INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARTH AND ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE
Journal homepage: www.jakraya.com/journal/ijeas
REVIEW ARTICLE
The Topology of Slab-Pull Force in Relation to Slab Window Processes in
Subduction Zones: A Global Perspective
Bhaskar Kundu*
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Sundargarh, Odisha, India.
Abstract
*Corresponding Author:
Bhaskar Kundu
Email: [email protected]
Received: 07/04/2014
Revised: 07/05/2014
Accepted: 09/05/2014
Slab-pull force is the predominant component that controls the slab
geometry and kinematics of a subduction zone. However, slab windows
associated subduction zones over the globe significantly deviate from normal
subduction zone parameters. Here, I evaluate the geometrical nature of the
different slab window environments on a global scale to model the topology of
slab-pull force. Based on a synthesis of the subduction zone parameters from
the global database about 155 transects along subduction zones, I present a
global adaptive topology of slab-pull force. By projecting the data points from
slab windows over the modeled topology, I characterize the geometrical
complexity of slab window environments. I identify potential deviations from
the nonlinear scaling relations between age vs. absolute velocities (subducting
plate, overriding plate and trench velocities) in the slab window environments.
The geometrical complexity and enigmatic slab kinematics of slab window
associated subduction zones show a good agreement with the global model on
the topology of slab-pull force.
Keywords: Slab-pull force, subduction zone, topology, slab window.
1. Introduction
Although convergent margin processes assumed
that the subducted oceanic crust remains intact, recent
high resolution seismic tomographic images have
revealed that many descending slabs have more complex
evolutionary morphologies (Hasegawa et al., 2009; Zhao,
2009; Maruyama et al., 2007; 2009; 2010). Globally
diverse types of slab architectures have been successfully
imaged (Fig. 1) including necking, tearing, detachment
from the surface plate, or even breaking up into smaller
fragments based on well documented worldwide
geophysical and geochemical observations (Barazangi et
al., 1973; Protti et al., 1994; Wortel and Spakman, 2000;
Pearce et al., 2001; Bautista et al., 2001; Lavin et al.,
2002; Ferrari, 2004; Miller et al., 2006; Richards et al.,
2007; Rosenbaum et al., 2008; Rosenbaum and Mo,
2010; Lister et al., 2008; Obayashi et al., 2009; Schellart
et al., 2009; Kundu and Gahalaut, 2010; Kundu and
Gahalaut, 2011; Thorkelson et al., 2011). Slab tearing or
slab windows are physical gaps between the subducted
portion of the oceanic plates at the suitable location of
mid-oceanic spreading ridge, oceanic fracture zones or
rheologically weak aseismic seamount subduction
(Thorkelson and Taylor, 1989; Vogt, 1973; Vogt et al.,
1976). Slab window produces physical gaps in subducted
slabs that enhances asthenospheric inflow around the
lateral edges of the tear (Kincaid and Griffiths, 2003;
Schellart, 2004; Stegman et al., 2006; Schellart, 2008),
creating gap in seismicity (Kundu and Gahalaut, 2011),
generating paired high pressure-ultrahigh-temperature
metamorphic orogens (Santosh and Kusky, 2010),
reflecting on trench migration (Schellart et al., 2007),
causing along-strike variations in vertical motion by
significant modification in slab-pull force (Wortel and
Spakman, 2000), and characterizing geochemically
distinct sort of subduction-related arc magmatism (Maury
et al., 2000; Yogodzinski et al., 2001; Guivel et al., 2006;
Rosenbaum et al., 2008; Rosenbaum and Mo, 2010;
Thorkelson et al., 2011; Eyuboglu et al., 2011). Hence,
slab window environments are expected to differ from
those involving normal subduction.
A sub-horizontal slab window (Kundu and
Gahalaut, 2011) affects the seismicity by creating gaps in
seismic clusters, and would lead to a slowdown in
subduction velocity because of the sudden loss of slabpull force at the detached segment of the subduction
zone. This may further enhance the trench retreat at
segments where the slab is continuous (Wortel and
Spakman, 2000). However, in case of sub-vertical slab
window such as in the case of southern Mariana arc
(Miller et al., 2006) and Izu-Bonin and Japan transition
zone (Obayashi et al., 2009), there is no such loss of slab-
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
Figure 1: Global distribution of complex slab geometry (indicated by red stars, 1-14) associated with subduction zones.
Inset small panel represents schematic representation of diverse type of slab morphologies. The figures (A)-(E) are the
three dimensional representation of different types of slab morphologies, however figure (F) is a plan view of the
segmented trench with is associated with differential slab rollback velocities (Vr1 ≠ Vr2 ≠ Vr3). Dashed line (A-E)
represents the position of the trench.
