007), with 23% of
beekeepers losing up to 90% of their hives (Stokstad 2007b).
CCD is
characterized by a complete disappearance of adult bees in as little as seven
days (Milius 2007). Any bees that remain show both a loss of appetite and
motivation to work; juvenile bees and the queen bee are left unattended and die
(Milius 2007). As well, neighbouring colonies, moths and other animals treat the
deserted hives oddly. Instead of raiding the abandoned honey as would be
expected, they leave it alone for a number of days (Milius 2007). No evidence is
found of bees’ natural predators, such as wasps or mammals, and few, if any of
the dead bees are ever located. There is no sign within the hives of anything
being amiss, as food stocks are normal and there is no indication of common
diseases (Oldroyd 2007). It is difficult to determine exactly how many countries
have been affected by CCD. Currently confirmed only in the United States, it is
debatable whether or not it has entered Canada. According to the president of
the Ontario Beekeepers’ Associate, Danny Walker, Canada has no confirmed
cases of CCD (Mittelstaedt 2007). However, an article in a Quebec journal, Les
Echos, claims Quebec has suffered losses up to 40% (Molga 2007). Other
countries across Europe and Asia have also reported great losses, but it is not
known at this time if they are due to CCD.
It appears that only common,
domesticated bees are affected by CCD. Wild honeybee populations, as well as
Africanized bees, appear to be unaffected; their colonies are not showing any
signs of of the disorder (Oldroyd 2007).
Economic Consequences of CCD
The deaths are of great concern to the agriculture industry. Approximately $15
billion stands to be lost if there are no more pollinators. Some crops, such as
almonds in California, depend exclusively on commercial honeybees. This which
poses an enormous problem especially for those who run a small private
business dependant solely on their bees. These beekeepers ship their bees
across the country as crops come into flower, renting them out as pollinators to
farmers. One beekeeper expected to lose all but nine of his 1200 colonies, with
the remaining colonies being too weak to work (Milius 2007). Colony Collapse
Disorder threatens to devastate this sector of the agricultural industry.
Current Theories and Research
Shortly after CCD was first identified, a number of theories were put forth in
regards to its cause. Ideas included genetically modified crops, cell phone
signals, pesticides, mites, overworking and poor nutrition (Stoskstad 2007a).
Some of the theories, such as cell phone signals, were ruled out after
investigation.
Many scientists thought a combination of the aforementioned
issues could be the cause, but none could agree on anything specifically.
Research continues to try pinpointing exact reasons. A new paper by Cox-Foster
and colleagues suggests a virus, originally identified in Israel in 2004 (Maori et al.
2007), may be a contributing factor to the collapse. A team of entomologists and
molecular biologists teamed up to run a metagenomic survey of microorganisms
existing in healthy hives, CCD-affected hives and royal jelly (a secretion fed to
larvae).
Metagenomics is a relatively new field of genetic research, where
scientists can study genetic sequences directly from samples taken in the field,
and not have to rely on cultivated cultures. The organisms found in the survey
were examined and identified. They found one organism, Israeli acute paralysis
virus of bees (IAPV), to correlate strongly with CCD (Cox-Foster et al. 2007).
The virus was found in all CCD-affected samples, half of the royal jelly samples,
and one of the twenty-one healthy samples. The research concluded that IAPV
was linked to CCD, being either directly or indirectly responsible. The
researchers also noted that all of the sampled hives affected with CCD had
contained or intermingled with honeybees imported from Australia. None of the
healthy hives had been in contact with Australian honeybees (Cox-Foster et al.
2007).
To keep up with the demand for pollinators, imports of bees from
Australia began in 2004, the same time the earliest reports of CCD were made.
However, CCD does not seem to affect bees in Australia. A potential reason is a
species of mites, Varroa destructor. These mites suppress the immune system of
bees, making them more susceptible to infection from other organisms, including
viruses (Calderone et al. 2002). They are not found in Australia, but are common
in North America. Cox-Foster and colleagues theorize that Australian bees may
have brought the IAPV with them to the United States, where it infected the
already immunosuppressed bees it came in contact with. In addition, the team
ruled out previously proposed theories. The use of crop pesticides are similar in
the United States and Australia, eliminating that suggestion. They also ruled out
the use of miticides, common in the United States for the control of Varroa mites,
but not used in Australia. This idea was dismissed, as there was no difference in
use of miticides between healthy and CCD-affected hives (Cox-Foster et al.
