KOREAN TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS
GRADES: 9-12
AUTHOR: Anne Lyons
SUBJECT: History
TIME REQUIRED: Three class periods
OBJECTIVES:
1. Recognize the contributions that Korea had on various scientific innovations and its role in
the diffusion of this technology to other East Asian countries.
2. Reflect upon contemporary Korean innovation within the context of its historical
achievements.
3. Analyze the role of interdependence and independence on technological advances.
4. Assess the bias of scholarship and study towards Chinese and Western technologies.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
• Charts I and II (attached)
• Handouts 1-6 (attached)
• Poster board
• Scissors
• Glue stick
• Markers/colored pencils
• Visual models on computers (see website references below), books or pictures of
technological innovations
BACKGROUND:
While contemporary South Korea is an acknowledged world leader in IT and other technological
developments, little work has been done to trace Korea’s history of technological innovations.
Often overshadowed by the renown of Chinese (especially Han and Tang Dynasties) technologies,
Korea’s contributions in the fields of communication, astronomy, weapons, architecture, and
agriculture have been often overlooked. According to the Japanese Dictionary of Science and
Technology (1983), of the 62 recorded scientific achievements of the period between 1400-1450
(during the reign of King Sejong), 29 were made in Korea, 5 in China, 0 in Japan, and 28 in the rest
of the world. Thus, Korea not only had a significant role in technological innovation, but at times
even led the world in its development. Korea produced xylographic printing during the Silla
kingdom (perhaps independently from China) spreading it to Japan by 770 and later invented the
earliest movable metallic type, spreading it to Yuan China in the 13th and 14th centuries and to
Japan by the 16th century. In the field of military advances, Korea is accredited with inventing the
world’s first ironclad warship, timed explosive devices and a multi-rocket launcher. Korea
developed the world’s oldest star chart and astronomical observatory. Architectural innovations
include not only a method of preserving wood blocks that cannot be improved upon even with
contemporary science (Tripitaka building) but also an underfloor heating system dating to as early
as 1000 BCE that is still in use in Korea today. In the field of agriculture, Korean innovations
include the world’s oldest rain gauge and first active greenhouse built on modern standards of
controlling air and soil temperature.
In understanding Korea’s history of innovation, students will gain a greater insight into how Korea
was able to maintain an independent spirit of scientific inquiry despite having powerful and
influential neighbors. Students will see that, far from being a simple “land bridge” of culture and
technology from China to Japan, Korea acted as the creator and conduit of knowledge throughout
East Asia. They will gain an appreciation of how Korea’s current technological success,
rebounding from the trials of the Korean War and years of Japanese imperialism, is not a novel
aberration, but in fact a documented history of technological progress imbued in Korea’s innate
strong work ethic and emphasis on education.
PROCEDURE:
1. Give students “Chart I: World Technological Discoveries/Inventions” to complete with a
partner for 5 minutes in order to reveal their prior conceptions of technological innovations.
Discuss and debate merits of each choice together as a class. Identify how many of their
listed innovations originated in the west and ask them why they were chosen. Ask students
what they know about Korean technology, reminding them of Hyundai/Kia cars, LG
electronics, Samsung mobile phones, etc. If students are not able to identify ancient
technological developments, ask them why it is more difficult to come up with examples.
2. Give students “Chart II: Summary of Korean Innovations” and divide the class into 6
groups. For each group, provide one of the Handouts 1-6. Students in each group should
read their specific handouts, orally discuss the technology, and summarize the information
on Chart II. Jig-saw the groups and have students share their knowledge on a specific
innovation with new group members. Bring students back together as a class and review
the importance of each innovation.
3. Have each group create part of an annotated and illustrated timeline of Korean technology.
Encourage students to design their group timeline in the form of a Korean technological
theme (example Ch’ŏmsŏngdae observatory, iron clad ship, or sand-mold form for
moveable type, etc.). Ask students to provide a brief written summary, date(s), and
hand-drawn or digital illustration of each innovation on the timeline.
4. Identify a student from each group to present their timeline and tell the class what they
think the most impressive technological innovation that the Koreans developed was and
why.
5. Discuss as a class the role that technological innovations had on developing Korean
cultural identity and Korea’s role in the East Asian region. Have students evaluate the
importance that current technological development has on shaping the history and
economic viability of countries. Ask students whether understanding the role of Korea’s
technological development has altered their conception of the dominance of the west in
global technological achievements.
EVALUATION:
Students will be assessed on the production of the timeline, oral presentation, and an in-class essay
asking them to discuss role of Korea in technological innovations.
ENRICHMENT:
After having discussed the European Scientific and Industrial Revolutions, students will be asked
to write a reflective essay evaluating the comparative importance of eastern vs. western
technologies – underscoring the importance of global interaction and historical contributions in the
advancement of science. This will help call into question the commonly-held view that science
and technology owe their origins and development to the Western world of the second millennium.
For visual learners, consider having the students draw a map demonstrating the spread of scientific
contributions - how various technologies spread throughout Asia and then into Europe and any
European technologies that spread into Asia. This would put Korean technologies into a global
context and show how these innovations were not created in a vacuum.
REFERENCES:
Bak, Hae-Ill. “A Short Note on the Iron-clad Turtle boats of Admiral Yi Sun-sin.” Korea Journal
17 (1977): 34-39.
Chon, Sang-un. “Astronomy and Meterology in Korea.” Korea Journal 13 (1973): 13-39.
Chon, Sang-Un. “Korean Printing with Movable Metal Type.” Korea Journal 11: (1971): 4-10.
Chun, Youngsin and Sang-woon Jeon. “Meteorological Instruments of 15th century in Korea.”
Meteorological Research Institute, KMA, Seoul, Korea.
http://www.meteohistory.org/2004polling_preprints/docs/abstracts/chun_abstract.pdf.
Cultural Property Administration “National Heritage—Tripitaka Koreana at Haeinsa Temple”
Cultural Heritage Administration http://www.ocp.go.kr/english/treasure/dom_hae.html
Korean Spirit & Culture Promotion Project Fifty Wonders of Korea—Volume 2: Science and
Technology. Seoul: Diamond Sutra Recitation Group, 2008.
CHART I: WORLD TECHNOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES/INVENTIONS
What are the world’s most important innovations – the ones we needed to get us to where we are
today? (Be sure to think about innovations throughout history). On the chart below, identify what
you think are the world’s most important innovations in each category. Why do you think that the
innovation was important and by whom and when do you think the innovation was made? Don’t be
afraid to be wrong – there are many right answers.
Field of Innovation
What was most
important innovation?
Why was invention
important?
Medical
Example - microscope
Allowed bacteria and
other microorganisms to
be identified to correctly
diagnose diseases
Military
Architectural
Astronomical
Agricultural
Communications
Transportation
Where and when
invented?
Europe - 16th
century CE
CHART II: SUMMARY OF KOREAN INNOVATIONS
Using handouts 1-6, identify Korean innovations in each category, including dates, importance
and areas of cultural diffusion.
Summary of Innovations(s):
Military
Architectural
Astronomical
Agricultural
Communications
Transportation
Date(s)
Why were inventions
important?
Diffusion to
another region?
HANDOUT 1: XYLOGRAPHIC & MOVABLE METAL TYPE
A description in the Darani scripture, discovered in 1966 at the Sŏkka pagoda in the Pulguk
Temple in Kyŏngju, identifies that the original printing of that document dates to the period from
704 to 751, thus proving it to be the oldest printed material known to the world. Xylographic (or
woodblock) printing began in China somewhere between 712 and 756 during the peak of the Tang
dynasty. It is reasonable that there was some technological exchanges during this time since the
Silla Kingdom of Korea was in close contact with Tang China. It is impossible to say with the
limited resources available which country was the originator of the technology or whether they
developed it in tandem or independently. The motivation behind Korea’s introduction of
xylographic printing can be easily traced to its need to quickly reproduce Buddhist texts to help
solidify the new reign of the kingdom. It can be said with some certainly that Japan learned the
xylographic printing technique from Korea when it produced it own copy of the Darani scripture in
770. Xylographic printing in Korea will reach its peak with the production and completion of the
80,000 wood blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana in 1087. That document was created in response to a
national crisis caused by the invasion of the northern Khitanese people. The Koryŏ people believed
that Buddha would come help repel the invaders if they began this project. The original Tripitaka
would be destroyed by a fire during the Mongol invasion and then recut in 1236—again to repel
invasion. The current document is the largest set of the oldest woodcuts known in the world today.
Image— “World Heritage Site: Tripitaka Koreana,” http://80000.or.kr/eng/main/
While China introduced wooden type in the 11th century, the Korean people developed the world’s
first metallic type by applying metal working techniques to the Chinese wooden technology.
Korea during the Koryŏ Kingdom was motivated to introduce bronze working due to its shortage
of wood suitable for woodcut or wooden type and the difficulties of importing books
from China during the war between Sung and Kin in mainland China. The earliest recorded print
using metal type were 28 copies of the Sangjŏng Kogŭm Yemun in 1234. The oldest extant (still
existing) movable metal print book is the Pulcho Chikchi Simch’e Yojŏl (Chikchi), printed in
Korea in 1377. These metal prints, however, lacked
the beauty of the Chinese woodblocks and would
not gain in popularity until the reign of King
T’aejong of the Yi Dynasty whose desire for the
expansion of Confucian education encouraged the
use of metallic printing in order to publish works as
quickly as possible. A decree by T’aejong in 1403
stated: “Our country is far away from China cross
the sea, and it is not easy for us, therefore, to import
books from China. Moreover, woodblocks are easily
broken and pose many problems in printing many
copies of a book. We cannot print with woodcuts all
the books we need. Under the circumstances, I have
ordered the government to cast bronze type so that it
can print any and every book it comes across for
Image—Chikchi, 1377.
those wishing to read books.”
A description by Song Kyŏn (1439-1504) describes the process of bronze type cast: “In casting
type, the first step is to engrave letters on a boxwood plate. Fine waterside sand is then spread
uniformly on the surface of another plate. Next, the engraved plate (mold) is pressed upon the
other plate, so that letters can be impressed upon the layer of sand. Then molten bronze is
poured into the interstices of the two plates to cast type.” This is the same process Gutenberg
will use for casting moveable type for his 42-line Bible in 1455.
The movable type introduced in Korea in the early 15th century will be taken to Japan after its
invasion of Korea and its destruction of the Office of Type Casting and Printing in the
Kyŏngbok Palace in the 16th century. Moveable metal type will be invented in 1490 in China
by Hua Sui, but there is no clear evidence that China was influenced in its development by
either Korea or Western Europe.
Contemporary Communication Technologies:
Since the financial crisis of 1997, Korea has made a determined push to be transformed into a
high-tech powerhouse. Korea was the first country to make high-speed internet available in every
school. In 2006, KT Corp, Korea’s largest fixed-line telephone and internet service provider,
introduced the Wireless Broadband Internet (WiBro) allowing for wireless service anywhere at
broadband speeds – in essence, Korea invented the sixth 3G communication standard. In 2005,
Korea invented digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) whereby multimedia (radio, TV and
datacasting) are transferred to mobile devices.
Reference: Chon, Sang-Un. “Korean Printing with Movable Metal Type”. Korea Journal 11:
(1971): 4-10.
“Science & Technology in the 21st Century” in Fifty Wonders of Korea—Volume 2: Science and
Technology. Edited by Korean Spirit & Culture Promotion Project., 158-160. Seoul:
Diamond Sutra Recitation Group, 2008
HANDOUT 2: SHIP BUILDING
Kŏbuksŏn or “Turtle Ship”
The ‘Turtle Ship’ was the world’s first iron-armored warship and won many sea battles against
large numbers of enemy ships by means of superior fire-power and structural design. It was
completed and used for the first time by Admiral Yi Sun-sin in the 16th century. With its
exceptional capabilities and fire power, it played an active role in almost all the sea battles of the
Imjin War (1592~1598). Able to charge and break up the enemy fleet’s formation, sinking ships
within minutes, the kŏbuksŏn was effectively a sea tank.