Figure 2: Schematic representation of major forces acting in a subduction zone and the subduction zone parameters
used in this study. Absolute trench normal velocities of the subducting plate Vsubn, the trench/arc system Vtn and upper
plate Vupn (all are taken positive trenchward). Vdn represents trench normal deformation rate in the back-arc region
(taken positive for spreading and negative for shortening). L is the slab length calculated from the maximum depth and
mean dip of the respective subduction zone. Deviatoric stress field (MPa) is also shown in the schematic cross section of
the subducted slab (calculated using ADELI-2D thermo-mechanical numerical code (Hassani et al., 1997). Note the
relatively high deviatoric stress field at the bending-unbending portion and interplate contact surface of the subduction
zones. Inset small panel represents variation of slab-pull force in two different slab window associated subduction zones.
In horizontal slab tearing slab (A), slab-pull force (Fsp) is significantly different in detached and undetached slab
segments, however, in vertical slab tearing slab (B), and such difference may not be observed.
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
2
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
pull forces and trench retreat processes are observed for
both of the subducted segments because of the more
efficient toroidal-type return flow (Schellart et al., 2007)
(Fig. 2). In this review article, based on a compilation of
subduction zone parameters from global database about
155 transects from all subduction zones, I evaluate the
possible dependency of slab-pull force with diverse slab
window environments. It is observed that the subduction
zones which are associated with slab window process
possibly deviate from the nonlinear scaling relations
between age vs. absolute velocities (i.e. subducting plate,
overriding plate and trench velocities respectively).
Present study brings out the complexities of the slab
window architecture in global subduction zones.
2. Global subduction zone parameters
The pioneering work of Jarrard (1986) provided a
statistical analysis of subduction zone parameters. This
exhaustive study was based on 26 basic subduction zone
parameters from about 39 segments of the subduction
zones over the globe. Since then, there has been a
remarkable improvement of the available data set both in
homogeneity of sources and accuracy with the advent and
enrichment of global data sets including the relocated
hypocenter catalogue (usually called EHB98) by Engdahl
et al. (1998) and the digital ocean floor age grid of Müllar
et al. (1997). The recent remarkable development of high
resolution seismic tomography imaging technique has
offered better constraints on the subducted slab geometry
both in deeper part as well as in those subduction zones
which are associated with low seismic productivity such
as the Puysegur, Mexico, Cascades, Nankai and Manila
(Eberhart-Phillips and Reyners, 2001; Parson et al., 1998;
Pardo and Suàrez, 1995; Fujiwara et al., 2000; Xu and
Kono, 2002; Bautista et al., 2001). However, the majority
of the profiles and interpretations of subducted slab
geometry are derived from some of the well-known
contributions such as those of van der Hilst and Seno
(1993); Bijwaard (1999); Fukao et al. (2001); Replumaz
et al. (2004); Lallemand et al. (2001); Gutscher and
Lallemand (1999); Hall and Spakman (2002); Gorbatov
et al. (2000); Bostock and VanDecer (1995); Pankow and
Lay (1999); Miller et al. (2006); and Pesicek et al.
(2008); among others. In this study, I compiled the
subduction zone parameters from the above works for
about 155 transects from those subduction zones that are
not influenced by nearby collision zones or aseismic
ridges/oceanic-plateaus/fracture-zones/seamount
subduction process. The advent of improved mapping
facilities of the seafloor during 1960s and 1970s (Vogt,
1973; Vogt et al., 1976) also provide a helpful guide in
distinguishing the spatial association with localized
collisions of buoyant features in normal oceanic crust
across the convergent plate margins. Further, I have taken
care to exclude the continent-continent collisional
margins (e.g. Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt), because
collision zones mark the region of subduction of a
continental plate beneath another plate.
The geometry of the subducting plate is
characterized according to slab dip, maximum depth and
slab length, which are determined from well established
tomographic images (Fig. 2). Slab length is calculated
from corresponding slab dip and maximum depth of slab
penetration. I have estimated the age of the slab from the
digital grid of Müllar et al. (1997), averaging the
subducting plate age on the first 10 km normal from the
respective trench segments. In this procedure of age
determination, the error for the slab age computed using
the approximation of age at trench is not worse than the
procedure of estimating the age of slab from platereconstruction study. I consider three fundamental
absolute velocities (i.e. Vsub for subducting plates, Vup
for the overriding plate and Vt for the trench axis) that are
associated with a subduction zone system using the
NUVAL1A kinematics model (Gripp and Gordon, 2002).
Within the hot spot reference frame, I have further
assumed that there is no significant net drift of the hot
spots during the last ~5-6 Ma. These computations are
concerned mainly with the normal component of the three
absolute velocities (i.e. Vsubn, Vupn and Vtn) (Fig. 2).
