Candle Burning
Study
Issued:
September 15, 2011
© 2011 GAI Engineers
Table of Contents
GAI Engineers ……………..….……….………………………
1
Introduction ……………………….………………………......
2
Study Protocol ……….……….………………………….……
3
Study Photographs ……………………………….......……..
4
Study Data ………………………………………….…....……..
5
Conclusions ……………...…………………………………….. 6
References ……………...……………………………………..
7
GAI ENGINEERS
GAI Engineers is a forensic engineering firm specializing in origin and cause investigation, failure
analysis, accident reconstruction, and other technical support for insurance companies, law firms,
fire investigators, manufacturers and private parties throughout New England. Since our founding in
1934, GAI has investigated and resolved thousands of cases involving property loss, premise
liability, personal injury, and product liability.
At GAI, our mission is clear: Through rigorous investigation, objective analysis, reliable reporting,
accurate assessment, and unassailable expert testimony —we assist each client to understand and
solve complex technical problems, resolve claims and litigation, and mitigate or eliminate loss.
Working on behalf of insureds, claimants, plaintiffs, and defendants, GAI understands that client
needs usually stem from the demands of an insurance contract or legal dispute. Our engineers have
helped countless clients achieve cost-effective resolution of claims, maximum recovery from
subrogation, strong defense on insured liability, and favorable settlements on behalf of private
parties.
Experienced in litigation, GAI professionals provide legal support and expert testimony for
prosecutors, plaintiffs and defendants, product manufacturers, utilities, and insurers. Our engineers
assist as non-testifying experts in preparing and reviewing depositions, and evaluating technical
documents obtained through discovery. We also help determine the underlying cause of a loss, and
whether a reasonable basis for subrogation exists. As testifying witnesses, GAI effectively renders
opinions on topics ranging from electrical and mechanical engineering issues, to electrical fires, gas
explosions, and product design, manufacture, service, and installation. With valid scientific method
our hallmark, we successfully withstand Daubert motions and consistently qualify as expert
witnesses in state and federal courts on civil and criminal matters.
Since our inception, GAI has been continuously operated and locally owned by only two families —
a system that has ensured reliability, quality, and continuity of service for our clients. Today, under
the direction of Andrew J. Williams, P.E., GAI continues a longstanding tradition of responsive
service, accurate analysis, thorough reporting, and defensible presentation of findings and opinions
for insurers, attorneys, and private parties throughout New England and beyond.
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
Candles have been used throughout the world for thousands of years. The Romans are credited
with some of the first use of candles, fueled by tarrow, the rendering of animal fat. During the
Middle Ages, beeswax was used as a fuel and later, during the whaling days of the 18th century,
sperm whale fat was a commonly used fuel. It was during the 19th century that candle-making
became mechanized and paraffin wax began fueling candles.
Roughly 90% of candle manufacturer’s in the United States are members of the National Candle
Association (“NCA”). According to the NCA, more than 1 billion pounds of wax are used for
candle-making annually. About 7 out of 10 households use candles. Candles are burned most often
in the living room (42%), in the kitchen (18%) and in the bedroom (13%).
Though a burning candle may look simple, the chemistry and physics are quite complex. In 1861,
the famous English scientist, Michael Faraday, wrote “The Chemical History of the Candle” a series
of six lectures explaining how burning candles represent almost all natural phenomenons known to
mankind. Topics such as combustion and heat transfer both play a role. At the wick, molten wax is
vaporized and pyrolized (the larger molecule breaks down into smaller molecules due to heat).
These smaller molecules are combustible and mix with the surrounding air and heat to combust
(burn). The products of combustion are lighter than the surrounding cool air, causing the flame to
rise. The heat from combustion causes the solid wax near the wick to melt. The molten wax is
drawn up the wick due to capillary action, continuing the process.
The anatomy of a candle has not changed significantly since early times. All candles are constructed
with a solid fuel and wick. The most common solid fuel is petroleum-derived paraffin wax,
accounting for roughly 85% of all candles sold.
The term “paraffin” refers to the alkane family of hydrocarbons, with the general formula of
CnH2n+2. Paraffin wax usually refers to alkanes where 20≤n≤40, with the average being n=25.
Colorants and fragrances are the most common additives to candle wax.