Our knowledge of the boat’s reconstruction comes from various sources, including the Complete
Writings of Admiral Yi, which was edited some 200 years after Yi Sun-sin’s death. One passage of
this work describes the general structure of the vessel: “...under the threat of the coming Japanese
invasion, I specifically built a turtle-boat, with a dragon-head mounted at the bow, through the
mouth of which one fires cannons, and with the back roof deck studded with iron spikes against
enemy boarders. The crew inside can observe the enemy outside, but cannot be seen from outside.”
The interior of the ship consisted of three floors: the lower floor was used to store cargo, the
middle floor kept the rowers, and the top floor was the gun deck. Cannons were placed at every
angle on the ship, and the ‘dragon’s head’ emitted smoke to provide cover and distraction. The
ship was well-suited for ramming, as it was sturdier than the enemy ships thanks to the red pine
timber and the use of wooden nails which expanded as they absorbed seawater. The enhanced
structural integrity also enabled it to carry heavier cannons than the enemy, with greater range.
Image— below: model conception of iron clad ship.
Right: replica of the Kŏbuksŏn. The War Memorial
of Korea.
Contemporary Ship Building:
With a history of innovation on the sea, Koreans are now at the forefront of the world’s
shipbuilding industry in the 21st century. According to a report released in February 2006 by
Clarkson Research Studies, Korean companies appear to have taken as much as 35% of the world
market, and over 70% of the high value-added ships market, or ships which use cutting edge
technology, such as 10,000 TEU class super-sized container ships, Floating Production Storage
and Offloading (FPSO) vessels, and LNG carriers.
In 2007, Samsung Heavy Industries developed the world’s first forward-and-reverse directional
icebreaker, for use in the Polar Regions. The vessel made it possible to break a path through the ice
which covers the North Pole region whilst transporting cargo at the same time, rather than using
two separate ships. Even in extreme situations and arctic temperatures, it was capable not only of
cutting through a field of ice 1.57 meters deep, but also able to turn 360 degrees.
Korean shipbuilding companies can build ships on the water, without the need for dry docks. At
one point, under pressure from excessive demand, Samsung Heavy Industries ran out of dock
space. After careful planning, it developed the world’s first large-scale ‘floating dock’. The huge
building blocks of the ship were assembled on the surface of a special barge, and when the ship
was completely built, the barge was sunk so that the ship was left floating.
Hyundai Heavy Industries, the world’s largest shipbuilder, launches a new ship approximately
every five days – some with 15 levels and stretching the length of three football fields. Hyundai
Heavy Industries was the first to build a vessel on land, which it claimed was a breakthrough. This
‘on ground building’ method frees ships from the tights constraints of a dry dock, allowing them to
be built in bigger sections at a time. If development of innovative technologies such as this
continues, the Korean shipbuilding industry is likely to keep its lead in the world.
Image—vessel built on land
by Hyundai Heavy Industries
Reference:
Bak, Hae-Ill. “A Short Note on the Iron-clad
Turtle boats of Admiral Yi Sun-sin”.
Korea Journal 17 (1977): 34-39.
“Kobukson or ‘Turtle Ship’ in Fifty Wonders of
Korea—Volume 2: Science and
Technology. Edited by Korean Spirit &
Culture Promotion Project., 68-73.
Seoul: Diamond Sutra Recitation
Group, 2008.
HANDOUT 3: ARTILLERY TECHNOLOGY
Sin’gijŏn -15th Century Rocket Artillery:
There are records of gunpowder or saltpeter firearms being used in Korea as early as the 7th century
CE during the battle of Pukhansan Castle, a century earlier than found in China. During the Koryŏ
Kingdom (918~1392), because wars with the nomadic tribes of Kitans, Jurchens, Mongols, and the
wako pirates were so frequent, many new weapons were developed. Gunpowder and related
artillery technology took huge strides forward to ensure Korea’s security. Advances were made by
Choi Mu-son, the inventor of naval artillery, who developed 18 different firearms, including a
self-propelled arrow called chuhwa, which later in the 15th century became a rocket called
sin’gijŏn that produced a deafening noise in flight, discharging much fire and smoke and detonated
upon impact. It won Korea key victories in the war against the invading Japanese. The sin’gijŏn
consisted of an arrow, which formed the body of the rocket, an ignition-barrel carrying the
explosive, and a fuel-barrel containing the rocket propellant. The ignition barrel and fuel-barrel
were attached to the arrow, and when it was fired, it was propelled firstly by the fuel-barrel
propellant, and then by the ignition-barrel, much like a two-stage rocket. The rocket would
explode when it reached the enemy target up to 1000 meters away. For more than 300 years since
its development in 1448, the sin’gijŏn was the world’s largest and most powerful rocket.
Image—Small and medium sized sin’gijŏn. The War Memorial of Korea.
Hwaja— Mobile Multi-Rocket Launcher:
The power of the 15th century sin’gijŏn rocket was taken to a new level by the hwaja launcher, a
radical device which could fire 100 sin’gijŏn rockets in a single volley. The launcher consisted of
100 rectangular prisms arranged in seven rows. The prisms were 56 mm wide and 234 mm long,
and each contained a cylindrical hole 47 mm in diameter. Each of these 100 holes was loaded with
a medium or small-sized sin’gijŏn. By connecting together the fuses of the sin’gijŏn, the hwaja
launcher was capable of firing its entire load of projectiles with a single ignition, a truly
revolutionary system at the time. A more robust version was later developed by King Munjong in
1451 that had shields installed on either side to protect the gunner, and steel plates built into the
launch pad of the sin’gijŏn, as a
precaution against the risk of fire. The
hwaja could be angled at 45 degrees,
the ideal angle for gunpowder-based
weapons. Its platform had only two
wheels for greater transport across any
terrain. It was thus the world’s first
mobile launcher vehicle.
Image—Replica of Hwaja. The War
Memorial of Korea.
Pigyŏkchinch’ŏlloe - World’s First Time Bomb:
Launched into enemy camps and formations using the Wangu mortar, the pigyŏkchinch’ŏlloe
(literally meaning ‘shaking the heavens with lightning and thunder’) was the world’s first timed
explosive device. It was developed by Yi Chang-son during the Imjin War of the 16th century, and
used to great effect by the Chosŏn commanders. The bombs inflicted both damage and terror upon
the enemy, who assumed that supernatural forces were at work. It fired various types of projectiles,
such as rocks or metal balls, and was used to destroy castle walls or attack an enemy stationed
behind a barrier. Spherical in shape and weighing about 12 kg, the pigyŏkchinch’ŏllae was cast
using pig iron, and gunpowder
and metal shrapnel were placed
inside. The ignition device
differed from regular explosives.
It consisted of a bamboo
cylinder with grooves carved in
a spiral fashion, and the
detonating fuse wound around
the indentations. The time-delay
before detonation was determined by the length of the fuse:
the fuse was wound 10 times for
th
a swift explosion, and 15 times if Image—Pigyŏkchinch’ŏllae, 16 century, The War Memorial
of Korea.
a longer delay was required.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Reference: Fifty Wonders of Korea—Volume 2: Science and Technology. Edited by Korean
Spirit & Culture Promotion Project., 59-67. Seoul: Diamond Sutra Recitation Group,
2008.
HANDOUT 4: AGRICULTURAL INNOVATIONS
Ch’ŭgugi—The World’s First Rain Gauge:
Ch’ŭgugi, completed in 1442, was the world’s first rain
gauge (200 years earlier than that in Italy), and has yet
to be improved upon by modern science. It allowed
precise measurements of rainfall to be taken all around
the country over a period of 400 years. The Confucian
values of Korea encouraged an understanding of
nature, but the rain gauge was also useful for
agricultural purposes. The ch’ŭgugi was divided into
three parts and used a scale called chuch’ŏk. King
Sejong established the first rain gauge network (at
every district office) over the Korean peninsula.
Measuring 43 cm deep and 17 cm across, the gauge
provided a scientific measurement of rainfall One
historical document points to the origin of this
invention. The text, called the ''True Record of the
Chosŏn Dynasty,'' describes a prince who worried
about drought. At that time, rainfall was measured by
digging to see how far the moisture had soaked the
earth. However, this was not accurate enough. So the
king ordered equipment made from copper to be
installed in the royal court for this purpose. At a time
when farming was the economic mainstay, droughts
and floods could destroy a whole harvest of crops. For
villages and their families, a correct rainfall reading
added up to a matter of survival. During the Japanese Image—A Ch’ŭgugi model from 1770
invasion of Korea in 1592, the ch’ŭgugi system was
largely destroyed
World’s First “Active” Greenhouse:
Greenhouses have existed since ancient times. It was not known until recently, that the first
greenhouse conforming to modern standards – allowing for adjustment of air and soil temperature
– was built in Korea during the 15th century. The nation’s oldest surviving manual of farming and
cookery techniques, San’ga Yorok, was written in the year 1450 by the medical officer Chŏn
Sun-ŭi, during the reign of King Sejong. Remarkably, the book contained descriptions of a
greenhouse conforming to sophisticated modern standards. San’ga Yorok explains the process by
which it was built in a chapter entitled “Growing Vegetables During Winter”:
First of all, construct an enclosure of an appropriate size. The northern, eastern, and
western sides of the enclosure should be opaque, and covered with oiled-paper. Install a
lattice-window in the wall that faces south, and cover it with oiled-paper also. Lay the
kudle stone, taking care that no smoke is allowed to escape from beneath it. Deposit soil to
a height of 1 1/2 cha, and plant spring vegetables. Ensure that no wind enters at night, and
when the weather is very cold, always cover the building with a thick pigae [a straw-mat
used for agricultural purposes], and remove it immediately when the cold has abated.
Water the soil every day to ensure that it does not become dry. Place a cauldron outside,
and connect it to the room using a long tube. Boil the cauldron each evening, so that the
steam from the cauldron keeps the room comfortably warm.
The greenhouse described in this book was designed to regulate the temperature and humidity
requirements of plants and crops in a very precise manner. Heat was supplied by means of a kudŭl,
a traditional Korean method of heating. The oiled hanji paper made it possible to raise the inner
temperature and control ventilation and humidity. One feature of the greenhouse that particularly
impressed horticulturalists and academics is the process by which the kudŭl would automatically
raise the temperature of the soil as the boiling water from the cauldron warmed the air. Even if the
air inside was warm, if the soil was not warm enough, the growth of the plants would be slower.
The importance of keeping the roots of a plant warm was therefore understood in Korea during the
15th century.
Image—Exterior of the reconstructed 15th century greenhouse
_______________________________________________________
Reference:
Chun, Youngsin and Sang-woon Jeon. “Meteorological Instruments of 15th century in Korea.”
Meteorological Research Institute, KMA, Seoul, Korea.
http://www.meteohistory.org/2004polling_preprints/docs/abstracts/chun_abstract.pdf.
“Ch’ŭkugi: The World’s First Rain Gauge” in Fifty Wonders of Korea—Volume 2: Science and
Technology. Edited by Korean Spirit & Culture Promotion Project., 74-77. Seoul:
Diamond Sutra Recitation Group, 2008.
“The World’s First ’Active’ Greenhouse” in Fifty Wonders of Korea—Volume 2: Science and
Technology. Edited by Korean Spirit & Culture Promotion Project., 153-157. Seoul:
Diamond Sutra Recitation Group, 2008.
HANDOUT 5: ARCHITECTURAL INNOVATIONS
Changgyŏnggak—Depository of Tripitaka Koreana Woodblocks:
Two wooden depositories known as the Changgyŏnggak were built in the 15th century to store the
Tripitaka Koreana (a classic collection of Buddhist teachings, sutras and rules carved onto 80,000
wooden blocks in the 13th century) after the printing blocks were moved to Haein Temple. The
design of these buildings have perfectly preserved the Tripitaka for the last 600 years despite the
dual challenges of weather and war. In the 1970s, President Park Chung Hee ordered the
construction of a cement depository equipped with modern preservation devices including those to
control ventilation, temperature and humidity. Nevertheless, mildew was found on a test block
soon after it was transferred to the modern facility. Modern science cannot compete with the
design of the original Changgyŏnggak.
The two wooden depositories stand at
the highest level of the temple
compound on the southwestern
midslope of Mt. Kaya, 655 meters
above sea level. At this altitude and
facing this direction, the buildings can
avoid the damp southeasterly and cold
northern winds and are never fully in
the shade. The buildings themselves
also are planned on a theory of
hydrodynamics and air flow. Two
rows of open grill windows are divided
by a central molding on the front and
back walls. The windows of the front
lower row are approximately 4 times
larger than those of the upper row, while the windows of the back upper row are approximately 1.5
times larger than those of the lower row. This combination allows for a constant circulation of
fresh air. In addition, the storage halls have clay floors with layers of salt, charcoal and lime
underneath to absorb excess humidity during the rainy summer months. The buildings’ ability to
deter insects and birds, however, remains a mystery.
Ondol—Traditional Underfloor Heating System:
Because Korea's history of heating technology goes back to prehistoric times, it is impossible to be
precise about the ondol's date of origin. However, early forms of ondol, also known as kudŭl, have
been discovered in excavated residential sites from the Old Chosŏn period (BC 2333~BC 108),
and academics believe it was used from this time onward. Ondol was mankind's first form of
underfloor heating. The Roman hypocaust was similar to the ondol, but was used mainly at public
bath-houses. In the case of a traditional ondol heating system, heat from the furnace is transferred
to the stone slab (the ondol stone) via a network of flues, with smoke from the fire allowed out
through the chimney located at the opposite end. The floor is supported by stone piers, with the
ondol stone placed on top.
The secret of the lasting warmth of the ondol lies in the stone itself, mica. Mica is a mineral
commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. The ‘white’ variety of mica can withstand
temperatures of 400~500 °C, and because its thermal conductivity is low, it retains heat for a long
time and releases it gradually. It is then covered with clay and overlaid with yellow-colored oiled
hanji flooring-paper. Due to the comfort of the underfloor heating system, Koreans would eat and
sleep next to the floor which led them to the custom of removing shoes before entering a person’s
home. The popularity of this underfloor heating has continued today in many modern apartment
complexes and homes in Korea. The style of heating was quickly copied by the Chinese and
Japanese. Frank L. Wright in a visit to Japan in 1910 discovered this Korean heating style and was
impressed enough by it that he began to design his own contemporary American homes with a
similar plan, using hot water pipes.
Image—Above: Side view and ground plan of
the traditional ondol system. Left: An ornate
chimney at Ch’angdŏk Palace.
___________________________________________________________________________
Reference:
“Kudul: Traditional Underfloor Heating” in Fifty Wonders of Korea—Volume 2: Science and
Technology. Edited by Korean Spirit & Culture Promotion Project., 144-152. Seoul:
Diamond Sutra Recitation Group, 2008.
Cultural Property Administration “National Heritage—Tripitaka Koreana at Haeinsa Temple”
Cultural Heritage Administration http://www.ocp.go.kr/english/treasure/dom_hae.html
HANDOUT 6: INNOVATIONS IN ASTRONOMY
Early astronomy was important to ancient East Asians for religious and astrological purposes
(determining the destiny of a state and its rulers) as well for agricultural and scientific reasons.
Korea stands at the forefront of many astronomical observations and innovations. Two-thirds of
the world’s dolmens are found on the Korean peninsula, many of which have astronomical
markings; these markings have been shown to predate Babylonian constellation drawings,
previously regarded as man’s first astronomical records. Any study of historical astronomical
events would be incomplete without the records provided by the Three Kingdoms which not only
include observations on eclipses and comets found in Chinese, Japanese and Western European
sources, but ones discovered exclusively by the Koreans. During the Silla Kingdom, Koreans were
heavily influenced by Chinese astronomical practices and acted as a conduit of knowledge to
Japan (two Paekche scholars in 602 lay the foundation for Japan’s astronomical study). By the
time of the Koryŏ and Chosŏn Kingdoms, however, Korea acted more independently sending
experts to study in China, but designing construction projects and a calendar based on their own
observations and needs.
Ch’ŏmsŏngdae, the world’s oldest observatory:
In 1982, the Guinness Book of World Records identified Ch’ŏmsŏngdae in Kyŏngju as the world’s
earliest astronomical building. The astronomical observatory was constructed around 632 during
the reign of Queen Sŏndŏk. The bottle-shaped granite tower stands 9.108 meters high was
modeled after an earlier non-extant observatory from the Paekche Kingdom and was later used as
the basis for the construction of an observatory in Asuka, Japan in 675 and the Duke Zhou’s
observatory in China in 723. Most scholars agree that the building would have had multiple
purposes as an observatory, including that of a compass since the square base is correctly parallel
to the four directions – east, west, north and south.
This serene and beautiful building was designed
with great care, so that the parts and the whole
both carried an astronomical meaning.
Ch’ŏmsŏngdae’s square summit and circular
body reflect the traditional concept that the sky
is round and the earth is square. The structure
comprises of 29 layers of stone, corresponding
to the 29.5 days in a lunar month counted from
one crescent moon to the next. The 27 layers of
the cylindrical body represent the time taken for
the moon to revolve once around the earth (27.3
days). The number of stones from the ground to
this layer is 365. There are 12 layers of stone
above and below the window at the center of the
observatory, symbolizing the 12 months of the
year, and together representing the 24 seasonal
divisions. The number of stone slabs supporting
the structure at the base is also 12.
Ch’ŏnsangyŏlch’abunyajido – World’s Oldest Planispheric Star Map:
An important legacy of the astronomy of
Koguryŏ can be found on the Planispheric star
map entitled Ch’ŏnsangyŏlch’abunyajido
(literally ‘the natural order of the heavenly
bodies and the regions they govern’).
According to the explanation on the marble,
“There was a rock-engraved constellation
chart in Koguryŏ’s P’yŏngyang Fortress, but
it was lost during the Chinese invasion and
only a rubbed copy remains.” This means that
what was recorded on the Koguryŏ
constellation chart can also be seen in the
planisphere, which copied it; it depicts all
1,467 stars visible to the naked eye from the
Korean peninsula. The time period implied
by the stellar positions on the map is the first
century CE, this makes it the oldest complete Image - Rubbed copy of the Ch’ŏnsangyŏlch’abunyajido
representation of the sky in the world, and Collection of Sungshin Women’s University Museum
therefore a rare scientific artifact.
Astronomical Observatory of King Sejong:
Korean astronomy entered a new era of precision under King Sejong (1397~1450), and calendrical
science also developed greatly. In 1438 a large observatory was built in the garden of Kyŏnghoe
Pavilion at Kyŏngbok Palace on the roof, which were installed various astronomical instruments
such as an armillary sphere, a celestial globe—giving a spherical model of the heavens—and a
gnomon, a device for measuring the altitude of the sun. With these instruments, the sky could be
observed in great detail. When this installation was completed, after seven years of extensive work
beginning in 1432, the Chosŏn royal family had within their palace walls the most advanced
astronomical facilities of the 15th century. Regrettably, the observatory was completely destroyed
during the Japanese invasion of the late 16th century, and no trace of the original building remains.
Calendrical astronomy was a matter of national importance to King Sejong; he himself studied
Chinese Tang and Yuan calendars in order to produce Korea’s own calendar. In addition, he took
detailed observations of solar and lunar eclipses and compared his observations with the forecasts
of existing calendars to assess their accuracy. The following 12 years of labor and research came to
fruition in a work entitled A Calculation of the Movements of the Seven Celestial Determinants
(1442). It was a landmark in the history of astronomical science, including details of the
movements of the sun and moon, as well as Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. The work
was introduced to Japan by an envoy named Pak In’gi in the 17th century, and Japan later published
its own astronomical calendar.
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Reference:
Chon, Sang-un. “Astronomy and Meterology in Korea.” Korea Journal 13 (1973): 13-39.
Fifty Wonders of Korea—Volume 2: Science and Technology. Edited by Korean Spirit & Culture
Promotion Project., 11-37. Seoul: Diamond Sutra Recitation Group, 2008.