The absolute trench motion Vtn is expected to be well
correlated with Vupn, except in the situation where the
upper plate undergoes significant deformation (i.e. high
Vdn) because Vtn = Vupn + Vdn. I further consider that
all absolute velocities are represented as positive towards
the trench. In order to formulate a globally adaptive peak
of slab-pull force, I have also calculated the thermal
parameters (Φ) which are defined as the product of
vertical subduction velocity and the age of the lithosphere
at the trench (Kirby et al., 1996). However, Φ is one of
the most important subduction zone parameters to
decipher the cold vs. warm subduction scenario. In this
context, for a quantification of the global slab-pull force,
we have also calculated Φ for each segment of the several
hundreds or even thousands of kilometers length along all
the subduction zones considered in this study.
3. Topology of slab-pull force
In this review work, my prime focuses on the slab
Pull force (Fsp) because this is the main force that
operates both the plate kinematics and subsequent
deformation in a subduction zone (Fig. 2). Fsp is defined
as the excess mass of the slab relative to the surrounding
mantle and is probably the most prime controlling force
component to determine the slab geometry and
subduction zone kinematics. The other forces which play
a significant role in subduction zone kinematics are the
viscous resistance of the mantle during the slab sinking,
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
3
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
as the forward and backward motion of the slab in the
form of anchoring force, the viscous shear force during
slab penetration into the mantle, and the coupling
between the plates along the interplate region including
both the interplate friction and pressure (Fig. 2). Other
components like regional mantle flow or the powerful
corner flow (or oblique to hyper-oblique) or even forceful
mantle flow across the lateral edge of the slab window
environment also contribute to subduction zone
kinematics (Schellart et al., 2007). All these forces
combine to generate stresses in both the subducting and
overriding plates. Furthermore, a poor correlation
between slab-pull force and plate kinematics can result
probably because of a significant number of slabs are
considered to be detached from the subducting plate
(Conrad et al., 2004).
With these constraints, I have calculated slab-pull
force at each data point along the global subduction
zones. For a better representation of an adaptive topology
of global slab-pull force, I first considered all those
subduction zones which have some finite spatial width
along the present day trench axis. The individual
subduction zones were then further subdivided into
numerous small transects and computed the slab-pull
force for each data point. Such a detailed analysis
enhances the accuracy and also provides a better
representation of the topology. I have followed the
definition of Carlson et al. (1983) for the calculation of
Fsp. Fsp is the negative buoyancy of the subducted slab
resulting from the fact that its density is greater than that
of the surrounding mantle (Carlson et al., 1983). Thus,
the mathematical expression is: Fsp = C×Δρ×L×(t)1/2 ,
where, the constant C to 4.2 times gravitational
acceleration (g) (g = 9.81 m/s) following McNutt (1984).
Δρ = 80 kg/m3 representing the mean density difference
between the surrounding mantle and subducted slab, L is
the slab length (in km), and t the slab age at trench (in
Ma). The computations are restricted for the slab length
above the 670 km discontinuity. From these
computations, I present a global slab pull force model
with age (t) vs thermal parameter (Φ) spatial domain (Fig
3a). The globally adaptive topology of slab-pull force that
represent is only applicable to evaluate the present day
subduction zone parameters. Some of the salient results
emerging from present study are as follows:
• The overall slab-pull force of the global subduction
zones varies in the range between < 5×1012 N/m to >
65×1012 N/m, depending upon the slab length and
respective age of the slab at the trench. Although by
definition Fsp increase with L, the viscous
resistance of the upper mantle to slab penetration
would also and such resistance force is a function of
the flexural rigidity of the subducting oceanic plate
that increases as (t)3/2, as it is proportional to the
cube of the elastic thickness often represented as
proportional to (t)1/2 (Turcotte and Schubert, 1982).
• In age (t) vs thermal parameter (Φ) spatial domain,
the Fsp contours pattern is represented by a
pronounced twine peak (≥ 65 N/m) at t > 100 (in
Ma) and 1,500 > Φ < 10,000 (in km). A relatively
steeper slope is noticed at the right sided climbing
direction of the twin peaks. However, at the left
sided climbing slope is more or less gentle. Hence,
it is logical to interpret that for an upward trend in a
subduction zone in the course of evolutionary time
frame, the left sided slope is more favorable to
approach an adaptive peak. Additionally, some
smaller and relatively blunt peaks are also noticed at
t < 60 (in Ma). Rest of the spatial domain is mostly
a valley.
4. Slab window environments and slab-pull
force
One of the important issues to be addressed is how
individual subduction zone segments adapt themselves
over the present day global topology of slab-pull force. In
a slab window setting associated with subduction the
deviation of detached and undetached slab fragments
from the normal subduction topology and the adaptive
changes from the peak of the slab-pull force are also
important. Another potential issue to quantify is the
complex slab architecture in terms of a kinematic point of
view of the global subduction zone process. It is expected
that the geometrical configuration of the slab window
environments (i.e. vertical slab window vs. horizontal
slab window) and the relative age of the slab window
formation process further influence the lateral extent of
slab-pull force. In some cases, the slab window
environments are not mature enough to display the
relative difference, of the nature of slab-pull force on the
subsequent portions of the detached and undetached
segments. In the case of horizontal slab window
environment, it can be expected that the detached slab
fragments lose their effective slab-pull force, and the
undetached segments witness an abnormal increase in the
effective slab-pull force by the addition of the excess
amount of detached slab volume (Fig. 2). Another crucial
factor is the location of the local maxima of the effective
slab-pull force during horizontal slab window process.
One the other hand, in the case of vertical slab window
environment, I do not anticipate any net effective
increment or loss of the slab-pull force, provided that the
slab window environments are not so much mature (Fig
2). To understand this issue, I have further projected the
present day subduction zone transects (especially those
subduction zones that are associated with slab window
environments) over the globally adapted peak of slab-pull
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
4
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
force in our study. Such an exercise leads to the following
major deductions (Fig. 3a).
southern Mariana fall on the simmer sloping surface
of the global slab-pull force topology.
• Whereas the Japan, Kurile and Izu-Bonin
subduction zones define pronounced twin peaks of
the slab-pull force, the West-Aleutian and PeruChili subduction zones are placed over the small
blunt peak. The remaining subduction zones occupy
either the valley area or the low slab-pull force
contour. Interestingly, the Mexico and Cascadia
subduction zone data points display very low slabpull force with respect to the rest of the global
subduction zones evaluated in this study. A possible
reason for this is interaction of the youngest oceanic
crust with the trench. It is possible that cold vs.
warm subduction process plays an important role.
• A horizontal slab window formation environment
has been well documented in the Sunda arc by
several workers (Widiyantoro and van der Hilst,
1996; Richards et al., 2007; Kundu and Gahalaut,
2011). Based on evidences which include patterns of
seismicity, seismic tomography and geochemistry of
arc volcanoes, a horizontal slab window has been
postulated in the subducted Indo-Australian slab
beneath the Sunda arc. Such horizontal slab window
strongly reflects trench migration, and causes alongstrike variations in vertical motion and leads to
geochemically distinct subduction-related arc
magmatism (Kundu and Gahalaut, 2011). It has
been proposed that this detachment was initiated by
the oceanic spreading centre at the western Sunda
arc during the Early Tertiary. A switch over to
oblique subduction arising from the rotation of
Sumatra along with the interaction of relatively
young buoyant lithosphere at the trench, might have
led to the temporary cessation of subduction at
shallow depths. However, at deeper domain, the
older slab continued to sink to greater depth leading
to the formation of a small horizontal tear in the
subducted slab at the western end. This horizontal
tear propagated eastward because of the lateral
migration of the locus of maximum slab-pull force
concentration with time (Wortel and Spakman,
2000; Kundu and Gahalaut, 2011), finally resulting
in the detachment of the subducted Indo-Australian
slab. Hence in Sunda arc, we expect a gradual
increase in the effective slab-pull force on different
transect along the 5200 km long arc-trench system.
An effective increment of slab-pull force along
northern Sumatra to western Java to further eastern
Java arc can be clearly observed. However, I do not
exclude the possibility that such a gradual change
(and not abrupt increment) might also depend on
various factors such as the relatively mature nature
of slab window environment, the precise position of
the present day locus of maximum slab-pull force
and the nature of evolution with respect to the
geological time frame. I further suggest in the cases
like those of Sumatra and western Java, because of
the mature nature of the subhorizontal slab window
environment, the detached portion of the subducted
slab fragments subsequently modified its slab-pull
force after the initial nucleation of the slab window.
Hence, an abrupt change is not reflected in my
results of the present day global slab-pull force
contour. An additional possibility is that the slab
loss might have effectively modified the slab-pull
force.
• Interestingly, all the data points from the subduction
zones in Japan are focused on the twin peaks of the
slab-pull force, whereas the Kurile and Izu-Bonin
data points partly occupy the twin peaks (Fig. 3a).
The northernmost data point from Izu-Bonin trench
and the southernmost data point from Japan trench
are placed almost at the same domain of the
proposed adaptive peak of the global slab-pull force.
This can be correlated with vertical slab window
formation process in the transition region between
the Izu-Bonin and Japan slab that meet each other to
form a cusp-like junction beneath southwest Japan
(Obayashi et al., 2009). Such a vertical slab window
environment is further corroborated by the absence
of both deep seismicity and slab-related velocity
anomalies in a place corresponding to slab gap, the
occurrence of lateral tension-type earthquakes near
the tip of the slab gap, and finally the finding of a
near vertical plane from tomographic images that
might correspond to a side wall of the slab gap
(Obayashi et al., 2009). It is also proposed that such
vertical slab window is a consequence of subsequent
slab flattening and that the vertical tear occurs on
the stagnant slab on either side (Obayshi et al.,
2009). In such a scenario, there will be no effective
change in the slab-pull force on either side of the
subducted slab segments, because there is no
relative gain or loss of finite slab volume (i.e. the
slab window is vertical). This is the probable reason
why the southernmost data point of Japan trench and
the northernmost data point of Izu-Bonin occupy
identical position in the proposed global slab-pull
force model. The southern Mariana subduction zone
is another potential region where a vertical slab
window formation process has been well identified
(Miller et al., 2006). Because of the same reason
outlined above, the southernmost data points of the
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
5
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
5. Slab window environments and absolute
plate velocity
Apart from the model on the global slab-pull
force, the slab window environments also display some
interesting features through absolute plate velocities (Fig.
3b). I present the absolute motion of the subducting
oceanic plates (i.e. Vsubn) again in the age (t) vs. thermal
parameter (Φ) spatial domain and also project the global
subduction zones data points from those regions which
are associated with slab window environments, in a
similar way as described previously for slab-pull force
evaluation procedure. The following salient features are
documented from this representation (Fig. 3b):
• A progressive increase in Vsubn is well observed
for the Sunda arc-trench subduction zone. In
comparison with the Andaman and Sumatra data
points, the Western Java and Eastern Java data
points define significantly higher values of Vsubn.
• Interestingly, the northern Tonga data points are
projected at the highest contour over the Vsubn.
It must be noted that the correlation between the
absolute motion and slab window environment is not
straight forward and several interrelated factors are also
involved. In the case of horizontal slab window
environment, an enhancement in the trench retreat was
reported at the segments where the slab is continuous
(Wortel and Spakman, 2000). However, in the case of
sub-vertical slab window environment, trench retreat
processes are observed for both of the subducted
segments because of the more efficient toroidal-type
return flow on the lateral edge of the slab (Schellart et al.,
2007), which would also lead to an increase in Vsubn.
This is probably the reason why the northern Tonga data
points show significantly higher Vsubn values. The
northernmost data point of Tonga arc has been identified
as a well known “dark passage” (Pearce et al., 2001).
• The Japan, Kurile, Izu-Bonin and Kermadec
subduction zones mostly define a constant Vsubn.
The northern and southern Mariana arc display wide
range of Vsubn contour variation.
Figure 3: Present day global adaptive topology of slab-pull force (Fsp) (3a) and trench normal absolute motion of the
subducting oceanic plate (Vsubn) (3b) are presented on age (t) vs thermal parameter (Φ) spatial domain. Uniform
contour intervals are presented in both of the topologic representations. TO, Tonga; KE, Kermadec; WJ, West Java; EJ,
East Java; SM, Sumatra; AD, Andaman; CAS, Cascadia; MEX, Mexico; PER, Peru; CHI, Chile; W-ALE, West
Aleutian; E-ALE, East Aleutian; S-MAR, South Mariana; N-MAR, North Mariana; IB, Izu-Bonin; JAP, Japan; KUR,
Kuril; NHEB, New Hebrides.
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
6
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
Figure 4: Nonlinear correlation between age of the lithosphere (t) and absolute plate motion (i.e., Vsubn, Vupn and
Vtn), using all global subduction zones. Red solid and dashed lines are the best fit lines. Colour code is same as figure-3
(except other subduction zones data points).
It has been shown that the absolute motion of the
major plates is positively correlated with the downdip
length of the subduction zones (Forsyth and Uyeda,
1975). It is also accepted that the absolute motion of the
subducting oceanic plates (Vsub) is positively correlated
with the age of the lithosphere (t) (Carlson et al., 1983;
Carlson, 1995). In another recent work, Schellart et al.
(2010) suggested from both global subduction zone data
set and the dynamic models that the average trenchnormal subducting plate velocities and the trench
velocities vary nonlinearly with slab width (W) with a
strong correlation such that the subducting plate velocity
scales with W2/3, whereas trench velocity scales with W-1.
However, neither age of the lithosphere (t) nor the slabpull force and absolute plate motion (including Vsubn,
Vupn and Vtn) are correlated in the context of slab
window formation environments except the work of
Carlson et al. (1983). Using the large data set from global
subduction zones, I identify a nonlinear correlation
between the age of the lithosphere (t) and absolute plate
motion (i.e. Vsubn, Vupn and Vtn) (Fig. 4). It is further
suggested that slab window associated subduction zone
data points are the only likely possible candidates that
deviate from the respective nonlinear correlations (e.g.
South Mariana, Izu-Bonin and Japan transition region).
6. Conclusions
• Horizontal vs. vertical slab window associated
subduction zones significantly differ from the
normal subduction zone scenario and are
characterized in this work through a careful analysis
of the topology of slab-pull force in global
subduction zones. The present day projected
position of the each slab window associated
subduction zone segments (i.e. along the trench data
points) over the global slab-pull force contour
provides a robust frame for evaluating the
geometrical complex nature of slab window.
• Slab windows have exceptional characteristics in
relation to subduction zone kinematics. I propose a
statistically best fit nonlinear correlation between
the age of the lithosphere (t) and absolute plate
motion (i.e. Vsubn, Vupn and Vtn) and show that
the data points from most of the slab windows
deviate from nonlinear scaling relations.
Acknowledgement
I am extremely grateful to Prof. Jagabandhu
Panda, Editor-in-Chief for invitation, valuable advice and
suggestions which led to significant improvement in the
manuscript.
The following conclusions are drawn from the
present study:
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
7
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
References
Barazangi M, Isacks BL, Oliver J, Dubois J and Pascal G
(1973). Descent of lithosphere New Hebrides, TongaFiji and New Zealand: Evidence for Detached Slabs.
Nature, 242: 98-101.
Bautista BC, Bautista MLP, Oike K, Wu FT and
Punongbayan RS (2001). A new insight on the
geometry of subducting slabs in northern Luzon,
Philippines. Tectonophysics, 339: 279-310.
Bijwaard H (1999). Seismic travel-time tomography for
detailed global mantle structure. Ph.D. Thesis, Utrecht
Univ., Utrecht, Netherlands. Pp. 181: 178.
Bostock MG and Van Decar JC (1995). Upper mantle
structure of the northern Cascadia subduction zone.
Candian Journal of Earth Science, 32: 1-12.
Carlson RL (1995). A plate cooling model relating rates of
plate motion to the age of the lithosphere at trenches.
Geophysical Research Letters, 22(15): 1977-1980.
Carlson RL, Hilde TWC and Uyeda S (1983). The driving
mechanism of Plate tectonics: relation to age of the
lithosphere at trench. Geophysical Research Letters,
10: 297-300.
Conrad CP, Bilek S and Lihtgow-Bertelloni C (2004). Great
earthquakes and slab pull: Interaction between seismic
coupling and plate-slab coupling, Earth Planet. Science
Letter, 218: 109-122.
Eberhart-Phillips D and Reyners M (2001). A complex,
young subduction zone imaged by three-dimensional
seismic velocity, Fiordland, New Zealand. Geophysical
Journal International, 146: 731-746.
Engdahl ER, Hilst RVD and Buland R (1998). Global
teleseismic earthquake relocation with improved travel
time and procedures for depth determination. Bulletin
of the Seismological Society of America, 88: 722-743.
Eyuboglu Y, Chung S-L, Santosh M, Dudas FO and
Akaryali E (2011). Transition from shoshonitic to
adakitic magmatism in the eastern Pontidies, NE
Turkey: implications for slab window melting.
Gondwana Research, 12: 75-95.
Ferrari L (2004). Slab detachment control on mafic volcanic
pulse and mantle heterogeneity in central Mexico.
Geology, 32: 77-80.
Forsyth DW and Uyeda S (1975). On the relative importance
of the driving forces of plate motion. Geophys. J.
R.Astron. Soc., 43: 163-200.
Fujiwara T, Tamura C, Nishizawa A, Fujioka K, Kobayashi
K and Iwabuchi Y (2000). Morphology and tectonics
of the Yap trench. Marine Geophysical Research, 21:
69-86.
Fukao Y, Widiyantoro S and Obayashi M (2001). Stagnant
slabs in the upper and lower mantle transition region.
Reviews of Geophysics, 39: 291-323.
Gorbatov A, Widiyantoro S, Fukao Y and Gordeev E
(2000). Signature of remnant slabs in the North Pacific
from P-wave tomography. Geophysical Journal
International, 142: 27-36.
Gripp AE and Gordon RG (2002). Young tracks of hotspots
and current plate velocities, Geophysical Journal
International, 150: 321-361.
Guivel C et al. (2006). Miocene to Late Quaternary
Patagonian basalts (46-47°S): Geochronometric and
geochemical evidence for slab tearing due to active
spreading ridge subduction. Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research, 149: 346-370. doi:
10.1016/j. jvolgeores.2005.09.002.
Gutscher M-A and Lallemand S (1999). Birth of major
strike-slip fault in SW Japan. Terra Nova, 11: 203-209.
Hall R and Spakman W (2002). Subducted slabs beneath the
eastern Indonesia-Tonga region: Insights from
tomography. Earth and Planetary Science Letter, 201:
321-336.
Hasegawa A, Nakajima J, Uchida N, Okada T, Zhao D,
Matsuzawa T and Umino N (2009). Plate subduction,
and generation of earthquakes and magmas in Japan as
inferred from seismic observations. Gondwana
Research, 16: 370-400.
Hassani R, Jongmans D and Chéry J (1997). Study of plate
deformation and stress in subduction process using
two-dimentional numerical models. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 102: 17951-17965.
Heuret A and Lallemand S (2005). Plate motions, slab
dynamics and back-arc deformation, Physics of Earth
and Planetary Interiors, 149: 31-51.
Jarrard RD (1986). Relations among subduction parameters.
Reviews of Geophysics, 24(2): 217-284.
Kincaid C and Griffiths RW (2003). Laboratory models of
the thermal evolution of the mantle during during
rollback
subduction.
Nature,
425:
58-62.
doi:10.1038/nature01923.
Kirby SH, Stein S, Okal EA and Rubie DC (1996).
Metastable mantle phase transformations and deep
earthquakes in subducting oceanic lithosphere. Review
Geophysics, 34: 261-306.
Kundu B and Gahalaut VK (2010). An Investigation into the
Seismic Potential of the Irawaddy region, Northern
Sunda arc. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of
America, 100: 891-895.
Kundu B and Gahalaut VK (2011). Slab detachment on
Subducted Indo-Australian plate beneath Sunda arc,
Indonesia. Journal of Earth System Science, 172: 1-8.
Lallemand S, Font Y, Bijwaard H and Kao H (2001). New
insights on 3-D plates interaction near Taiwan from
tomography and tectonic implications. Tectonophysics,
335: 229-253.
Levin VN, Shapiro J Park and M Ritzwoller (2002). Seismic
evidence for catastrophic slab loss beneath
Kamachatka. Nature, 418: 763-767.
Lister G, Kennett B, Richards S and Forster M (2008).
Boudinage of a stretching slablet implicated in
earthquakes beneath the Hindu Kush. Nature, 1: 196201.
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
8
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
Maruyama S, Hasegawa A, Santosh M, Kogiso T, Omori S,
Nakamura H, Kawai K and Zhao D (2009). The
dynamics of big mantle wedge, magma factory, and
metamorphic-metasomatic factory in subduction zones.
Gondwana Research, 16: 414-430.
Maruyama S, Masago H, Katayama I, Iwase Y, Toriumi M,
Omori S and Aoki K (2010). A new perspective on
metamorphism and metamorphic belts. Gondwana
Research, 18: 106-137.
Maruyama S, Santosh M and Zhao D (2007). Superplume,
supercontinent, and post-perovskite: Mantle dynamics
and anti–plate tectonics on the core-mantle boundary.
Gondwana Research, 11: 7-37.
Maury RC et al. (2000). Post-collisional Neogene
magmatism of the Mediterranean Maghreb margin, A
consequenence of slab breakoff. C.R. Acad. Sci., Ser:
IIa, 331: 159-173.
McNutt MK (1984). Lithospheric flexure and thermal
anomalies. Journal of Geophysical Research, 89:
11,180-11,194.
Miller MS, Gorbatov A and Kennet BLN (2006). Threedimensional visualization of a near-vertical slab tear
beneath the southern Mariana arc. Geochemistry
Geophysics Geosystems, 7(6): Q06012. doi:
10.1029/2005GC001110.
Müller RW, Roest W, Royer JY, Gahagan L and Sclater J
(1997). Digital isochrons of the world’s ocean floor.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 104: 3211-3214.
Obayashi M, Yoshimitsu J and Fukao Y (2009). Tearing of
Stagnant Slab. Science, 234: 1173-1175.
Pankow KL and Lay T (1999). Constraints on the Kurile
slab from shear wave residual sphere analysis. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 104 : 7255-7278.
Pardo M and Suárez G (1995). Shape of the subducted
Rivera and Cocos plates in southern Mexico: Seismic
and tectonic implications. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 100 : 12, 357-12, 373.
Parsons T, Trehu AM, Luetgert JH, Miller K, Kilbride F,
Wells RE, Fisher MA, Flueh E, Brink US and
Christensen NI (1998). A new view into the Cascadia
subduction zone and volcanic arc: Implications for
earthquake hazards along the Washington margin.
Geology, 26 : 199-202.
Pearce JA, Leat PT, Barker PF and Millar IL (2001).
Geochemical tracing of Pacific to Atlantic uppermantle flow through the Dark passage. Nature, 410 :
457-461.
Pesicek JD, Thurber CH, Widiyantoro S, Engdahl ER and
DeShon RH (2008). Complex slab subduction beneath
northern Sumatra. Geophysical Research Letter, 35:
L20303. doi : 10.1029/2008GL0352662.
Protti M, Gundel F and McNally K (1994). The geometry of
the Wadati-Benioff zone under southern Central
America and its tectonic significance: Results from a
high-resolution local seismographic network. Physics
of the Earth and planetary Interiors, 84: 271-287.
Replumaz A, Karason H, van der Hilst RD, Besse J and
Tapponnier P (2004). 4-D evolution of SE Asia’s
mantle from geological reconstructions and seismic
tomography. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 221:
103-115.
Richards SG, Lister G and Kennett B (2007). A slab in
depth: Three-dimensional geometry and evolution of
the Indo-Australian plate. Geochemistry, Geophysics
and
Geosystems,
12:
Q12003.
doi
10.1029/2007GC001657.
Rosenbaum G and Mo W (2011). Tectonic and magmatic
responses to the subduction of high bathymetric relief.
Gondwana
Research,
19:
571-582.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.10.007.
Rosenbaum G, Gasparon M, Lucente FP and Peccerillo A
(2008). Kinematics of slab tear fults during subduction
segmentation and implications for Italian magmatism.
Tectonics, 27: TC2008. doi:10.1029/2007TC002143.
Santosh M and Kusky T (2010). Origin of paired high
pressure-ultrahigh-temperature orogens: A ridge
subduction and slab window model. Terra Nova, 22:
35-42.
Schellart WP (2004). Quantifying the net slab pull force as a
driving mechanism for plate tectonics. Geophysical
Research
Letters,
31:
L07611.
doi:10.1029/2004GL019528.
Schellart WP (2008). Kinematics and flow patterns in deep
mantle and upper mantle subduction models: Influence
of the mantle depth and slab to mantle viscosity ratio.
Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 9: Q03014.
doi:10.1029/2007GC001656.
Schellart WP, Freeman J, Stegman DR and Mories L (2007).
Evolution and diversity of subduction zones controlled
by slab width. Nature, 446: 308-311.
Schellart WP, Kennett BLN, Spakman W and Amaru M
(2009). Plate reconstructions and tomography reveal a
fossil lower mantle slab below the Tasman Sea. Earth
Planetary Science Letters, 278: 143-151.
Schellart WP, Stegman DR, Farrington RJ, Freeman J and
Moresi L (2010). Cenozoic tectonics of the Western
North America controlled by evolving width of
Farallon Slab. Science, 329: 316-319.
Stegman DR, Freeman J, Schellart WP, Moresi L and May
D (2006). Influence of trench width on subduction
hinge retreat rates in 3-D models of slab rollback.
Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 7(3): Q03012.
doi: 10.1029/2005GC001056.
Thorkelson D, Madsen JK and Sluggett CL (2011). Mantle
flow through the Northern Cordilleran slab window
revealed by volcanic geochemistry. Geology, 39: 267270.
Thorkelson DJ and Taylo RP (1989). Cordilleran slab
windows. Geology, 17: 833-836.
Turcotte DL and Schubert G (1982). Geodynamics:
Applications of Continuum Physics to Geological
Problems. John Wiley, Hoboken, N. J. pp 450.
van der Hilst RD and Seno T (1993). Effects of relative plate
motion on the deep structure and penetration depth of
slabs below the Izu-Bonin and Mariana island arcs.
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
9
Kundu…..The topology of slab-pull force in relation to slab window processes in subduction zones: A global perspective
Earth Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 120: 395407.
Vogt PR (1973). Subduction and aseismic ridges. Nature,
241: 189-191.
Vogt PR, Lowrie A, Bracey DR and Hey RN (1976).
Subduction of aseismic oceanic ridges: Effects on
shape, seismicity, and other characteristics of
consuming plate boundaries. Special Paper,
Geological Society of America, 172: 59.
Widiyantoro S and van der Hilst RD (1996). Structural and
evolution of lithospheric slab beneath the Sunda arc,
Indonesia. Science, 271: 1566-1570.
Wortel MJR and Spakman W (2000). Subduction and slab
detachment in the Mediterranean-Carpathian region.
Science, 290: 1910-1917.
Xu J and Kono Y (2002). Geometry of slab, intraslab stress
field and its tectonic implication in the Nankai trough.
Japan Earth Planets Space, 54: 733-742.
Yogodzinski GM et al. (2001). Geochemical evidence for
the melting of subducting oceanic lithosphere at plate
edges. Nature, 409: 500-504.
Zhao D and Ohtani E (2009). Deep slab subduction and
dehydration and their geodynamic consequences:
Evidence from seismology and mineral physics.
GondwanaResearch, 16: 401-413.
International Journal of Earth and Atmospheric Science | April-June, 2014 | Vol 1 | Issue 1 | Pages 01-10
© 2014 Jakraya Publications (P) Ltd
10