2007). The presence of IAPV was the only apparent factor distinguishing
between healthy and CCD-affected hives. The research led by Cox-Foster is still
on-going. Some scientists feel the paper has done no more than add confusion
to the topic of CCD, as it did not directly implicate IAPV (Stokstad 2007b). Other
scientists think IAPV may be just another factor in a combination of factors that
lead to CCD (Stokstad 2007b). Continuing their research to obtain more concrete
results, the research team is now beginning new tests to determine if CCD is
caused by IAPV alone, IAPV and Varroa mites, or in conjunction with other
factors.
Conclusion
Colony Collapse Disorder poses an enormous threat to the United States’
agriculture industry, and possibly world-wide. The reported deaths of up to 90%
of colonies in some apiaries jeopardize $15 billion dollars worth of crops
annually. While many factors have been implicated as potential causes of CCD,
a research team has recently concluded that Israeli acute parasite virus of bees
is involved, although at this time, it is still unknown if it is directly or indirectly
responsible. Australia appears to be the source of this virus, as all affected hives
came in contact at some point with bees imported from that country.
Newspapers have played a large role in keeping this story in the headlines. By
continuously publishing new research and theories, this problem has gained both
political attention and funding. Articles such as the one published by Martin
Mittelstaedt keep important issues in the forefront, as well as maintain debate,
research and funding. By making scientific discoveries accessible to a general
audience, journalists can keep their readers informed of current situations which
may affect them, as is the case with the article written by Mittelstaedt. His
engaging article not only conveyed to the reader the seriousness of this issue,
but informed readers of the newest research on Colony Collapse Disorder.
Sources
Barrionuevo A. 2007 April 24. Bees vanish, and scientists race for reasons. The
New York Times.
Calderone N, Lin S, Kuenen L. 2002. Differential infestation of honey bee, Apis
mellifera, worker and queen brood by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor.
Apidologie. 33:389-398.
Cox-Foster D, Conlan S, Holmes E, Palacios G, Evans J, Moran N, Quan P,
Briese T, Hornig M, Geiser D, Martinson V, vanEngelsdorp D, Kalkstein A,
Drysdale A, Hui J, Zhai J, Cui L, Hutchison S, Simons J, Egholm M, Pettis J,
Lipkin I. 2007. A metagenomic survey of microbes in honey bee colony collapse
disorder. Science. 318:283-287.
Maori E, Tanne E, Sela I. 2007. Reciprocal sequence exchange between nonretro viruses and hosts leading to the appearance of new host phenotypes.
Virology. 362:342-349.
Millius S. 2007. Not-so-elementary bee mystery. Science News. 172:56.
Molga P. 2007 Aug 20. La mort des abeilles met la planète en danger. Les
Echos.
Mittelstaedt M. 2007 Sept 7. Mysterious die-off of honeybees explained. The
Globe and Mail. A:7.
Oldroyd BP. 2007. What's killing american honey bees? PLoS Biology. 5: e168
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050168
Smith D, Villafuerte L, Otisc G, Palmer M. 2000. Biogeography of Apis cerana F.
and A. nigrocincta Smith: insights from mtDNA studies. Apidologie. 31:265-279
Stokstad, E. 2007a. Entomology: the case of the empty hives. Science. 316:970972.
Stokstad, E. 2007b. Puzzling decline of U.S. bees linked to virus from Australia.
Science. 317:1304-1305.
Databases selected: Canadian Newsstand
Mysterious die-off of honeybees explained
Martin Mittelstaedt. The Globe and Mail. Toronto, Ont.: Sep 7, 2007. pg. A.7
Abstract (Summary)
One perplexing finding is that bees in Australia don't seem to be affected by colony collapse
disorder. The researchers speculated the reason might be that bees there are not infected with
varroa mites, which are found throughout in North America. The mites suppress the immune system
of bees, making them more vulnerable to other threats.