Wicks are most often made from braided fibers of cotton. The thickness of the wick is directly
proportional to the burn rate. Wicks can have cores of paper or metal; these improve the structural
stability of the wick. Typical metals used are zinc and tin; lead was used for many years, but has
been banned for some time now. Wicks are usually tethered to the bottom of the candle using a
metal wick tab, with base diameters ranging from 15mm to 20 mm, and neck heights ranging from 3
mm to 9 mm.
A study of candle-related fires from 2004-2007 by the National Fire Protection Association revealed
there were 42 candle-related fires per day during that timeframe. About 20% of these candles were
left unattended. Roughly 1/3 of all of the candle-related fires occurred in a bedroom. Historically,
the occurrence of candle-related fires increased annually in the 1990’s, with 2001 having the most
candle-related fires at almost 19,000 that year. Since 2001, the number of annual candle fires has
decreased steadily.
Though the increase in candle-related fires in the 1990’s created concern, it should be noted that the
number of candles sold annually in that decade increased dramatically. In 1997, the Consumer
Product Safety Commission tasked the American Society of Materials and Technology to create a
Section 2
standard of safety for candles. Though six standards related to candle fire safety have been issued,
the most referenced standard is ASTM F2417 – 09, Standard Specification for Fire Safety for Candles.
This standard provides requirements for parameters such as flame height, secondary ignition,
container failure, stability, and others.
A cursory internet search of the burning characteristics of candles reveals tremendous variability of
burn times. Many websites suggest measuring the initial weight of a candle, burning it for 3-4 hours,
and then measuring the final weight; this yields an average burning rate to determine the ultimate
candle burn time. Other websites give burn times for various size candles. For a 22 ounce glass jar
candle, burn times were found ranging from 110 to 180 hours. For a 3x3 pillar candle, burn times
were found between 40 to 50 hours. For an 8” taper candle, burn times were found between 7 and
9 hours.
All fire investigators have encountered candles in their casework. One of the most common
questions asked of homeowners after a fire is about their use of candles. For various reasons, many
homeowners and occupants are reluctant to admit burning candles at the time of the fire. There are
sometimes questions as to whether a candle would have self-extinguished prior to the onset of fire,
or how much candle should be remaining based on a known burn time.
GAI set out to understand general burn times of a variety of candle types under normal conditions.
A test protocol was developed to encompass a wide variety of candle use scenarios. The burn time
of each candle and a sampling of burn rates were recorded.
Section 2
378 Page Street – Building 10
Stoughton, MA 02072-1141
[email protected]
Office: 781-297-3500
Fax: 781-297-7050
PROTOCOL
1.0
PROTOCOL TITLE:
Candle Burning Study
2.0
PROTOCOL LOCATION(S):
GAI Engineers
378 Page Street – Building 10
Stoughton, MA
3.0
PROTOCOL DATE & TIME:
Not Applicable
4.0
ORIGINATOR(S):
Andrew J Williams, P.E.
5.0
ORIGINATION DATE:
July 14, 2010
6.0
PURPOSE/SCOPE:
The purpose of this protocol is to study the combustion characteristics of burning candles. Various
type and brands of candles will be used. The fuel consumption versus time and end-of-life
performance will be evaluated.
7.0
TOOLS/ EQUIPMENT:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8.0
Six (6) Candles, Container - Small Glass Jar, French Vanilla Scented
Six (6) Candles, Container – Small Candleholder, Clean Linen Scented
Six (6) Candles, 8” Taper, White with Glass Candleholders
Six (6) Candles, 3” x 3” Pillar, White with Three (3) Metal Stands
Six (6) Candles, Votive, White, with Three (3) Glass Holders
Six (6) Candles, Tea Light Style with Metal Holders, White
PROCEDURE:
8.1
Photograph packaging and each candle. Number each candle with label maker.
Measure candle height and wick height for each candle.
8.2
Set up groups of candles on cementitious covered table under Fume Hood. Place
two layers of cotton paper towels under all groups of candles. Photograph each
candle group as well as overall table.
Forensic Engineering and Fire Investigation since 1934
Section 3
8.3
Light all candles using butane lighter. Measure height of each candle and
photograph each candle group at intervals of one hour for the first 8 hours. If any
candle self-extinguished prior to being consumed, note the candle number and
time and re-light. If candles are still burning at 8 hours, extinguish candle by
blowing out flame.
8.4
For candles that were extinguished, repeat Step 8.3 until candle is consumed. After
three 8 hour intervals, measurements and photographs need only be taken at the
end of the 8 hour interval.
8.5
Photograph each candle when consumed, including any damage to paper towels.
Section 3
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
1. Study, showing Glass Jar Container Candles.
2. Glass Jar Container Candles, showing Close-Up.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
3. Glass Jar Container Candles, showing Label.
4. Study, showing Glass Candleholder Container Candles.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
5. Glass Candleholder Container Candles, showing Close-Up.
6. Glass Candleholder Container Candles, showing Label.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
7. Study, showing Taper Candles.
8. Taper Candle, showing in Holder.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
9. Study, showing Pillar Candles.
10. Pillar Candles, showing on Holder.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
11. Study, showing Votive Candles.
12. Votive Candles, showing in Holder.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
13. Study, showing Tea-Light Candles.
14. Tea-Light Candles, showing Close-Up.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
15. Study, showing Set-Up prior to Lighting.
16. Study, showing Set-Up after Lighting.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
17. Set-Up, showing Glass Jar Container Candles after Lighting.
18. Set-Up, showing Glass Candleholder Container Candles after Lighting.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
19. Set-Up, showing Taper Candles after Lighting.
20. Set-Up, showing Pillar Candles after Lighting.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
21. Set-Up, showing Votive Candles after Lighting.
22. Set-Up, showing Tea-Light Candles after Lighting.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
23. Set-Up, showing Tea-Light Candles during Burning.
24. Set-Up, showing Taper Candles during Burning.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
25. Set-Up, showing Votive Candles during Burning.
26. Set-Up, showing Pillar Candles during Burning.
Section 4
CANDLE BURNING STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS
27. Set-Up, showing Glass Candleholder Container Candles during Burning.
28. Set-Up, showing Glass Jar Container Candles during Burning.
Section 4
Candle Burning Study - Burn Time
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Type
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Size
3.7 Ounce
3.7 Ounce
3.7 Ounce
3.7 Ounce
3.7 Ounce
3.7 Ounce
Color
Off-White
Off-White
Off-White
Off-White
Off-White
Off-White
Fragrance
French Vanilla
French Vanilla
French Vanilla
French Vanilla
French Vanilla
French Vanilla
Manufacturer
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Distributor
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Yankee Candle Company
Country
of Origin
United States
United States
United States
United States
United States
United States
Manufacturer's
Burn Time (Hours)
25-40
25-40
25-40
25-40
25-40
25-40
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Actual
Burn Time (Hours)
29.0
24.3
28.0
27.0
27.5
26.0
27.0
1.7
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Type
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Size
4 Ounce
4 Ounce
4 Ounce
4 Ounce
4 Ounce
4 Ounce
Color
White
White
White
White
White
White
Fragrance
Clean Linen
Clean Linen
Clean Linen
Clean Linen
Clean Linen
Clean Linen
Manufacturer
S.C. Johnson & Son
S.C. Johnson & Son
S.C. Johnson & Son
S.C. Johnson & Son
S.C. Johnson & Son
S.C. Johnson & Son
Distributor
Stop & Shop
Stop & Shop
Stop & Shop
Stop & Shop
Stop & Shop
Stop & Shop
Country
of Origin
Canada
Canada
Canada
Canada
Canada
Canada
Manufacturer's
Burn Time (Hours)
22
22
22
22
22
22
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Actual
Burn Time (Hours)
32.0
32.0
32.0
28.5
28.5
29.5
30.4
1.8
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Type
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Size
8"
8"
8"
8"
8"
8"
Color
White
White
White
White
White
White
Fragrance
None
None
None
None
None
None
Manufacturer
Target Brands
Target Brands
Target Brands
Target Brands
Target Brands
Target Brands
Distributor
Target
Target
Target
Target
Target
Target
Country
of Origin
Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam
Manufacturer's
Burn Time (Hours)
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Actual
Burn Time (Hours)
4.5
5
5
5.25
7
7
5.6
1.1
Sample
Number
1
2
3
Type
Pillar
Pillar
Pillar
Size
3" x 3"
3" x 3"
3" x 3"
Color
White
White
White
Fragrance
None
None
None
Manufacturer
Target Brands
Target Brands
Target Brands
Distributor
Target
Target
Target
Country
of Origin
Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam
4
5
6
Pillar - On Metal Plate
Pillar - On Metal Plate
Pillar - On Metal Plate
3" x 3"
3" x 3"
3" x 3"
White
White
White
None
None
None
Target Brands
Target Brands
Target Brands
Target
Target
Target
Manufacturer's
Burn Time (Hours)
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Vietnam
Unknown
Vietnam
Unknown
Vietnam
Unknown
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Actual
Burn Time (Hours)
35
24.5
14.75
24.8
10.1
29.5
31
31
30.5
0.9
Section 5
Candle Burning Study - Burn Time
Sample
Number
1
2
3
Type
Votive
Votive
Votive
Size
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
Color
White
White
White
Fragrance
None
None
None
Manufacturer
Greenbriar International
Greenbriar International
Greenbriar International
Distributor
Dollar Store
Dollar Store
Dollar Store
Country
of Origin
India
India
India
4
5
6
Votive - In Glass Holder
Votive - In Glass Holder
Votive - In Glass Holder
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
White
White
White
None
None
None
Greenbriar International
Greenbriar International
Greenbriar International
Dollar Store
Dollar Store
Dollar Store
India
India
India
Sample
Number
1
2
3
Type
Tea-Light
Tea-Light
Tea-Light
Size
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
Color
White
White
White
Fragrance
None
None
None
Manufacturer
Nantucket Distributing
Nantucket Distributing
Nantucket Distributing
Distributor
Christmas Tree Shops
Christmas Tree Shops
Christmas Tree Shops
Country
of Origin
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
4
5
6
Tea-Light - In Metal Holder
Tea-Light - In Metal Holder
Tea-Light - In Metal Holder
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
1.34 Ounce
White
White
White
None
None
None
Nantucket Distributing
Nantucket Distributing
Nantucket Distributing
Christmas Tree Shops
Christmas Tree Shops
Christmas Tree Shops
Section 5
Manufacturer's
Burn Time (Hours)
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Actual
Burn Time (Hours)
2.5
2.75
2.75
2.7
0.1
12.75
16
16
14.9
1.9
Manufacturer's
Burn Time (Hours)
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Thailand
Unknown
Thailand
Unknown
Thailand
Unknown
AVERAGE:
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Actual
Burn Time (Hours)
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.0
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
0.0
Candle Burning Study - Burn Rate
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Start Height
(Inches)
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Type
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
Container - Glass Jar
2
2.13
2.13
2.13
2.13
2.13
2.13
4
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
6
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
8
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
Height at Hour (Inches)
10
12
14
16
1.50
1.50
1.25
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.25
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.25
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.25
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.25
0.88
1.50
1.50
1.25
1.00
18
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
20
0.88
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.50
0.75
22
0.38
0.50
0.13
0.50
0.50
0.38
24
0.63
0.50
0.13
0.50
0.50
0.38
8
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.13
Height at Hour (Inches)
10
12
14
16
2.00
1.75
1.25
1.25
1.75
1.63
1.25
1.25
1.75
1.63
1.25
1.13
1.75
1.63
1.25
1.00
1.75
1.63
1.13
1.00
1.75
1.63
1.25
1.25
18
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
20
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
22
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.13
1.25
1.25
24
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.13
1.25
1.25
8
E
E
E
E
E
E
Height at Hour (Inches)
10
12
14
16
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
18
E
E
E
E
E
E
20
E
E
E
E
E
E
22
E
E
E
E
E
E
24
E
E
E
E
E
E
Minimum Burn Rate: -0.25 Inches/Hour
Maximum Burn Rate: 0.75 Inches/Hour
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Start Height
(Inches)
3
3
3
3
3
3
Type
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
Container - Glass Candleholder
2
2.38
2.38
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
4
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
6
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.13
Minimum Burn Rate: -0.63 Inches/Hour
Maximum Burn Rate: 0.87 Inches/Hour
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Start Height
(Inches)
8
8
8
8
8
8
Type
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Taper - In Crystal Holder
Minimum Burn Rate:
Maximum Burn Rate:
2
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
4.50
1.50
4.50
4
1.00
2.00
2.00
2.25
3.00
3.00
6
E
E
E
E
0.75
0.50
Inches/Hour
Inches/Hour
KEY: C = Could not be Measured E = Extinguished
Section 5
Candle Burning Study - Burn Rate
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Start Height
(Inches)
3
3
3
3
3
3
Type
Pillar
Pillar
Pillar
Pillar - On Metal Plate
Pillar - On Metal Plate
Pillar - On Metal Plate
2
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
4
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
6
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
8
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
Height at Hour (Inches)
10
12
14
16
1.50
1.75
1.25
1.13
1.50
1.75
1.25
1.13
1.50
1.25
1.25
C
1.50
1.25
1.25
1.13
1.25
1.75
1.25
1.38
1.50
1.75
1.25
1.38
18
C
C
C
C
C
C
20
C
C
C
C
C
C
22
C
C
C
C
C
C
24
C
C
C
C
C
C
8
E
E
E
0.50
1.00
1.00
Height at Hour (Inches)
10
12
14
16
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
0.50
0.38
E
E
0.75
0.38
0.13
C
0.75
0.38
0.13
C
18
E
E
E
E
E
E
20
E
E
E
E
E
E
22
E
E
E
E
E
E
24
E
E
E
E
E
E
8
E
E
E
E
E
E
Height at Hour (Inches)
10
12
14
16
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
18
E
E
E
E
E
E
20
E
E
E
E
E
E
22
E
E
E
E
E
E
24
E
E
E
E
E
E
Minimum Burn Rate: -0.50 Inches/Hour
Maximum Burn Rate: 1.00 Inches/Hour
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Start Height
(Inches)
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
Type
Votive
Votive
Votive
Votice - In Glass Holder
Votice - In Glass Holder
Votice - In Glass Holder
Minimum Burn Rate:
Maximum Burn Rate:
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Start Height
(Inches)
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Type
Tea-Light
Tea-Light
Tea-Light
Tea-Light - In Metal Holder
Tea-Light - In Metal Holder
Tea-Light - In Metal Holder
Minimum Burn Rate:
Maximum Burn Rate:
2
0.75
1.00
0.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.00
1.00
2
E
E
E
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
4
E
E
E
1.00
1.00
1.00
6
E
E
E
0.50
1.00
1.00
Inches/Hour
Inches/Hour
4
E
E
E
E
E
E
6
E
E
E
E
E
E
Inches/Hour
Inches/Hour
KEY: C = Could not be Measured E = Extinguished
Section 5
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the candle burning study demonstrate some of the challenges of understanding how
candles burn.
Both candles that listed burn times burned at least as long as their rating, with the glass candleholder
container candle burning almost 50% longer than their rating
The height of the container candles and the votive candles in candleholders were difficult to
measure. Wax accumulated along the upper edges of the container and then melted down later due
to flame impingement. As expected, over the 24 hour recording period for candle heights, all
candles showed a downward trend.
Candles without containment burned much differently than when contained. Without containment,
the votive and tea-light candles softened and spread, reducing the amount of fuel available to the
wick.
The taller candles without containment tended to melt down extremely unevenly. The pillar candle
typically had one section of the sidewall melt open. The taper candles had significant wax melt that
was never consumed.
Though all candles were burned until extinguishment, none ignited their cotton paper towels. No
candles experienced container failure or secondary ignition.
In summary, this study has established some baseline burn times for a variety of candles. The burn
rate of most candle types with respect to their height is extremely variable. It appears that burn rate
is only reliable in taper candles.
Section 6
REFERENCES
1. Ahrens, Marty, Home Candle Fires, National Fire Protection Association – Fire Analysis and
Research Edition, June 2010.
2. ASTM F2417-09, Standard Specification for Fire Safety for Candles, published by ASTM
International, Issued 2009.
3. Matthai, Michael, and Petereit, Norbert, The Quality Candle, SOFW Journal, Volume 130,
Number 10, 2004.
4. Hamins, Anthony, Bundy,Matthew, and Dillon, Scott, Characterization of Candle Flames,
Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, Volume 15, Number 4, November 2005.
5. National Candle Association website, About Candles, Researched September 2011.
6. Faraday, Michael, The Chemical History of a Candle, Given at Royal Institution of Great Britain,
1860-1861.
Section 7
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