Full Text (682 words)
2007 CTVglobemedia Publishing Inc. All Rights Reserved.
A virus - first identified in Israel, then seen in Australia - may be to blame for widespread honeybee
carnage in U.S., scientists say
The sudden and mysterious disappearance of honeybees in the United States over the past year
may be due to a virus, according to a new research paper by an international team of scientists.
The pathogen, called Israeli acute paralysis virus, was detected in almost all bee hives tested during a
survey of hives afflicted by what has become known as colony collapse disorder. The pathogen is rarely
found in healthy hives.
The discovery will likely help put to rest rampant speculation about the source of the strange collapse in U.S.
bee populations.
Beekeepers in the United States began noticing slight declines in bee numbers in 2004. The scale of
deaths increased dramatically in the past year, with some apiaries losing up to 90 per cent of their hives.
The workers in colonies of the highly social insects would disappear without a trace.
The enormous scale of the destruction prompted worry that some new environmental threat might be killing
useful insects. Some speculated that the missing bees might have become disoriented by the recent
proliferation of radiation from cellphone towers and died while foraging for nectar. Others theorized that
new genetically modified crops were poisoning the bees.
But scientists who worked on the new research, which is being published in the current issue of Science
Express, now believe the most likely explanation is a new infectious agent.
"Our extensive study suggests that the Israeli acute paralysis may be a potential cause of colony collapse
disorder," said Ian Lipkin, an epidemiologist at Columbia University.
The death of bees had caused widespread alarm in the agricultural industry. Although most people
associate bees with honey, the insects are far more important for their role in pollinating crops. About 90
foods, ranging from apples to cucumbers, depend on bees to ensure that fruits and vegetables develop.
Any threat to bee numbers could affect the global food supply. An estimated $2-billion worth of crops in
Canada depend on honeybees for pollination, and about $15-billion in the United States, where the
collapse has already led to difficulties in pollinating crops.
The researchers also found the virus on live bees imported into the United States from Australia, and in
royal jelly samples from China. Royal jelly is the food bees produce for queens, but it is also sold as a
health food for humans.
The discovery of the virus has raised speculation that the United States inadvertently allowed it into the
country through the import of Australian bees. This was allowed in 2004, at the urging of the agricultural
industry, to boost the number of hives available for pollinating high-value crops such as almonds.
The import of the bees coincided with the first reports of unusual problems in bee colonies.
All the hives infected with the virus either used Australian bees, or were stored near colonies that imported
the insects.
To date, Canada has had no known cases of colony collapse disorder, said Danny Walker,
president of the Ontario Beekeepers' Association.
He said Canada doesn't allow the importation of entire bee colonies from Australia, although it does
allow apiaries to buy individual queens, which are then seeded into domestic hives.
Scientists who discovered the virus, and analyzed genes of micro-organisms found in bees, said
they do not know if the
1 of 2 11/22/2007 10:42 AM Document View
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/pqdweb?index=0&sid...
pathogen itself causes colonies to die off, or whether it weakens the bees and makes them more susceptible
to pesticides, poor nutrition and parasitic mites.
The virus was first described in Israel in 2004, leading to its name. Researchers there noted that
infected bees - which exhibited shivering wings and paralysis - would die just outside their hives.
One perplexing finding is that bees in Australia don't seem to be affected by colony collapse disorder.
The researchers speculated the reason might be that bees there are not infected with varroa mites,
which are found throughout in North America. The mites suppress the immune system of bees, making
them more vulnerable to other threats.
Credit: ENVIRONMENT REPORTER
Indexing (document details)
Author(s):
Martin Mittelstaedt
Document types:
News
Section:
Science
Publication title:
The Globe and Mail. Toronto, Ont.: Sep 7, 2007. pg. A.7
Source type:
Newspaper
ISSN:
03190714
ProQuest document ID: 1331789611 Text Word Count 682 Document URL:
http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/pqdweb?did=1331789611&sid=1
&Fmt=3&cl
ientId=12303&RQT=309&VName=PQD
Copyright © 2007 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved.