CHAPTER-III
TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING VOCABULARY
3.1
Preliminaries
The third chapter entitled ‗Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary‘ is the central
chapter of the thesis, which deals with the basic things that students should
know while using vocabulary. The present chapter also highlights several
aspects of a word that need to be taken into account when teaching
vocabulary. The present chapter highlights a brief historical development of
methods of teaching vocabulary. It discusses different techniques likes by
showing actual objects, showing models, miming, using charts and pictures,
using word flashcards, translation, drawing pictures, creating verbal
situations, associated vocabulary, definition, semantic relationships, use of
dictionaries and thesauruses, picture dictionaries, teaching words in multiple
contexts, use of reading skills, creating a keen awareness and a deep interest
in words, using morphological analysis of words, etymology, word map,
vocabulary notebooks, internet and web-based exercises. In addition to this, it
puts into words everyday usage, collocations, synonyms, antonyms, lexical
sets, words often confused and commonly misspelled words, homophones,
homonyms, one word substitutes, crossword puzzles, proverbs and
quotations, language lab exercises, use of information and communication
technology use of conversation, role play, music, idioms, phrasal verbs,
vocabulary games, peer teaching, use of CALL, using video and audio
equipment to enrich students‘ knowledge of vocabulary at the undergraduate
level in Marathwada region. It further deals with various ways of expanding
vocabulary like affixation, conversion, compounding, clipping and blending.
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3.2 What do we need to Teach about Vocabulary?
Teaching vocabulary is a challenge for teachers, partially because of the size
of the task, and partially because of the variety of vocabulary types to be
learned, including single words, phrases, collocations, grammatical
patterning, idioms, and fixed expressions. Richards (1976) and Nation
(2001) list the different things that need to be taught:
1. The meaning(s) of the word
2. Its spoken and written forms
3. What ―word parts‖ it has (e.g., any prefix, suffix, and ―root‖ form)
4. Its grammatical behavior (e.g., its word class, typical grammatical
patterns it occurs in)
5. Its collocations
6. Its register
7. What associations it has (e.g., words that are similar or opposite in
meaning)
8. What connotations it has
9. Its frequency of use.
There are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken into account when
teaching vocabulary. Gairns and Redman (1986) suggest the following
aspects of vocabulary:
·
Boundaries between conceptual meanings: knowing not only what lexis
refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words
of related meaning (e.g. cup, mug, bowl).
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·
Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word
form with several but closely related meanings (head: of a person, of a
pin, of an organisation).
·
Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single
word form which has several meanings which are not closely related
(e.g. a file: used to put papers in or a tool).
·
Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but
different spellings and meanings (e.g. flour, flower).
·
Synonymy: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that
synonymous words have (e.g. extend, increase, expand).
·
Affective meaning: distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional
factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speakers‘
attitude or the situation. Socio-cultural associations of lexical items are
the other important factors.
·
Style, register, dialect: Distinguish between different levels of
formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as
differences in geographical variation.
·
Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between
the native and the foreign language (e.g. false cognates).
·
Chunks of language: multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak
collocations and lexical phrases.
·
Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enable students to build
up different forms of the words or even different words from a single
word (e.g. sleep, slept, sleeping; able, unable; disability).
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·
Pronunciation: ability to recognise and reproduce items in speech.
Every language teacher must make a suitable choice on what and how much
vocabulary to teach. Moreover, they must consider what vocabulary items to
teach first and what vocabulary items to teach next. The choices must be
influenced by factors such as frequency, usefulness for the classroom, and
learnability. The teacher should deal with the following aspects of teaching
vocabulary:
a. Meaning
It is vital to know the meaning of words. Teacher should teach different
shades of meanings while teaching vocabulary. Teaching the meaning of a
word includes mainly connecting a word with its equivalent in the real
world. It is called denotation. Apart from denotation, connotation of the
word should be taught. Many vocabulary items have several meanings
depending on the context. Further, learners need to be provided with the
word sense relations to other words. There are various relationships such as
synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms etc. The teacher should teach the meaning
of a word in the context. The teacher should also teach the relationship with
hyponyms. Meaning of one item relates to the meaning of other lexical items
such as synonyms, antonyms, lexical sets, etc. When two words overlap in
meaning, learners are likely to confuse them. ‗Make‟ and ‗do‟ are a case in
point: you ‗make breakfast‟ and ‗make an appointment‟, but you ‗do the
housework‟ and ‗do a questionnaire‟. Words with multiple meanings, such
as ‗beautiful‟ and „gorgeous‟ can also be troublesome for learners.
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b. Pronunciation
Words that are difficult to pronounce are more difficult to learn. Potentially
difficult words are typically those that contain sounds which are unfamiliar
to some groups of learners - such as ‗guru‟ and ‗ahinsa‟ for Japanese
speakers. Many learners find that words with clusters of consonants, such as
‗crisps‟ or ‗breakfast‟, are also problematic. It is problematic to teach some
words because they do not have co-relation between spelling and
pronunciation. For instance the words ‗colonel‟, „lieutenant‟, „buffet‟ etc.
are difficult to pronounce. It shows that there is no one to one
correspondence between the spelling of a word and its pronunciation.
c. Spelling
It is a basic item to be taught to the learner. Teachers have to teach the
spelling of the words, while dealing with new vocabulary. Sound-spelling
mismatches are likely to be the cause of errors, either of pronunciation or of
spelling, and can contribute to a word's difficulty. Words that contain silent
letters are particularly problematic: foreign, pneumonia, know, listen,
headache, climbing, bored, honest, cupboard, muscle, etc.
d. Length and Complexity
Long words seem to be more difficult to learn than short ones. But, as a rule
of thumb, high frequency words tend to be short in English, and therefore,
the learner is likely to meet them more often, a factor favouring his/her
'learnability'. Also, variable stress in polysyllabic words - such as in word
families like necessary, necessity and necessarily - can add to their
difficulty.
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e. Grammar
The teacher should teach the function of a word performed in a sentence and
in a language. It helps the learner to use the same word in more than one
category. It helps students enrich the knowledge of vocabulary. The teacher
may present irregular past form, transitive or intransitive, plural form,
adjective and verb together. The words associated with grammar like phrasal
verbs / multi–word verbs are particularly confusing and difficult to learn.
The grammar associated with the word is also problematic, especially if this
differs from that of its mother tongue equivalent. Remembering whether
verbs like enjoy, love or hope are followed by an infinitive (to swim] or an ing form (swimming) and can add to its difficulty. In addition, the grammar
of phrasal verbs is particularly troublesome. Some phrasal verbs are
separable (Snehal looked the word up) but others are not (Snehal looked
after the children).
f. Connotation and Idiomatic Expressions
It is due to cultural differences, connotations of the words and idiomatic
expressions are difficult to be taught. For example, the word ‗cow‘ means
for the Westerners as an animal to be butchered whereas, for Indians ‗cow‘
is a sacred animal as far as the Hindus are concerned.
The idiomatic expression „grass is always green at the other side of the
fence‟ is confusing to the Indians and understandable for the Europeans. The
Indian idiomatic expression „She has a mangalsutra around her neck‟
cannot be understood by the foreigners due to cultural differences. The
idiomatic expressions are culture specific and can be understood only in the
cultural context if explained.
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g. Right Word Situation
Teacher of English should point out whether a word is formal, informal,
outdated, taboo etc. For instance, the teacher should point out the difference
between the experience „Can I borrow your laptop?‟ and „Could I borrow
your laptop?. The outdated words or the archaic words such as thou, thy,
thine, myriad etc. are difficult to be taught.
h. Etymology
Etymology explains where the word originally came from. Etymology is the
art of revealing the formation of a word and the development of its meaning.
The source of the word itself is Greek, etumos, ‗real, true‘, and thus the art is
‗finding the underlying or true meaning of words‘. For instance, some of the
stark examples of collection of etymology in English are as follows:
African - banana, jumbo, yam, zebra
Chinese - ketchup, pekoe, shanghai
French - catalogue, essence, gourmet, justice, massage, perfume, regret,
terror
Japanese - anime, karaoke, tycoon, hibachi, sushi
Norwegian - fjord, krill, ski, slalom
Tagalog – boondocks, manila, ylang ylang (a flower)
Welsh - corgi (dog), crag, penguin
i. Collocations
It means the teacher needs to teach the words which can be used in
connection with each other. For example: while learning the word ―picture‖,
the teacher should be informed that one can ‗take a picture‘, not ‗make a
picture‘ etc. On top of that, the teacher needs to make the students aware of
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whether the word is appropriate in relation to the other word. Some of the
glaring examples of business collections in English:
Annual turnover
Keep in mind
Break off negotiations
Close a deal
Close a meeting
Come to the point
Dismiss an offer
Draw a conclusion
Draw your attention to
Launch a new product
Go bankrupt
Go into partnership
Make a profit/loss
j. Usefulness
When making a decision about what vocabulary to teach preferentially, the
teacher should take into consideration mainly usefulness of the words. The
teacher should consider the learners‘ needs. It is useful to provide the learner
with words for ‗classroom language‘ just at the early stages of the course. It
is important for the teacher to predict what words the students need to know
for day to day conversation. Harmer (1993:154) points out:
“The words which are most commonly used are the ones we should
teach first.”
When the teacher selects the words to be taught to his/her learners, he/she
should be aware of the vocabulary his/her learners require. If we, the
English teachers, let our students be exposed to the vocabulary they need,
and if we give them the chance to exercise them, then they will remember
most of them. Further, when the teachers decide to demonstrate the meaning
of any word, they should teach word use, word formation and word
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grammar. Teachers should also know that teaching of vocabulary is not just
conveying the meaning to the students and asking them to learn the words
by heart but the teacher should check students‘ understanding by giving
them encouraging drills.
k. British and American Spelling
There are several areas in which British and American spelling are different
that need to be introduced.
1. British English words that end in -re often end in -er in American
English:
British English
Centre
Fibre
Litre
Theatre
American English
Center
Fiber
Liter
Theater Or Theatre
2. British English words ending in -our usually end in -or in American
English:
British English
Colour
Flavor
Humour
Labour
Neighbor
American English
Color
Flavor
Humor
Labor
Neighbor
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3. Verbs in British English that can be spelled with either -ize or -ise at the
end are always spelled with -ize at the end in American English:
British English
American English
Apologize Or Apologise
Apologize
Organize Or Organise
Organize
Recognize Or Recognise
Recognize
4. Verbs in British English that end in -yse are always spelled -yze in
American English:
British English
Analyse
Paralyse
American English
Analyze
Paralyze
5. In British spelling, verbs ending in a vowel plus l double the l when
adding endings that begin with a vowel. In American English, the l is not
doubled:
British English
Travel
Travelled
Travelling
Traveller
American English
Travel
Traveled
Traveling
Traveler
6. British English words that are spelled with the double vowels ae or oe
are just spelled with an e in American English:
British English
Leukaemia
Oestrogen
Paediatric
American English
Leukemia
Estrogen
Pediatric
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7. Some nouns that end with -ence in British English are spelled -ense in
American English:
British English
Defence
Licence
Offence
Pretence
American English
Defense
License
Offense
Pretense
8. Some nouns that end with -ogue in British English end with either -og or
-ogue in American English:
British English
Analogue
Catalogue
Dialogue
American English
Analog Or Analogue
Catalog Or Catalogue
Dialog Or Dialogue
9. Here are some of the main spelling differences between British and
American English.
British English
American English
Anti-Clockwise
Counter-Clockwise
Articulated Lorry
Trailer Truck
Autumn
Autumn, Fall
Barrister
Attorney
Bill (Restaurant)
Bill, Check
Biscuit
Cookie
Block Of Flats
Apartment Building
Bonnet (Clothing)
Hat
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Bonnet (Car)
Hood
Boot
Trunk
Bumper (Car)
Bumper, Fender
Caravan
Trailer
Car Park
Parking Lot
Chemist's Shop
Drugstore, Pharmacy
Chest Of Drawers
Dresser, Chest Of Drawers, Bureau
Chips
Fries, French Fries
The Cinema
The Movies
Clothes Peg
Clothespin
Coffin
Coffin, Casket
Crisps
Potato Chips
Crossroads
Intersection; Crossroads (Rural)
Cupboard
Cupboard (In Kitchen); Closet (For Clothes
Etc)
Diversion
Detour
Drawing-Pin
Thumbtack
Drink-Driving
Drunk Driving
Driving Licence
Driver's License
Dual Carriageway
Divided Highway
Dummy (For Baby)
Pacifier
Dustbin
Garbage Can, Trash Can
Dustman
Garbage Collector
Engine
Engine, Motor
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Estate Agent
Real Estate Agent
Estate Car
Station Wagon
Film
Film, Movie
Flat
Apartment, Flat, Studio
Flat Tyre
Flat Tire
Flyover
Overpass
Gearbox (Car)
Transmission
Gear-Lever
Gearshift
Girl Guide
Girl Scout
Ground Floor
Ground/First Floor
Handbag
Handbag, Purse, Shoulder Bag
High Street
Main Street
Holiday
Vacation
Hood (Car)
Convertible Top
Jam
Jam, Preserves
Jug
Jug, Pitcher
Juggernaut
18-Wheeler
Lift
Elevator
Lorry
Truck, Semi, Tractor
Mad
Crazy, Insane
Main Road
Highway
Maize
Corn
Maths
Math
Motorbike
Motorcycle
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Motorway
Freeway, Expressway
Motorway
Highway, Freeway, Expressway, Interstate
Highway, Interstate
Nappy
Diaper
Naughts And
Crosses
Tic-Tack-Toe
Pants, Underpants
Underpants, Drawers
Pavement
Sidewalk
Pet Hate
Pet Peeve
Petrol
Gas, Gasoline
The Plough
Big Dipper
Pocket Money
Allowance
Post
Mail
Postbox
Mailbox
Postcode
Zip Code
Postman
Mailman, Mail Carrier, Letter Carrier
Pub
Bar
Public Toilet
Rest Room, Public Bathroom
Railway
Railroad
Roundabout
Traffic Circle, Roundabout
Rubber
Eraser
Rubbish
Garbage, Trash
Rubbish-Bin
Garbage Can, Trashcan
Saloon (Car)
Sedan
Shop
Shop, Store
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Silencer (Car)
Muffler
Single (Ticket)
One-Way
Solicitor
Lawyer, Attorney
Spanner
Wrench
Sweets
Candy
Taxi
Taxi, Taxi Cab
Tea Towel
Dish Towel
Telly (Informal), TV
Television, TV
Third-Party
Insurance
Liability Insurance
Timetable
Schedule
Tin
Can
Toll Motorway
Toll Road, Turnpike
Torch
Flashlight
Trousers
Pants, Trousers
Tube (Train)
Subway
Underground (Train)
Subway
Vest
Undershirt
Waistcoat
Vest
Wallet
Wallet, Billfold
Wellington Boots
Rubber Boots, Rain Boots
Whisky
Whisky/Whiskey
Windscreen
Windshield
Zip
Zipper
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3.3
Innovative Methods of Teaching Vocabulary
A review of the very large body of research related to the teaching and
learning of vocabulary specifies that there are very strong reasons for
executing more organized and principled approach to the teaching of
vocabulary as a foundation for developing comprehension. There has been
an increased focus on teaching vocabulary recently. Thornbury (2002: vi)
points out:
“the development of new approaches to language teaching, which
are much more word-centred.”
The use of innovative methods in educational institutions has the potential
not only to improve education, but also to empower people, strengthen
governance and galvanize the effort to achieve the human development goal
for the country. One of the most widespread definitions is a short statement
that ‗method‘ is a plan for presenting a certain language material to be
learned. Methodology in language teaching has been characterized in a
variety of ways. A more or less classical formulation suggests that
methodology is that which links theory to practice. Teaching vocabulary
effectively is a key aspect of developing engaged and successful readers.
Greenwood (2004: 28) aptly states:
―There is a great divide between what we know about vocabulary
instruction and what we (often, still) do.”
Traditional vocabulary instruction for many teachers involves having
students look up the words in the dictionary, write definitions, and use them
in sentences. Word lists, teacher explanation, discussion, memorization,
vocabulary books, and quizzes often are used in an effort to help students
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learn new words. But these methods ignore what research and theory tell us
about word learning and sound vocabulary instruction. Vocabulary is a
principle contributor to comprehension, fluency, and achievement.
There are different methods and techniques for a better teaching and
learning of vocabulary. It can be said that it is better to benefit from every
method, approach and technique when it is necessary rather than being stuck
on one of them. The more flexible you are, the more efficient is your
teaching. There are various methods and approaches to the teaching of
vocabulary. They are in short as follows:
3.3.1 Grammar - Translation Method
In the early days of the Grammar Translation Method, the primary aim of
foreign language study was to learn a language in order to read its literature
or to benefit from its mental discipline and intellectual development. It
proposes learning of mother tongue equivalents for understanding the new
vocabulary. Students should memorize these equivalents for reinforcing the
recall ability. Grammar was taught deductively and then practised through
translation studies. There was, however, no systematic way of choosing and
teaching vocabulary items. Vocabulary was presented in the form of isolated
words. They were taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study,
memorization, and their translation equivalents. Little attention was paid to
the context in which the words were used and the examples and sentences
chosen to practise has no relation to the language of real communication.
Having learned a new grammatical rule, the learner was expected to practise
it through translation exercises from the native language into the foreign
language or vice versa, using, when necessary, word lists or dictionaries.
The main emphasis was on the recognition of written words and the
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production of written translations. The learners were mostly unable to speak
or understand natural speech in the foreign language even after studying for
five or six years. It has certain shortcomings. One of them is described by
Bloomfield (1933:50) as:
“Translation into the native language is bound to mislead the
learner, because the semantic units of different languages do not
match and because the student under the practiced stimulus of the
native form is almost certain to forget the foreign one.”
3.3.2 Natural Method
The term ‗natural method‘ was first used in the nineteenth century to
describe teaching methods, such as the direct method, that attempted to
mirror the processes of learning a first language. Natural approach is
correctly described by Richards and Rodgers (2003:129) as follows:
“………believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in
second language acquisition. Unlike the direct method, however, it
places less emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repletion, and
formal questions and answers, and less focus on accurate
production of target language sentences.”
Translation and grammar explanations were rejected, learners were exposed
to sequences of actions, and the spoken form was taught before the written
form. It proposes immersion and techniques such as using cognates and
demonstration for facilitating vocabulary learning and recall. It is described
in a detailed manner by Browen, Modsen and Hilferty (1985). Terrell quotes
Dwight Bolinger (1977:333) to support this view:
“The quantity of information in the lexicon far outweighs that in any
other part of the language, and if there is anything to the notion of
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redundancy it should be easier to reconstruct a message containing
just words than one containing just the syntactic relations. The
significant fact is the subordinate role of grammar. The most
important thing is to get the words in.”
3.3.3 Direct Method
The Direct Method was based on inductive rather than deductive learning,
advocating learning a new language through direct association of words and
phrases with objects and actions and development of the ability to think in
the language. The main advocates of this method are Gouin, Franke and
Berlitz. They suggest the use of pantomime, pictures and demonstration as
better techniques for strengthening students‘ vocabulary learning and recall.
The use of the native language was not tolerated in the classroom, and
translation as a teaching technique was strictly forbidden. Concrete
vocabulary was taught through mime, demonstrations, and pictures. Abstract
vocabulary, on the other hand, was taught by association of ideas.
Vocabulary and grammar are learnt through examples and associations. The
teacher presents the subject by acting or demonstration. Vocabulary is
studied in a natural conversational context whereas textbook explanations
are presented later. Vocabulary is preferred to grammar, but only everyday
vocabulary is taught. Richards and Rodgers (2003) rightly remarks:
“It needed proficient teachers and mimicked L1 learning, but did not
consider the differences between L1 and L2 acquisition.”
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3.3.4 Audio-lingual Method
The Audiolingual Method, on the other hand, originated from the Army
Specialized Training Program (ASTP) initiated during World War II in the
United States, and possessed elements traceable both to American
structuralism and to behaviorist psychology. The forerunners of this method
are Bloomfield (1933), Fries (1960) and Lado (1964). The only language
used during lessons is the target language, special importance is given to
pronunciation, and memorizing of phrases plays the key role. Teacher has
the central and leading role. As indicated in its name, this approach, like the
Direct Method, concentrated largely on listening and speaking skills. The
techniques used to produce correct language habits in the learners were,
above all, oral imitation, memorization and drills. Vocabulary teaching,
however, was kept to a useful minimum so that the students may concentrate
on establishing a firm control of structures. They propose in their books the
use of repetition, memorization and mimicry for the learning and recalling
of the foreign vocabulary. It was assumed that exposure to language itself
would lead to vocabulary learning, so no clear method of vocabulary
teaching was spelled out. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned only in
context.
3.3.5 Total Physical Response
TPR (Total Physical Response), which is a technique where the teacher
gives commands and students perform the actions. It proposes the
synchronization of words in a foreign language with the students‘ body
movements as the correct way for teaching foreign vocabulary and for
increasing the learners‘ recall ability. Such an approach is especially
appropriate if teaching with mixed nationality classes, where translation is
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not an option. It is also a method that promotes initial immersion in a high
quantity of comprehensible input. In making use of the immediate
environment of the classroom, and of things that can be brought into the
classroom, the intention is to replicate the experience of learning one's
mother tongue. Thornbury (2002: 79) pertinently designates:
“the intention is to replicate the experience of learning one‟s mother
tongue.‖
A TPR lesson typically involves the teacher demonstrating actions, using
real objects, and then getting the learners to perform the same or similar
actions in response to commands. In this way, students are forced to
communicate in the target language and therefore, they use a wider range of
language items, not only a particular pattern or vocabulary group. Tasks may
include
projects
for
producing
pictures,
presentations,
dramatic
performances, films etc. The teacher helps to choose topics, encourages,
regulates and monitors. These activities can improve the students‘
communication ability, help to solve real problems and offer students actual
reasons for learning a language.
3.3.6 Suggestopedia
This method belongs to Accelerated Language Learning developed on the
theories of Georgi Lozanov, based on the power of suggestion in learning. It
is supported by the use of mostly Baroque music and comfortable
environment that create relaxed but focused state / alpha state. Various
colours and tones of presented materials help to avoid monotony of learning
process, emotionalize meaning of language materials and evoke positive
mood. Relaxed students can acquire new language naturally and easily.
Their mind is clear, receptive to information, and rapidly makes
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connections. The main aim of this method is to overcome psychological
barriers and to increase confidence. The emphasis is put on memorization of
vocabulary pair a target item and its translation into a mother tongue. It is
good for acquiring language but predominantly for building vocabulary in
respect of displaying the right context for usage of certain words. This
method is specific and rather supportive and suitable for a certain group of
students.
3.3.7 Communicative Approach
The teaching methods as TPR and Suggestopedia have brought new
thoughts that originated the most widely used Communicative approach
which emphasizes usage of the target language. Harmer (1993: 41) states:
“Because of the focus of communicative activities and the
concentration on language as a means of communication such an
approach has been called the communicative approach.”
The introduction of communicative approach in the 1970‘s helped to
emphasize the role of vocabulary. The communicative value of a core
vocabulary has been recognized, especially by tourists. Communicative
sources provided by phrase books are more valuable than those in grammarorganized textbooks. Vocabulary acquisition is the most important and at the
same time the largest task facing the language learner. The recent trend has
proved that course books include more activities than specifically targeted
vocabulary. More attention is given to a collection of vocabulary items, the
grammar of words, collocations, semantic relations between lexical items
and word frequency.
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3.3.8 Lexical Approach
The lexical approach to second language teaching has received interest in
recent years as an alternative to grammar-based approach. In the 1990s,
Michael Lewis proposed the „Lexical Approach‘ as a way to teach
vocabulary with an emphasis on collocation. This approach entails teaching
words already in their chunks as opposed to individual items. It concentrates
on developing learners‘ proficiency with lexis and word combinations. It is
based on the idea that an important part of language acquisition is the ability
to comprehend and produce lexical phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or
―chunks,‖ and that these chunks become the raw data by which learners
perceive patterns of language traditionally thought of as grammar. Michael
Lewis‘s (1993: 95) lexical approach suggests:
“1) lexis is the basis of language, 2) lexis is misunderstood in
language teaching because of the assumption that grammar is the
basis of language and that mastery of the grammatical system is a
prerequisite for effective communication, 3) the key principle of a
lexical approach is that “language consists of grammaticalized lexis,
not lexicalized grammar”, 4) one of the central organizing principles
of any meaning-centered syllabus should be lexis.”
Stress is put on vocabulary as the main carrier of meaning, but this concept
is moved from words to lexis. The goal is to achieve fluency and accuracy
through acquisition of a large storage of fixed or semi-fixed prefabricated
items. Lexical approach puts a big stress on spoken language rather than on
writing. Activities are based on target language / mother tongue comparison
and looking for equivalents from mother tongue. Meaning of vocabulary
might be guessed from the context. Language patterns/collocations are
noticed and noted into systematically organized notebooks. Students are
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supported to work with monolingual dictionaries, which provide good base
for active learning of a language.
3.3.9 Eclectic Approach
According to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (367), eclectic means
not following only one style, etc. set of ideas but choosing from or using a
wide range of teaching techniques. It means that Eclectic Approach includes
valuable techniques and procedures of other different approaches and
benefits from them. The biggest advantage is flexibility. The teachers can
make experiments with techniques and activities of different approaches and
methods to find out the one that might be the most suitable for their target
group. It should allow the teachers to choose the most appropriate teaching
methods and incorporate them into their lessons. It also gives great
opportunities to concentrate on individuals‘ needs.
The important fact follows from the above-mentioned approaches and
methods is that teachers have to make compromises in using teaching
approaches and methods because the completely effective teaching method
does not exist. There are some effective methods for a certain usage, but
they do not function in other circumstances. But one thought is transparent:
Vocabulary, not grammar, is put to the centre of the classroom in order to
help learners develop their ability to use English for real communication. It
is observed that the best way is when neither grammar nor lexis is
underestimated and the attention is paid to both approximately in the same
extent.
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3.4 Innovative Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary
In the traditional way of teaching and learning vocabulary, teachers usually
write the words on the blackboard to explain the usage of the words and ask
students to make sentences with these words. Students usually look up the
words in the dictionary before the class begins and in the class they listen to
their teachers‘ explanation.
With this way of teaching and learning
vocabulary, students always feel that vocabulary learning is very boring.
They look up the words in the dictionary, recite them and maybe several
days later they forget the words easily. Teachers have difficulty in arousing
students‘ interest and motivation for vocabulary learning.
Different types of instructional methods, approaches, vocabulary building,
techniques, activities and skills proved to be effective in developing children
and college students' vocabulary in L2 environments. Teaching vocabulary
in context, combining vocabulary with reading and writing activities, and
providing the students with different lexical information about the words
under study enhanced children and adult students' vocabulary. The following
are the innovative techniques of teaching vocabulary:
3.4.1 Showing Actual Objects
It is a very useful technique to teach vocabulary to the beginners. The names
of many things can be taught by showing actual objects. It gives real
experience and sense to the learners. The words such as pen, chalk, table,
chair, football, flowers, tomato etc. can be taught in the classroom. Real
objects or models of real objects are very effective and meaningful in
showing meanings but in handling of real objects. The teacher must be
practical and should not be superfluous.
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3.4.2 Showing Models
It is neither possible nor necessary to bring all the things in the classroom.
Therefore, some words are to be taught by showing models. They are easily
available in the market. They are inexpensive too. Hence, the teacher should
make frequent use of such models to teach vocabulary. For example, the
words like tiger, brain, elephant, airplane etc can be shown to the learner.
3.4.3 Miming
The teacher can perform some words. It can be fun and frolic. It makes
the class student-centered. The teacher can act and learners can try to
imitate him/her. Gestures, facial expressions, pantomime and body
movements are important things in miming.. They can either mime or
symbolize something and they truly help the learners to infer the meaning
of the verbal, providing that they are unambiguous and easy to
understand. Miming make learning a pleasure, children love to act and
show off. It involves students totally; they appreciate the lessons and
remember it better. It develops the social skills required for them such as
cooperation, co-ordination, punctuality, and human relations etc.
For example, the words like jump, smile, cry, nap, sleep, and dance can
be demonstrated. Miming works well with younger students. The teacher
can mime out emotions and everyday activities to teach new words.
Demonstrations work well for verbs, adjectives, prepositions and a whole
range of grammar. This method can be practised at ease. It can win the
favour of the students as learners like dramatizations and can easily learn
through them. Many situations can be dramatized or demonstrated. After
explaining new vocabulary, the teacher can ask the students to perform
the actions.
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3.4.4 Using Charts and Pictures
Charts, pictures and maps can be used to develop students‘ understanding of
a particular concept or a word. There are many reasons for using pictures in
language teaching. A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical
or vertical material, which presents a clear summary. Wright (1990:2) points
out:
―they are motivating and draw learners‟ attention.‖
Further, it refers to the fact that they provide a sense of the context of the
language and give a specific reference point or stimulus. This works well for
nouns and adjectives. There are some good picture dictionaries available in
the market. Pictures bring not only images of reality, but can also function
as a fun element in the class. Pictures, being suitable for any group of
learners independently on age or level, can be used in various ways. Hill
(1967: 2) states:
“What is done is limited only by the preparation time available, the
visuals to hand and the imagination of the individual teacher.”
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For instance, using a picture of a ‗fish‘, words related to the fish, such as
gills, eyes, backbone, cold-blooded, water, big, small etc. can be taught.
Zebrowska (1975:452) rightly says:
“Learners remember better the material that has been presented
by means of visual aids.”
Some words work well with pictures, particularly nouns. This can also be
a good way to introduce blocks of related words. It is often utilized in
foreign language classes, such as nouns and verbs related to the classroom
or the house. Pictures can also be used in printable worksheets and
flashcards, where pictures are matched to the words they represent. In this
context, Hill (1967: 1) rightly says:
―Pictures bring images of reality into the unnatural world of the
language classroom.”
Especially useful are pictures of items belonging to the following sets: food
and drink, clothing, house interiors and furniture, landscapes / exteriors,
forms of transport plus a wide selection of pictures of people, sub-divided
into sets such as jobs, nationalities, sports, activities and appearance (tall,
strong, sad, healthy, old, etc). Not only can such pictures be used to present
new vocabulary items, but they can also be used to practise them. The use of
pictures or objects as prompts for vocabulary teaching can be enhanced if
some basic principles of memory are taken into account, including the
practice.
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3.4.5 Word Flashcards
Word flashcards are a simple, versatile, yet often underexploited resource.
They are perhaps worth mentioning at this point, even though they are not
actually pictures. They are a really handy resource to have and can be useful
at every stage of the class. They are a great way to present, practise and
recycle vocabulary and when students become familiar with the activities
used in the class. However like pictures, word flashcards can often enrich
vocabulary. Wright (1990: 59) points out:
―word flashcards are most typically used in teaching reading and
writing.”
Word flashcards are a set of pictured paper cards of varying sizes that are
flashed one by one in a logical sequence. They can be self-made or
commercially prepared and are made up of a chart or a drawing papers and a
plain paper using colours or ink on them for drawings. Many teachers collect
their own sets of flashcards from magazines, calendars, etc. To sum up,
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word flashcards are useful in teaching vocabulary too, offering valuable help
mainly in teaching the spelling of newly learnt words, which definitely
should not be neglected as it often is.
3.4.6 Translation
Traditionally, translation has been the most widely used as a tool for
presenting the meaning of a word in monolingual classes. The text is often
accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new lexical items used in the
text together with the mother tongue translation. Translation has the
advantage of being the most direct route to a word's meaning - assuming that
there is a close match between the target word and its LI equivalent.
Translation is, therefore, very economical and especially suitable for dealing
with incidental vocabulary that may crop up in a lesson.
The technique has been so popular around the world, because the native
speakers are not needed to teach foreign languages. It is also easy for the
teacher to use. Hence, the teacher does not use the foreign language for
communication, because he/she explains the meanings of the words in a
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vernacular language. In short, he/she has to use translation techniques in the
classroom to create a local atmosphere.
3.4.7 Drawing Pictures
It is an easy and quick technique of introducing vocabulary to the
learners. For students, drawing can be a fun to explain vocabulary. It is
not necessary that the teacher must be an expert in drawing pictures
accurately. He/ She can draw rough sketches to make an idea clear. Basic
sketches will often work well. The teacher's own drawings on the board
are often as effective as photos and magazine pictures, sometimes even
more so. Wright (1990:203) states:
“Drawings provide an immediately available source of pictorial
material for the activities. Students and teachers drawings also
have a special quality, which lies in their immediacy and their
individuality.”
This feature widens the teacher‘s options how to present or review
language in a meaningful way. This is true for teaching structures as well
as vocabulary. It is highly flexible during presentation and therefore bears
several advantages. Wright and Haleem (1996:5) remark:
―Texts and pictures can grow in front of the class…. can be erased,
added to or substituted quickly.”
The teacher draws only a piece of a picture on the board and invites
students to guess what he or she is drawing. This makes the students
curious. They anticipate to know what the answer actually is and it makes
them speculate and reason their opinions and so on. Comparative words
and prepositions can be made clear by simple sketches. Pictures of many
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types and colours can be used successfully to show the meanings of
words and sentences. Drawings can be used to explain the meanings of
things, actions, qualities, and relations. Allen (1993: 28) points out:
“When someone has drawn a picture of a scene, he knows the
meanings of the English words that the teacher will use while talking
about parts of his scene. The meanings are in his mind before he is
given the English word. (As we have noted, meanings often come
before words in successful learning of vocabulary).”
3.4.8 Creating Verbal Situations
It is not possible to teach abstract words by showing visual aids. Setting a
good context which is interesting, plausible, vivid and has relevance to the
lives of the learners, is an essential prerequisite for vocabulary teaching as it
helps in both engaging the attention of the learners and naturally generating
the target vocabulary. Maintaining the context and making sure the language
surrounding, the context is easy to comprehend. The teacher should start
eliciting the target vocabulary. In such cases, the teacher can create a verbal
situation with the taught words. For example, the teacher creates a verbal
situation as illustrated in, ―Mohan is a boy. When he was working in the
office, he saw a five hundred-rupee note. He went into the office and gave it
to the manager. Thus, Mohan is an ‗honest‘ boy.‖
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3.4.9 Associated Vocabulary
If one topic consists of a number of words, it is easy to teach the entire
words altogether. For example, it is easier to teach words like orange,
banana, guava, cherry, blackberry, strawberry, lemon, pineapple, mango and
watermelon together in the context of ‗fruits‘ than to teach anyone of these
words in isolation. Examples of associated vocabularies are : (a) Parts of the
Face, (b) Stages of Life, (c) Water, (d) Clothing, (e) Computer, (f) Banking
and Finance and (g) Jewelry
a) Parts of the Face
Forehead
Brow
Temples
Nose
Nostrils
Bridge/Tip Of The Nose
Septum
Mouth
Lips
Eyes
Eyebrows
Eyelids
Eyelashes
Chin
Cheeks
Jaw
Jowls
(b) Stages of Life
New-Born
Young Adult
Infant
Adult
Nursling, Suckling
Grown Up Child
Baby, Babe
Middle Aged Child
Child, Kid
Senior Citizen
Toddler, Tot
Mature Person
Preschooler
Aged Person
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Youngster
Senior Citizen, Senior
Adolescent
Old {Lady, Man, Person}
Youth
Sexagenarian
Lad/Lass
Septuagenarian
Preteen
Octogenarian
Teenager, Teen
Nonagenarian
Juvenile, Minor
Centenarian
(c) Water
Forms: Ice, Water, Steam, Vapor, Sleet, Rain, Snow, Hail
Bodies of Water: Ditch, Slough, Swamp, Narrows, Strait, Inlet, Bight,
___Bayou, Brine, Deep, Firth, Loch, Tarn, Well, Reservoir, Firth, Pool, Sea,
___Ocean, Lake, Pond, Bay, Inlet, Estuary, Fjord, Sound, Gulf, Lagoon,
___Cove, Harbor
Water in Motion: Creek, River, Waves, Billows, Stream, Rain, Brook,
___Rivulet, Tributary, Spring
Frozen Water: Ice, Snow, Crystal, Sleet, Hail, Icicle, Iceberg, Rime,
___Hoarfrost, Glacier
Gas: Vapor, Steam
(d) Clothing
Toga
Shift
Jumper
Smock
Jumpsuit
Suit
Pantsuit
Sports Coat
Vest
Pajamas
Nightgown
Smoking Jacket
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Bathrobe
Tee-Shirt
Shirt
Blouse
Undershirt
Turtleneck
Pants/Slacks
Trousers
Shorts
Knickers
Cut-Offs
Skorts
Culottes
Skirt
Peddle-Pushers
Bloomers
Underwear
Panties
Brassière
Girdle
Hat
Cap
Beret
Tam
Toque
Scarf
Headband
Earmuffs
Belt
Tie
Suspenders
Gaiters, Spats
Socks
Tights
Pantyhose
Stockings
Gloves
Mittens
Muff
Muffler
Shawl
Cape
Jacket
Parka
Wind-Breaker
Anorak
Sweater
Pullover
Cardigan
Apron
Coat (Sports-, Rain-, Over-, Top-, Lab-)
e) Jewelry
Ring
Earring
Nose-Ring
Brooch
Watch
Wristwatch
Pocket-Watch
Stud
Pin
Pendant
Necklace
Choker
Crown
Tiara
Bracelet
Anklet
Cufflinks
Stick-Pin
Tie-Clasp
Belt Buckle
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3.4.10 Definition
It is a useful technique. Definition in the target language may be very handy
if it is expressed in terms that is better known or more easily guessed than
the word that is defined. In this direction, teachers and students can refer to
authentic and reliable dictionaries. Although many new English words are
listed in each lesson or at the end of the textbook, it is very vital that
teachers must provide the words‘ meaning and make available definitions in
English, use words which the class can understand. The deeper the first
impression they get about the words, the clearer and longer they will
remember them. A student-friendly definition is essential, along with the
context. Many dictionaries are not student-friendly. They use academic
language and circular definitions. For example "to colonize is to create a
colony.‖ This is not so helpful. Definitions should be clear and
unambiguous. It should be explained in easier words than the word itself.
For example, ‗tragedy‘ means a play with sad ending.
3.4.11 Semantic Relationships
Lexical semantic relations are the fundamental building blocks that allow
words to be associated with each other and linked together to form a
cohesive text. Despite their importance, lexical semantic relations are
severely under-represented in current linguistic ontologies. There are many
types of semantic relations between words such as synonymy, antonym,
metonymy, hyponymy, homonymy, polysemy etc. Over the past decades,
theoretical linguists have made considerable progress collecting, defining
and providing detailed characterization to semantic relations from the point
of view of their concrete organisation within large-scale models of the
lexical systems of languages.
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Semantic relationship refers to words that are related in meaning or relate to
the same field of study. Teaching words in semantic relationship is
particularly effective since vocabulary expansion involves not just the
acquisition of the meaning of individual words but also learning the
relationships among words and how these words relate to each other. A very
effective way to present semantically related words is to build word webs
around some central concept. They have also extensively studied the
relationship between lexical meaning and its surface realization, i.e. the
lexical and syntactic patterns between words or phrases that express a
certain semantic relation. Wilkins is also a pioneer in realizing the
importance of the types of semantic relationships existing between words
and their connection with teaching and learning vocabulary. Wilkins (1972:
124) points out:
“.... acquiring a language means acquiring its semantic structure...” .
The teacher lists several words containing concepts that are related and can
be compared to one another. Students find characteristics or features
associated with the concept words.
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3.4.12 Use of Dictionary and Thesaurus
It is a significant tool in teaching and learning of vocabulary. Teacher should
inspire students to look up the word in a dictionary. Exploring dictionary
entries can be one essential and effective component of understanding a
word completely. The entries can also aid students to determine the precise
meaning of a word. Dictionaries can also deliver helpful information about
the history of a word and reinforce the inter relationships among words in
the same meaning ‗families‘. Knight (1994: 287) examines:
―incidental vocabulary learning from context and two factors that
might influence it, access to a dictionary and verbal ability.”
The usage notes in dictionaries often explain subtle but vital differences
among words—usually the appropriateness of one word over another in a
particular context. Words for which the dictionary is very crucial can be
entered in a student‘s vocabulary notebook. Dictionaries can also contribute
to an interest in and attitudes toward words that teachers and the students
explore. Gonzalez (1999:265) says:
―….dictionary work was laborious but necessary, and that ESL
college students need to be taught prudent use of the dictionary.”
Good thematic English dictionaries provide clear word usage explanations
and also a few usage sentences for each word meaning, which is especially
important. It is essential that students of English also make their own
sentences with new vocabulary. They should think about the real life
situations where and when that vocabulary can be used. Allen (1983:82)
perceives:
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„Dictionaries are passport to independence and see them as one of
the student - centered learning activities‟.
The following are some of the current recommended English - English
dictionaries:
1.
Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary
2.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
3.
Cambridge International Dictionary of English
Another very useful tool for learning is called a "thesaurus.‖ A thesaurus is,
basically, a book that shows words that have the same meaning, or a similar
meaning, to the word chosen. It often comprises opposite words too. One
benefit of using a thesaurus is that many new words can be learned if
learners use a thesaurus every day. Another advantage is that learners can
learn how to choose the right word for the right situation. Dictionary
provides the meaning of a word but thesaurus gives a lot of other words that
have the similar meaning as a particular word. This means that someone
who knows how to use a thesaurus has more "word power", in the sense that
he / she is able to look for the word that is most appropriate in the particular
context.
3.4.13 Picture Dictionaries
Pictures are kinds of visual instruction materials that might be used more
effectively to give motivation in producing positive attitudes towards
English and to teach language skills. Using pictures is one of the teaching
aids that teachers depend on in their teaching. Harmer (2001:134) states:
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“Teachers have always used pictures or graphics – whether drawn,
taken from books, newspapers and magazines, or photographs – to
facilitate learning.”
Pictures can encourage the students to pay attention and take part in the
process of learning. It contributes to the context in which the language is
being used. They bring the world into the classroom. The pictures can be
described in an objective way or interpreted subjectively. It can stimulate
and provide information to be referred to in a conversation, discussion and
storytelling. Nation (1990:51) says:
“a number of basic techniques through which teachers can explain
the meanings of new words. Some of these techniques involve the use
of pictures from a variety of sources - pictures from computers;
photographs; drawings or diagrams on the board; and pictures from
books.”
Pictures should be appropriate not only for the language to be learned but
also for the class of words, they are being used for. If pictures are too
childish, students may not like them. If pictures are culturally inappropriate,
they can offend people. Pictures also need to be visible – especially if they
are being shown to the whole class they need to be big enough for everyone
to see. In picture dictionaries, each individual word is presented with a
picture, usually without a context.
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3.4.14 Teaching Words in Context
Words taught in isolation are generally not remembered and easily retrieved.
In addition, in order to grasp the full meaning of a word or phrase, students
must be aware of the linguistic environment in which the word or phrase
appears. Setting a good context which is interesting, plausible, vivid and has
relevance to the lives of the learners, is an essential prerequisite for
vocabulary teaching as it helps in both engaging the attention of the learners
and naturally generating the target vocabulary. Maintaining the context and
making sure the language surrounding the context is easy to comprehend.
The teacher should start eliciting the target vocabulary. Nilsen (1976:101)
states:
“Most people agree that vocabulary ought to be taught in context.”
It is important to provide learners with strategies for inferring the meaning
of an unknown word from the context in which it occurs instead of getting it
to memorize long lists of words or look up unknown words in a dictionary
which would make the reading process tedious and which would not
contribute to the actual learning of vocabulary. Nunan (1995) opines:
“….since language is best encountered and learned in context; this
has particular implications for practice.”
One principle of effective vocabulary teaching is to offer multiple exposures
to a word's meaning. According to Stahl (2005:57):
―Students perhaps have to see a word more than once to place it
firmly in their long-term memories. …..This does not mean mere
repetition or drill of the word, but seeing the word in different and
multiple contexts.”
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It is necessary that vocabulary instructions provide students with
opportunities to encounter words repeatedly and in more than one context.
Students need to encounter them in the context and see how their meanings
relate to the associative words and how they relate to the other words that
might have been used instead. Moreover, they need to understand how the
meaning of words shifts and changes as they are used in different contexts.
For example, the word ‗gave‟ appears in different contexts as follows: gave
i. Ram gave Ravi five dollars.
ii. Aranav gave Rakhi a kiss.
iii. The doctor gave the child an injection.
iv. The orchestra gave a stunning performance.
Let us illustrate this point with the help of more examples: Run
i.
We will have to run to catch the plane.
ii.
Does the pepper make your nose run?
iii.
Don‘t let the water run.
iv.
The river will run into the ocean.
v.
I have a run in my hose.
vi.
She will run for class president.
vii.
How long will the school play run?
viii.
He will run his father‘s business.
ix.
We run everyday.
Made
i.
I made my bed.
ii.
I made money.
iii.
My brother made me do that.
iv.
The rain made the grass green.
v.
I made a present for you.
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3.4.15 Using Reading Skill
Vocabulary is the body of words that make up a language and the
significance of vocabulary in reading comprehension cannot be inflated.
National Reading Panel (2000) suggests:
“Vocabulary is one of the five core components of reading
instruction that are essential to successfully teach children how to
read. These core components include phonemic awareness, phonics
and word study, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.”
Vocabulary knowledge is important to express ideas, communicate
effectively and learn about new concepts. Students‘ word knowledge is
linked strongly to academic success because students who have large
vocabularies can understand new ideas and concepts more quickly than the
students with limited vocabularies. Chall and Jacobs ( 2003) point out:
“The high correlation in the research literature of word knowledge
with reading comprehension indicates that if students do not
adequately and steadily grow their vocabulary knowledge, reading
comprehension will be affected.”
Students with large vocabularies understand text better and score higher on
achievement tests than students with limited vocabularies. Without a good
working knowledge of words and their meanings, both written and verbal
communication will be muddied or poorly understood. Teachers must
emphasize reading and verbal interaction with children to help them build a
strong working vocabulary. Whipple (1925:76) described the central role
of vocabulary as:
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"Growth in reading power means, therefore, continuous enriching
and enlarging of the reading vocabulary and increasing clarity of
discrimination in appreciation of word values.”
Students with poor reading comprehension skills either lack the vocabulary
or the word recognition skills to make sense of the material. Students with
poor reading comprehension do not tend to read very often which causes
them to miss out learning new words. Levine and Reves (1998:10) mention:
“lack of adequate vocabulary is one of the obstacles to the text
comprehension.”
Reading words aloud is also very beneficial. The more children read, the
greater their vocabulary becomes and the better their cognitive skills
develop. Literature, commerce and science books are filled with wonderful
examples of language, words, and content. Reading aloud has been
traditionally implemented as a strategy for only young students, but it can
also play an effective role in the advanced classes. Allington (2006)
mentions:
“Fluent readers recognize and understand many words, and they
read more quickly and easily than those with smaller vocabularies.”
It makes learners familiar with the word and also improves their
pronunciations. Sound can be an easy way to illustrate words that describe
sounds, such as whistle, scratching, and tinkling. Students can pronounce
the sounds by themselves or bring tapes or CDs or pen drives for listening
and writing down the words that they hear. Anderson and Freebody
(1981:116) conclude:
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“The single most important activity for building the knowledge
required for eventual success in reading is reading aloud to
children.”
Through wide independent reading, students come in contact with
vocabulary that rarely occurs in spoken language but that is much more
likely to be encountered in printed pages. Consequently, Nagy and Herman
(1987: 67) argue:
―Teachers should promote extensive reading because it can lead to
greater vocabulary growth than any program of explicit instruction
alone ever could.”
Therefore, a rich vocabulary unlocks a wealth of knowledge and opens up
worlds to its owner especially in academic settings. Both comprehension and
fluency are influenced by vocabulary knowledge. Poor readers often lack
adequate vocabulary to get meaning from what they read. Consequently,
reading is difficult and tedious for them, and they are unable to do the large
amount of reading. They encounter unknown words often enough to learn
them. Stahl, S. A. (1999: 281-290) rightly says:
―Good readers read more, become even better readers, and learn
more words; poor readers read less, become poorer readers, and
learn fewer words.”
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3.4.16 Creating a Keen Awareness and a Deep Interest in Words
To create interest, the teachers should produce attention-grabbing statements
in which familiar words are used. There are many ways to increase interest
among students about words, such as visiting lists of words on the internet,
reading the dictionary, invent new words, play word games, craft poems or
jokes that play on the sounds and meanings of words, find song lines that are
a play on words and looking for vocabulary specific to words. The teacher
should develop various techniques to create a keen interest and a deep
interest in words the students need to learn.
3.4.17 Using Morphological Analysis of Words
Vocabulary instruction via morphological analysis involves syntactic
knowledge and an awareness of the multiple levels of cognitive ability
whether the target vocabulary is in English or in a second language.
Morphology is the study of the formation of words, showing how words are
broken down into smaller units, and how such units are recognized. By
using the analysis of roots, affixes and word structures, thousands of English
words can be learnt. Carlisle (2003:98) comments:
„„Leaving morphological analysis to be discovered by students on
their own means that those who are not inherently linguistically
savvy are likely to be left behind their peers in the development of
vocabulary, word reading and comprehension, and spelling‟‟.
In the course of teaching, teachers can use the analysis of bound
morphemes, derivational morphemes, roots, affix and stems of words,
especially some high-frequency prefixes and suffixes. For example, by
analyzing ―hand/handle/handful/handicap/handsome/beforehand...” it can
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be seen that the root is ―hand.‖ If students know more roots and affixes, they
will learn more new words and enhance their English vocabulary.
3.4.18 Etymology
The study of the origin of words can help the learners to enrich vocabulary.
It is necessary to know the meaning of a Latin or Greek root, prefix or suffix
in order to better understand and more easily remember. Most vocabulary
words are derived from Latin or Greek etymologies. Knowing its etymology
may bring out more nuances and connotations that are not realized currently.
The teacher and student, by becoming serious amateur etymologists, would
find themselves more sensitive to the meaning of words and their
relationships with other words. Ausabel (1968) rightly states:
―The knowledge of these word relationships could contribute to what
educational psychologists call meaningful learning.”
At least, half of the words in the English language are derived from Greek
and Latin roots. Knowing these roots helps us to grasp the meanings of
words before they are looked up in the dictionary. It also helps to see how
words are often arranged in families with similar characteristics. Therefore,
whenever a completely strange English word is taught, the students should
be asked to look it up in a dictionary or other reference books or surf on the
internet to find its origin. The interesting stories behind a word‘s birth can
be a very good technique for students to remember the particular word.
Thus, learning the etymology of a word will certainly promote students‘
comprehension of new words.
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The following is the list of words from Greek and Latin that illustrate the
importance of etymology:
a.
Greek Roots
astron - star (astronaut, astronomy, astrology, astronomical)
auto - self (automobile, automatic, autobiography, autograph, automate,
autonomy)
biblio - book (bibliography, Bible, bibliomania)
bio - life (biology, biodegradable, biography, biosphere, antibiotic)
chron - time (chronology, chronic, synchronize, chronological)
demos - people (democracy, demography, democratic)
dia - across or through (diameter, diagonal, diagnosis, diagram, dialect)
geo - earth (geology, geometric, geography, geopolitical, )
graph - to write or draw (graph, telegraph, graphic, autograph, homograph)
hemi - half (hemisphere)
homo - same (homograph, homogeny, homonym, homophone)
hydro - water (hydrant, hydrate, hydroelectric, hydrology)
logos - word study (logic, -ology = the study of biology, geology)
mega - large or great (megaphone, megapod)
meter - measure (thermometer, barometer, diameter, optometry, altimeter)
micro - small (microscope, microbe, micron, microfilm)
mono - single (monorail, monologue, monarch, monopoly)
para - beside (parallel, parable, parenthesis, paragraph, parachute)
pathos - feeling (pathetic, apathy, sympathy)
philia - love friendship (Philadelphia= city of brotherly love, philosophy,
philanthropist)
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phobia - fear (claustrophobia, hydrophobia)
phone - sound (phonics, telephone, symphony, microphone, phonological,
homophone)
photo - light (photograph, phototropic, photocopy, photosynthesis)
poly - many (polygon, polymer, polynomial, polygamy, polyhedron)
psych - mind, soul (psychology, psychic, physics, psyche)
scope - to look at inspect (scope, microscope, telescope, periscope)
sphere - ball (hemisphere, sphere, spherical, atmosphere)
syn/sym -together or with (synonym, symphony, synchronize, synthesis,
symmetry)
techne - skill or art (technology, technical, technician)
tele - distant, far away (telephone, telegraph, telescope, television)
b.
Latin Roots
annus - year (annual, anniversary, perennial, annuity)
aqua - water (aquarium, aquifer, aqueduct)
audio - hear (audible, auditory, audience, auditorium)
bene - well, good (beneficial, benefit)
bi - two (bisect, bicycle, bipartisan, biped, binary, binocular bicentennial,
bifocal)
capitis - head (capital, captain, cabbage, capitalism)
centum - hundred (centimeter, cent, percent, century, centipede)
circum - around (circumvent, circumference, circulate)
duct - lead (conduct, aqueduct, conductor)
duo - two (dual, duet, duel, duplex)
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equi - equal (equitable, equator, equal)
finis - end (finish, final, finite, infinite)
fix - fix or attach (fix, affix, prefix, suffix)
fract - break (fracture, fraction, infraction, refract)
ignis -fire (ignite, igneous)
ject - throw (reject, interject, object, project)
junct or join - join or connect (join, joint, junction, rejoin)
manus - hand (manuscript, manufacture, manual, manipulate, manicure)
migrat - move (migrate, migrant, migratory)
ped - foot (pedal, pedestrian, pedestal, centipede)
populus - people (people, popular, population, republic, publish)
port - carry (portable, porter, deport, transport, import, airport, portage)
pre - before (predict, prepare, predawn, preset, preamble)
quartus/quad - fourth (quart, quadrant, quarter, quadrilateral)
scribe/script - write (script, transcribe, prescribe, scribble, inscribe, describe,
manuscript)
spect - look (inspect, speculate, spectacle, perspective, introspect)
struct - build (construct, structure, destruction, instruction)
tempor - time (temporary, contemporary, temporal, tempo)
trans - across (transfer, transcript, transplant, transparent, transaction,
transmit)
verb - word (verb, verbiage, proverb, verbal, verbose)
vid/vis - see (video, visible, evident, visual, visit, visitor)
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3.4.19 Word Map
Word map is a graphic display that shows common elements of a dictionary
definition. These elements include synonyms, antonyms, thesaurus and
etymology, some characteristics of the word uses of the word in a sentence,
drawing a picture if possible and some specific examples of the word.
Students refer to the context, their prior knowledge and dictionaries to find
the elements needed to complete the map. A word map stimulates
vocabulary development. It gives students an added resource in
understanding complicated relationships between vocabulary words. Using a
word map, students think about terms or concepts in numerous ways. They
help students build upon their prior knowledge and visually represent new
information. For each new word, the students write its definition, its part of
speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.), a synonym, an antonym, draws a
picture that illustrates the meaning of the word, and write a meaningful
sentence using the word. Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002:102) points
out:
“Research reveals that to develop students‟ vocabularies, teachers
need to promote in-depth word knowledge……. The Word Mapping
strategy, or semantic mapping, is one of the most powerful
approaches to teaching vocabulary because it engages students in
thinking about word relationships…...map that they design or a blank
one that is provided by the teacher.”
An example might be a key-concept word in the center of the page with
rays connecting related words. For example, when asked to give words they
thought of when they hear the word ―honesty‖, low-intermediate ESL
students many generate words or phrases such as cat, friend, family,
reliance, trust, dishonest, unfaithfulness, believe in friendships, bonds, obey,
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dog, friendly, sexual unfaithful, gossiping, marriage and love. The students
can be given the following exercise to enhance their imaginative word
power.
Word
Picture
Love
They draw a picture
_______
_______
Will give synonyms
_______
Synonym
Will give antonyms
Antonym
In my own words: They will write the description of a word in their
own words.
Sentence: They will create a sentence with the word ‗love‘.
Etymology: They will try to find out the origin of this word.
Treasures: They may refer to the Rodet‘s Thesaurus.
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3.4.20 Vocabulary Notebooks
Students are exhilarated to store new vocabulary in a vocabulary notebook
in a variety of ways: under topics, under collocations, with translations, with
sample sentences. Fowle (2002:382) describes the importance of vocabulary
notebook as:
“Vocabulary notebooks are frequently advocated as a way for
students to take control of their vocabulary learning.”
Students can be encouraged to keep vocabulary notebooks in which they jot
down interesting words they come across in their reading. We should teach
students to learn words from as many different perceptions as possible,
inspire them to choose the learning activities which are best for them, and
foster independent vocabulary study. The type of notebook advocated is
likely to be much more interesting and keep students actively engaged in the
learning process long enough to gain some tangible results. Nation
(1990:138) suggests:
“…..six ways of reviewing words that could be applied to words in a
vocabulary notebook. Including asking students to break words into
their roots and affixes, and having them suggest words which
collocate with those written on the blackboard.”
3.4.21 Internet and Web-based Exercises
Nowadays, meaningful learning cannot be achieved without modern tools
like internet and web-based exercises. A teacher can make use of internet
and web-based exercises as they can serve as a medium that requires
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learners to actively contribute to their learning process. Internet applications
have opened new doors for interaction, knowledge exploration and
cooperative work. As time and space are also not an issue for internet access
now, technology has already started to revolutionize many things including
language learning/teaching process. Boulware- Gooden, Carreker, Thornhill,
and Joshi (2007) aptly comment:
“Developing breadth and depth of vocabulary depends on building
connections between words and developing elaborate webs of
meaning.”
By using the web, the teacher encourages students to search millions of
words, around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic
materials such as newspaper and magazine articles, radio broadcasts, short
videos, movie reviews and online books. They can also use the Web to
publish their word list to share with classmates. In this way, learners are
offered opportunities to communicate and learn collaboratively with other
learners all around the world. Students now have access to vast resources
such as the internet and online dictionaries. If students are trained how to
use these resources, they can get ample information about collocations,
phrasal verbs, idioms and grammatical patterns, etc. They can exploit these
resources more effectively and become more independent in their learning.
3.4.22 Everyday Usage
Although promoting conversations in classrooms can increase students‘ use
of language, teachers need to engage them in purposeful, strategic
conversations that focus on the explicit development of vocabulary words
and help students construct the meaning of words through multiple activities
and exercises. The language that teachers use in their classrooms determines
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the amount and quality of the conversations that can support students‘
language and vocabulary development. One way to create meaningful
context for students to learn words is to create conversations that take place
in everyday speech situations.
Materials can also offer the students with ideas to activate and practise
vocabulary in their everyday life, which is exclusively useful for them in
non-English-speaking environments. Activities may comprise labeling items
of furniture in English in a room, or trying to remember the English names
for all the items they see in a clothing store. Thus, purposeful, strategic
conversations create unique opportunities for students to learn vocabulary
and build language skills by engaging them in the everyday usage.
3.4.23 Collocations
It is a widely accepted idea that collocations are very a significant part of
knowledge and they are very essential to the users of English in order to
speak and write fluently and correctly respectively. At the beginning of the
1990s, two dominant books appeared, Paul Nation‘s Teaching and Learning
Vocabulary (1990) and John Sinclair‘s Corpus, Concordance, and
Collocation (1991), which stimulated research into vocabulary and more
precisely into collocation. Morgan Lewis (2000:14) argues that increasing
the learners‘ collocation competence is the way to expand their language as
a whole:
“The reason so many students are not making any perceived progress
is simply because they have not been trained to notice which words
go with which. They may know quite a lot of individual words which
they struggle to use, along with their grammatical knowledge, but
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they lack the ability to use those words in a range of collocations
which pack more meaning into what they say or write.”
Most of the definitions are paraphrases of Firth's (1957:183) definition that
collocations are "words in habitual company.” The term ‗collocation‘ refers
to the way in which two or more words are typically used together. For
example, one can say heavy rain but not strong rain, or make a decision, but
not do a decision. Therefore, heavy rain and make a decision are often
referred to as collocations. According to Hill (1997:51) collocations are
based on the elements they contain. Following are some of the categories of
formation of collocations:
i.
adjective + noun (a huge profit)
ii.
noun + noun (a pocket calculator)
iii.
verb + adjective + noun (learn a foreign language)
iv.
verb + adverb (live dangerously)
v.
adverb + adverb (half understand)
vi.
adverb + adjective (completely soaked)
vii.
verb + preposition + noun (speak through an interpreter)
At higher levels, collocations can be taught and practised overtly and
students can be encouraged to write down collocations as well as single
words. But even at the elementary level, the idea of words and expressions
that are ―used together‖ can be introduced. Similarly, collocation can be
encouraged by keeping notes of the important vocabulary items. Nattinger
(1980) in Carter and McCarthy (1988) rightly points out:
“It teaches students expectations about which sorts of words go with
which ones. Students will not go about reconstructing the language
each time they want to say something.”
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The relationship of collocation according to McCarthy (1988) is
fundamental in the study of vocabulary. Firth (1957) said “you know a word
by the company it keeps.” Knowledge of appropriate collocations is part of
the native speakers' competence. Therefore, collocation deserves to be a
central part of vocabulary learning for the non-native learners. Thus, Hill
(1997:53) claims:
“It is possible that up to 70 % of everything we say, hear, read or
write is to be found in some form of fixed expression. Underlining
that collocation has an overriding importance in language learning
he further argues: A student with a vocabulary of 2,000 words will
only be able to function in a fairly limited way. A different student
with 2,000 words, but collocationally competent with those words,
will also be far more communicatively competent.”
3.4.24 Synonyms
Synonyms are the words which are similar or same in meaning. They help to
enrich a student's vocabulary bank and provide alternative words instantly.
These can be effective since they build on words and phrases that students
already recognize. In any language, there are hardly two words that convey
precisely the same idea. A person thoroughly conversant in the propriety of
the language will always be able to observe something that distinguishes one
word from other. When used properly, the correct synonym can be a very
good thing. The proper use of a synonym is to select the word with just the
right shade of meaning. Use caution which implies that all the words have
exactly the same meaning, since different words often are used for different
connotations or to imply different meanings. The same procedure can be
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used to elicit synonyms. The teacher needs to highlight the fact that ‗true‘
synonyms are relatively rare and the answers will often be ‗near‘ synonyms.
The students could make use of crosswords, word snakes or other puzzles
and a dictionary which has a complete list of all the words in a language to
improve their synonyms in general and vocabulary in particular. The
following is the list of some of the synonyms in English:
Big
Blank
Broad
Center
Cunning
Dangerous
Eatable
False
Fertile
Gay
Glad
Hard
High
Huge
Intelligent
Lazy
Little
Loving
Loyal
Mad
New
Nice
Noisy
Old
Oral
Polite
Poor
Quick
Rare
Ready
Real
Large
Empty
Wide
Middle
Clever
Risky
Edible
Untrue
Fruitful
Cheerful
Happy
Difficult
Tall
Enormous
Clever
Indolent
Small
Fond
Faithful
Crazy
Modern
Kind
Rowdy
Ancient
Verbal
Courteous
Destitute
Rapid/Fast
Scarce
Alert
Genuine
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Rich
Rude
Sad
Safe
Sleepy
Slim
Thin
Usual
Vacant
Weak
Well-Known
Wealthy
Impolite
Unhappy
Secure
Drowsy
Slender
Lean
Normal
Empty
Feeble
Famous
3.4.25 Antonyms
Antonyms are the words which are opposite in meaning. Carter (1987:19)
states that antonym refers to "a notion of semantic opposition or unrelatedness.” Tom McArthur (1992) rightly identifies three types of
antonyms:
“1) Gradable antonym, which operates on a continuum: (very) big,
(very) small. Such pairs often occur in binomial phrases with hot and
cold, (search) high and low. 2) Complementary antonym, which
express an either/or relationship: dead or alive, male or female. 3)
Converse or relational antonym, expressing reciprocity: borrow or
lend, buy or sell, wife or husband."
This helps the students to understand the different shades of meanings of a
word. The teacher can ask the students to make a list of opposite words.
Two groups can be formed ; one group gives one word while the other group
gives an opposite word to it. For example, sharp/blunt, rude/polite,
flexible/rigid, generous/mean etc. One group gives a word ‗sharp‘ and the
other group gives the opposite word for it as ‗blunt‘. Thus, by play-way
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method the student can learn new words. The incorporation of antonyms in
the classroom is an effective way of increasing the students‘ lexical power.
The following is the list of some of the antonyms in English:
above/below
asleep/awake
big/small
brave/cowardly
clean/dirty
dark/light
easy/difficult
false/true
fat/thin
flexible/rigid
generous/mean
happy/sad
healthy/ill
hot/cold
interesting/boring
loose/tight
messy/tidy
near/far
odd/even
on/off
over/under
pretty/ugly
quiet/noisy
right/left
rough/smooth
shallow/deep
shiny/dull
strong/weak
tame/wild
top/bottom
warm/cool
wise/foolish
alive/dead
before/after
black/white
cheap/expensive
dangerous/safe
early/late
empty/full
fast/slow
first/last
forwards/backwards
good/bad
hard/soft
high/low
inside/outside
long/short
many/few
narrow/wide
nice/nasty
old/new
open/closed
past/future
public/private
rich/poor
right/wrong
rude/polite
sharp/blunt
similar/different
tall/short
thick/thin
up/down
wet/dry
young/old
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3.4.26 Lexical Sets
Words belonging to the same lexical set are more easily slotted into the
structure than words chosen more randomly. One way to analyze a lexical
set is through understanding parts of speech in a language. The lexical set
may be broad enough to include all of a certain class, for instance, of nouns,
verbs or adjectives. Other lexical sets may include more narrow categories
of parts of speech. Linguists also benefit from comparing and contrasting
lexical sets. Moreover, the meanings of the words can be made clearer by
contrasting them with closely related words in the same set. For example, a
particular lexical set used in educational projects may include only phrasal
verbs, auxiliary or helping verbs, or other kinds of specific verb
constructions. Teacher should encourage students to draw up a number of
columns, according to a model on the board, each column labeled with the
name of a lexical set: e.g. fruit, transport, clothes, animals, sports. Lyons
(1968:460) states:
“It is in the case of sets of lexical items which give structure to
continuum that the relation of incompatibility is of crucial
importance in both the learning and the use of language.”
The following is the glaring example of lexical sets:
a) Computer
Algorithm
Analog
App
Application
Array
Drag
DVD (digital versatile disc)
Backup
Domain
Domain Name
Dot
Dot Matrix
Download
Dynamic
Email
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Bandwidth
Binary
Bit
Bitmap
Bite
Emoticon
Encrypt
Encryption
Enter
Exabyte
Blog
FAQ (frequently asked questions)
Blogger
Bookmark
Boot
Broadband
Browser
Buffer
Bug
Bus
Byte
Cache
Caps Lock
Captcha
Cd
Cd-Rom
Client
Clip Art
Clip Board
Computer
File
Finder
Firewall
Firmware
Flaming
Flash
Flash Drive
Floppy Disk
Flowchart
Folder
Font
Format
Frame
Freeware
Gigabyte
Graphics
Compile
Computer Program
3.4.27 Words often Confused and Commonly Misspelled Words
English has a lot of commonly confused words. They look alike, sound alike
moreover look and sound alike but have completely different meanings.
Other words look and sound different but are similar in meaning, and it is
hard to determine in a given context. Teacher should provide the meaning of
such words, if necessary. For examples: adopt: adapt, beside: besides,
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principal: principle etc. the following is the list of commonly misspelled
words:
accommodate,
accommodation
Achieve
Across
aggressive,
aggression
Apparently
environment
Irresistible
Religious
Existence
Fahrenheit
Familiar
Knowledge
liaise, liaison
Lollipop
Remember
Resistance
Sense
Finally
Separate
Appearance
argument
assassination
basically
beginning
fluorescent
Foreign
foreseeable
Forty
Forward
Believe
Bizarre
business
calendar
Caribbean
Cemetery
Chauffeur
Colleague
Coming
Friend
Further
Gist
Glamorous
government
Guard
Happened
harass,
harassment
Honorary
millennium,
millennia
Neanderthal
Necessary
Noticeable
Occasion
occurred,
occurring
Occurrence
Pavilion
Persistent
Pharaoh
Piece
Politician
Portuguese
Possession
Until
Committee
Completely
Conscious
Curiosity
Definitely
Dilemma
Disappear
Humorous
idiosyncrasy
immediately
incidentally
independent
Embarrass
environment
preferred,
preferring
Propaganda
Publicly
Really
Receive
Interrupt
Irresistible
Knowledge
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Siege
Successful
Supersede
Surprise
Tattoo
Tendency
Therefore
Threshold
Tomorrow
Tongue
Truly
Unforeseen
Unfortunately
Weird
Wherever
Which
Disappoint
Ecstasy
Existence
Fahrenheit
3.4.28 Homophones and Homonyms
Homophones are the words pronounced alike and have different spellings
like ‗flower‘ and ‗flour‘. Homonym is a more general term that includes
both homophones and words that are spelled alike and have different
meanings like bank (the edge of a river) and bank (a financial institution).
Moreover, the terms homonym and homophone are used in such a way that
each term includes words that are pronounced alike and have different
spellings, and also words that are spelled alike and have different meanings.
A ‗homonym‘ and ‗homophone‘ are fairly similar concepts. Both the terms
feature the root homo-, which is a Greek term that means "the same." This
means a homonym and homophone deal with words that are in some way
the same. The difference, however, is critical. A homonym is a collection of
words that are spelled the same and are pronounced the same, but have
different meanings. A homophone is a group of words that are pronounced
the same but have different meanings, regardless of the differences in
spelling. An easy way to remember the difference between homonym and
homophone is to think of the suffix -nym, as name, and the suffix -phone as
sound. A homonym is, therefore, the same in name or spelling, whereas a
homophone is the same in sound. Thus, Homonyms and homophones can
both cause confusion for a reader when trying to decipher the meaning of a
passage, especially if more than one homonym occurs in the same passage.
For example, a reader may become confused when reading the following
sentence:
"The captain had the right to right the ship on his right."
Three homonyms are present in this sentence: each occurrence of the word
"right" has a different meaning, which means a reader will need to figure out
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what the meaning of each ‗right‘ is so he or she can figure out the overall
meaning of the sentence. Some of the common homonyms include:
accept,
except
brake, break
desert,
dessert
its, it's
presence,
presents
advice,
advise
breathe,
breath,
breadth
device,
devise
knew, new,
know, no
principal,
principle
affect,
effect
by, bye, buy faint, feint
later, latter
precede,
proceed
allot, a lot
can, may
lead, led
quiet, quit,
quite
all ready,
already
canvas,
canvass
lay, lie
rain, reign,
rein
waist,
waste
weak, week
farther,
further
capital,
capitol
fewer, less
leave, let
raise, rise
cite, site,
sight
formerly,
formally
loose, lose
sea, see
clothes,
cloths
forth, fourth
notable,
noticeable
sit, set
altar, alter
coarse,
course
good, well
object,
subject
stationary,
stationery
among,
between
compare,
contrast
hear, here
statue,
passed, past stature,
statute
are, hour,
our
compare to,
compare
hole, whole
with
all
together,
altogether
allusion,
illusion
award,
reward
compare to,
compare
with
complement,
compliment
consul,
council,
counsel
decent,
bad, badly descent,
dissent
vain, vane,
vein
vociferous,
voracious
wear, were,
where
weather,
whether,
rather
whose,
who's
your, you're
imply, infer peace, piece than, then
incidence,
incidents
plain, plane
their, there,
they're
incite,
insight
pore, pour
threw,
through
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beside,
besides
delusion,
illusion,
allusion
instance,
instants
precedence,
precedent
to, too, two
3.4.29 One Word Substitutes
One word substitution is very important to write precisely and speak in a
single word. They are not only useful to enhance one‘s vocabulary but also
spoken and writing skills. It is seen that precise words are always understood
easily by all. They are intended to add more meaning to the language.
Sometimes, verbosity is not required and it is required to talk or speak
precisely. In English language, there are many single words for a group of
words. Therefore, the users of English language should speak precisely and
avoid the fear of being misunderstood.
Students should be asked to collect a list of such words. Mock oral can also
be conducted once in a week. Students also find such activities very
interesting as it helps to build their knowledge of vocabulary. One word
substitution can be used to bring an effect of compression in any kind of
writing. In English language, there are many words that can be substituted to
make the writing to the point even without losing the meaning of the
context. The following is the list of well-known one word substitutes:
Difficulty in breathing
A person who flies an aircraft
A flesh eating animal
A Government by a king or queen
A Government by the people
A grass eating animal
A handwriting that cannot be read
Suffocaion
Pilot
Carnivorous
Monarchy
Democracy
Herbivorous
Illegible
148
A life history written by oneself
Autobiography
A life history written by somebody else
Biography
A person who cannot read or write
Illiterate
A person who has power over all
Omnipotent
A person who speaks two languages
Bilingual
A study of derivation of words
Etymology
A study of man
Anthropology
A study of races
Ethnology
A thing that is fit to be eaten
Edible
A word opposite in meaning to another
Antonym
Absence of government
Anarchy
All-powerful; possessing complete power and Omnipotent
authority
Handwritten book
Manuscript
Life story of a man written by himself
Autobiography
Life story of a man written by other
Biography
Of a man or animal that feeds on its own species
Cannibal
One who believes in God
Theist
One who does not believe in the existence of God
Atheist
One who is unmarried
Celibate
One who knows everything
Omniscient
One who knows many languages
Polyglot
One who lives in a foreign country
Immigrant
One who looks on the bright side of things
Optimist
One who looks on the dark side of things
Pessimist
One who thinks only of himself
Egoist
That through which light can partly pass
Translucent
That through which light can pass
Transparent
That through which light cannot pass
Opaque
That which cannot be avoided
Inevitable
That which cannot be believed
Incredible
That which cannot be changed
Irrevocable
That which cannot be conquered
Invincible
That which cannot be cured
Incurable
That which cannot be defended
Indefensible
That which cannot be described
Indescribable
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That which cannot be explained
That which cannot be hurt
That which cannot be imitated
That which cannot be noticed
That which cannot be practiced
That which cannot be put into practice
That which cannot be read
That which cannot be satisfied
That which cannot be seen
To turn friends in enemies
Words which have the same meaning
Words written on the tomb of a person
A book written by an unknown author
Inexplicable
Invulnerable
Inimitable
Imperceptible
Impracticable
Impracticable
Illegible
Insatiable
Invisible
Alienate
Synonyms
Epitaph
Anonymous
3.4.30 Crossword Puzzles
Crossword puzzles offer an entertaining way of reviewing vocabulary. The
teacher can design a „Word Puzzle‘, which is also called a ‗Word Cross‘,
asking the students to cooperate in groups to find and circle the words that
the puzzle contains. The teacher might also place several versions of the
word in the puzzle. It comprises numerous useful skills including
vocabulary, reasoning and spelling. It is also a much more active type of
learning, and will engross students with the material more than passive types
of techniques. Puzzle creation software and websites are abundant and easy
to use. Therefore, the teachers can create curriculum-specific crosswords
with little trouble. While studying any subject, a crossword puzzle with
subject-specific vocabulary can be shaped with simplicity and in a short
duration of time.
Students can do the puzzles in the class in pairs or at home as homework.
The crossword puzzle design is common activity familiar to most students.
Horizontal (across) and vertical (down) clues are provided as stimuli to the
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student. Puzzles may be found in voluminous newspapers and magazines
under a multiplicity of different names. The standard format of these
problem- solving activities involves a list of words that the participant tries
to locate in a square or a rectangular maze of letters. The hidden lexical
items may appear in a variety of configurations (left-right, right-left,
diagonal, vertical, horizontal). The difficulty of these puzzles is determined
by the number of lexical items to be located, and the quantity of the
unrelated alphabetic distracters (random letters). Following are some of the
crossword puzzles:
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D
C R I
O A P
N M H
T A O
N
N
T E E
G T T
R Y I
A M C
M O S
M L E
A O P
R G I
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3.4.31 Proverbs and Quotations
Proverbs provide hard hitting messages in a profound way rather than
verbose manner. They are the gems of wisdom. They have been the
backbone of speech communities and help to identify and dignify the
respective cultures. Their potential value for modern thought and life is still
to be recognized. They are coined in order to impart practical knowledge to
the upcoming generations. They have been passed on from one generation to
another as they contain truth with lots of experience and profound thinking.
In other words, it is the mixture of wisdom and philosophy. Many proverbs
have incorporated occupied into English having been known earlier in other
languages. They teach wisdom, discipline, honesty, respect and self-control.
Besides, proverbs add glory to the language. In short, the proverbs contain a
great treasure of folk wisdom. Through use of a short proverb is often easier
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to express an idea more convincingly, than mere giving a long speech. It
helps to enhance our knowledge of vocabulary in particular.
Words that are crafted well can leave a lasting impact on the respective
speech community.
A great quote can certainly come in handy when
it inspires people, make them laugh or in the case of a lawyer
persuade people to believe in a particular point of view. By using quotations,
the lexicographers constructed their definitions and traced semantic
developments in the language. The followings are some of the examples of
well-known proverbs:
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
A penny saved is a penny earned.
A person is known by the company he keeps.
A picture paints a thousand words.
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
Absolute power corrupts absolutely.
Actions speak louder than words.
All good things must come to an end.
All that glitters is not gold.
All work and no play make Jack a dull boy.
All's fair in love and war.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
As you sow so shall you reap.
Barking dogs seldom bite.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
Behind every great man there's a great woman.
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Better late than never.
Charity begins at home.
Don't throw the baby out with the bath water.
Empty vessels make the most noise.
Every cloud has a silver lining.
Every dog has its day.
Every picture tells a story.
First come, first served.
First impressions are the most lasting.
Flattery will get you nowhere.
God helps those who help themselves.
Great minds think alike.
Haste makes waste.
Honesty is the best policy.
It's never too late.
It's no use crying over spilt milk.
Jack of all trades, master of none.
Life begins at forty.
Might is right.
Money doesn't grow on trees.
Necessity is the mother of invention.
Never judge a book by its cover.
No pain, no gain.
Opportunity never knocks twice at any man's door.
Out of sight, out of mind.
Patience is a virtue.
Prevention is better than cure.
Rome wasn't built in a day.
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Silence is golden.
Success has many fathers, while failure is an orphan.
There are two sides to every question.
There's no place like home.
There's no smoke without fire.
Time flies.
Tomorrow never comes.
Where there's a will there's a way.
You are never too old to learn.
You can't make omelets without breaking eggs.
3.4.32 Language Lab Exercises
As language lab occupies the most prominent place among the technological
aids in Language Teaching. Basically, it aims to enhance proficiency in
linguistic skills through its emphasis on vocabulary. Earphones and
headphones deliver undistorted sound directly to the ears. It is better
practised in a language laboratory with the help of headphones and
earphones as it this provides ideal conditions for intensive listening.
Teaching isolated and meaningless lists of words and phrases is probably not
a good idea. Teachers may choose to introduce the setting before the
students listen. This provides an opportunity to elicit or introduce and
explain the sort of language we might hear in that setting. Language labs
adapt to the rhythm of each student to enhance listening skills and encourage
oral and written production, allowing plenty of group activities to learn and
study
vocabulary.
Educational
resource
websites
offer
interactive
environments with images and to help the learners to acquire vocabulary.
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3.4.33 Use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
Effective and efficient use of ICT hardware and software for teaching and
learning English vocabulary makes teaching–learning activities more
interesting. The use of ICT in vocabulary is an essential and it must be met
for successful technology integration and provide guidelines for the
development of strategic planning process. ICT has noteworthy benefits. It
has the capability to control presentation, increase variety and creativity,
provide feedback on learning activity. It can also adapt easily with any
materials.
However, since the development of information and communication
technology (ICT), teaching and studying activities become more varied,
especially when dealing with vocabulary. According to Dudenney (2000):
“the use of technology as a tool to develop the different language
skills has received great attention, so that teachers are frequently
exposed to new materials.”
It is a valuable tool not only for students but also for teachers to improve
teaching and learning vocabulary. For teachers, ICT is a professional
resource to explore many methods of teaching vocabulary and for students
ICT provides opportunities to develop their vocabulary by doing many
activities. It is also helpful to increase variety and creativity in presenting
new words. With ICT, the teachers can use different materials for each
lesson. Teachers can also create activities based on their needs.
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3.4.34 Use of Conversation
It can be found that the most recurrent and frequent words and phrases in
conversation are grammatical words (articles, pronouns, prepositions, etc.),
common everyday nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (people, money; go,
see; different, interesting; still, usually), and modal auxiliaries (may, should,
can, probably). Some of these words may be far more frequent in
conversation than in writing (probably) or have different uses.
In a conversation, the conversational partners often include other
participants to measure how the conversation is going. For example, a
speaker may use expressions like you know what I mean, or the shorter you
know, to check if others in the conversation understand, sympathize with, or
even agree with what he or she is trying to say. These expressions can
generate the impression that the speaker feels the listener shares his or her
view or knowledge of the topic. In contrast, expressions such as you see, you
know, let me tell you, and actually create the opposite impression that the
speaker is ‗telling‘ the listener something that he or she may not already
know. These strategies are not just luxuries or optional extras, but they are
important in creating true dialogue and in creating good relationships
between the interlocutors involved in the conversation.
3.4.35 Role Play
Role play creates a real life situation in the classroom. It is important in the
classroom communication because it gives students a chance to practice
communicatively in different social contexts and in different social roles.
The language applied in this activity is varied according to the person‘s
status, attitudes, mood, and diverse situations. It engages all your senses and
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is quite intellectually demanding. It enables the learners to retrieve the
words. Blachowicz and Fisher (2000) correctly suggest:
“Teachers can introduce some of the words which provide both
definitional and contextual information about the words to be learned
by making up a dialogue for students so that students can understand
a further meaning and usage of the words.”
3.4.36 Music
Songs are extremely adaptable and can suit to any age, gender, taster and
mood. Using songs in the classroom is not only fun but it also can make the
students learn a lot of new vocabulary such as idioms, verbs, nouns, and
even slangs by listening to their favorite music. It attracts students‘ attention.
Murphey, (1992) rightly points out:
“Songs can also be useful tools in the learning of vocabulary,
sentence structures, and sentence patterns, not to mention their
reflectivity of mother tongue culture.”
Songs can provide an opportunity for vocabulary practice. They are usually
based around a theme or topic that can provide the context for vocabulary
learning. The song and the lyrics need to be selected carefully to
complement the target vocabulary. A difficulty for teachers is finding and
selecting songs that are suitable both in terms of vocabulary and
topic/theme. Nevertheless, using students‘ favourite songs to teach
vocabulary creates endless opportunities for revision as it is fundamental for
storing the information in long term memory.
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3.4.37 Idioms
An idiom is a phrase or expression in which the entire meaning is different
from the usual meanings of the individual words within it. Idioms are fun to
work with because they are an integral part of everyday vocabulary.
Students enjoy working with figurative meanings. They also enjoy finding
out the origins of idiomatic expressions, some of which are very old. It
cannot be fully understood by the meanings of the individual words that are
contained within it. The meaning of the whole idiom has little, often nothing
to do with the meanings of the words taken one by one. The teacher should
bring out to the notice of the students that idioms are often used in writing or
speech to make expression more colorful. Some of the most colorful English
idioms make use of animals or animal comparisons.
Moreover, many idioms have a very narrow register range, being used only
in certain contexts and for certain effects. They, therefore, need to be
approached with a great deal of caution. The teacher should teach them as
the need arises and in their contexts of use. Teaching idioms can be
beneficial for students to remember the words. The following are some of
the remarkable idioms associated with animals:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
to have ants in your pants
to take the bull by the horns
to let the cat out of the bag
to have the cat get you tongue
to be raining cats and dogs
to have a cow
to be in the doghouse
to let sleeping dogs lie
ix.
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3.4.38 Phrasal Verbs
The teachers should include phrasal verbs in their language classrooms as
much as possible and draw the attention of the students to these from time to
time. There are many phrasal verbs in English language which are used in
normal, everybody speech and writing. A phrasal verb consists of a verb
and a particle (preposition or adverb). The meaning of a phrasal verb is
different from the meaning of each word if it is considered separately.
There are two main types of phrasal verbs: transitive and intransitive. A
transitive verb always has an object. For Example, ‗I made up an excuse‘.
An intransitive verb does not have an object. For Example, ‗My car broke
down‘. Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. It means the object is
between the verb and the preposition. For Example, ‗I looked the word up in
the dictionary‘. Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. It means the
object is placed after the preposition. For Example, ‗I will look into the
matter as soon as possible‘. Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object
in both places. For Example, ‗I picked up the book. I picked the book up‘.
However, if the object is a pronoun, it must be placed between the verb and
the preposition. For Example, ‗I picked it up‘. Larsen and Freeman
(2001:254) mentions:
“knowing the form of a phrasal verb includes knowing whether it is
followed by a particle or by a preposition, whether it is transitive or
intransitive, whether it is separable or not, and what stress and
juncture patterns are used. Knowing the meaning encompasses
literal, figurative and multiple meanings. Finally, knowing the use
covers understanding the fact that phrasal verbs are part of informal
discourse.”
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Common classroom expressions incorporating phrasal verbs are: sit down,
put your hand up, turn your papers over, write this down, cover the page up,
look it up, hurry up and calm down!. The teacher should teach the students
the difference between „passed by‟ and „passed away‟. The following are the
glaring examples of phrasal verbs with the verb „look‟ and „get‘:
Look
look about/around=
Examine
look after =
Be responsible for
look ahead=
Think about events in the future
look back =
Return in one‘s thoughts
look for =
Try to find
look on =
To be a spectator
look out =
Take care, beware
look up=
Try to find, especially in a work
look upto=
Regard with respect
Get across/over
get along/on
communicate, make understandable
like each other
get around
have mobility
get away
go on a vacation
get away with
do without being noticed or punished
get back
Return
get back
receive something you had before
get back at
retaliate, take revenge
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get back into
become interested in something again
get on
step onto a vehicle
get away with
do without being noticed or punished
get back
Return
get back
receive something you had before
get back at
retaliate, take revenge
get back into
become interested in something again
get on
step onto a vehicle
get over
recover from an illness, loss, difficulty
get over
overcome a problem
get round to
finally find time to do something
3.4.39 Vocabulary Games
Games have a tremendous educational value. They are an important part of
learning and used for entertainment and fun. It should be noted that many
games are challenging and require repeated attempts. According to
Ubermann (1998:21):
“Games encourage, entertain, teach and promote fluency.”
There are so many online games which can be used effectively. They
encourage the learner to use the language instead of thinking about the
correct forms. Moon (2000:12) argues:
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"appeal to their sense of fun and arouse their interest….games give
them a real purpose for using language and provide opportunities for
them to use language more freely.”
With the use of games, the teacher can create various contexts in which
students have to use the language to communicate, exchange information
and express their own opinions. According to Rixon (1992:82), games help
students revise vocabulary and recalling something that happened in a game
may help a student remember the language connected with it. The games,
Dominoes, Crosswords, Kangaroo words, Jumbled letters, Eliciting etc. are
described in a detailed manner by Chapman (1965), Morgan (1987) and
Wagner(1965) etc. the followings are some of the interesting games:
3.4.39.1 Bingo
Bingo is a game the whole class or small groups can play. The teacher can
serve as the caller or students can take turns serving as the caller. The caller
calls out the definition, then the players have to determine if their Bingo
card has the word that matches the definition. The basic idea behind
vocabulary Bingo is to encourage students to study and review their
vocabulary. Huang (1996: 1) reflects:
"learning through games could encourage the operation of certain
psychological and intellectual factors which could facilitate
communication heightened self-esteem, motivation and spontaneity,
reinforcing learning, improving intonation and building confidence.”
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3.4.39.2 Back to the Board Game
The teachers can hold a ‗back to the board game‘. One of the students is
required to come to the blackboard without looking at the word representing
one of the objects that the teacher writes on the board behind them. All the
other students will try to do some gestures as hints for the student whose
back is to the board. The student at the blackboard is expected to guess what
the word is. If the word is guessed correctly, all the students in the class are
required to spell aloud the word. Allen (1993:52) points out:
“guessing games, for example, create conditions in which the use of
the target language is necessary for leading players to the correct
guess.”
3.4.39.3 Game with the First Letter Given
The teacher who wants to maximize the benefits of cooperative learning
must observe what is happening in the group. In the ‗spelling game‘, the
teacher gives each group one letter, and each group is required to make up
at least five words which begin with the given letter. The group which
responds very quickly, speaking the words correctly and making up the
most words will be the winner. The spelling games challenge the
students‘ ability to remember.
3.4.39.4 Word Translation Race
In this game, the class is divided into teams and each team is given a board
marker pen. The board is divided into as many sections as there are teams.
The teacher says a word in the students' mother tongue, and the first team
that writes the correct English translation on the board, earns a point. The
game continues for as many words as it is felt necessary to review.
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A variation of it would be to read out definitions of words, or give synonyms
or show pictures, rather than giving translations. Staines (1990:7) suggests:
“There is no mystery to learning through play. When children play,
they cannot help but learn and develop.”
3.4.39.5 Spelling Power Race
The class is divided into two teams and a representative from each of two
teams stands at the board with a board marker pen or chalk. The board is
divided in two halves. The teacher shows the word pn a flashcard to the rest
of the class. The teams must simultaneously spell the word to their
representative, who cannot see the word. The first team to get the word on to
the board with its correct spelling earns a point. The game continues with
different students taking turns to be the team representative. This game is
more difficult than it sounds, especially if the words are chosen that include
letters which are frequently silent.
3.4.39.6 The Suffixes Relays
After presenting suffixes, let students put the lesson to the test. The teacher
provides each team with a pile of root words written on large cards. If an
actual word is not created, the player must race with the suffix back to the
team and the next player must try to complete the word. The game continues
until one team has created six valid words with the given suffixes.
3.4.39.7 Tongue Twister
Using tongue twisters in the class is a fun and a challenging way of
providing word and pronunciation practice. Tongue twisters are one of the
means of learning a language without getting bored. They help the students
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to improve fluency in the language. They are not only for light-hearted
linguistic fun but they also serve a practical purpose in practising
pronunciation. They may be used by non-native students of English to
improve their accent. Many tongue twisters contain similar sounding
words/phrases with different meanings. This leads to another benefit of
improving students‘ vocabulary. The following are some of the examples of
tongue twisters:
i)
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
Did Peter Piper pick a peck of pickled peppers?
If Peter Piper Picked a peck of pickled peppers,
Where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?
ii)
She sells seashells by the seashore.
The shells she sells are surely seashells.
So if she sells shells on the seashore,
I'm sure she sells seashore shells.
iii)
How much wood would a woodchuck chuck
If a woodchuck could chuck wood?
He would chuck, he would, as much as he could,
And chuck as much as a woodchuck would
If a woodchuck could chuck wood.
iv)
One-one was a race horse.
Two-two was one too.
One-one won one race.
Two-two won one too.
v)
Purple, paper, people.
Purple, people, paper
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3.4.40 Peer Teaching
It allows the students to be the experts, giving them the opportunity to
authentically grow trust in their own knowledge and abilities while
strengthening their sense of self. A substitute to teacher presentation that
maximally involves learners is peer teaching, i.e. learners teaching each
other vocabulary. One way of doing this is through an information gap
activity. This is an activity in which information is dispersed between the
students in pairs or small groups. In order to complete a task, the students
must exchange information in order to „fill the information gap‟. If the
information also contains words whose meaning is known only to individual
members of the group, the information exchange will require the members
to teach each other those words.
3.4.41 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
With the emergence and prominence of Computer-Assisted Language
Learning and Teaching (CALL and CALT), many English teachers have
shifted their emphasis from teacher-centered or book-centered instruction to
students-centered or classroom-based instruction. CALL is the acronym for
Computer Assisted Language Learning and it is related to the use of
computers for language teaching and learning. Computers are used widely in
teaching and learning languages. CALL is defined by Davies (2010:261) as:
“an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer
technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement, and
assessment of material to be learned, usually including a sustainable
interactive element.”
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Significant use of CALL began in the 1960s. Since then, the advance of
CALL software has followed the changes in teaching methodologies. Most
teachers are interested in introducing technology to their students to support
them with opportunities to learn English. It offers an effective learning
environment so that students can practice in an interactive manner using
multi-media content, either with the supervision of teachers or on their own
pace in self-learning. Furthermore, it provides an individual-interactive
learning programme, so both the ‗fast‘ and ‗slow‘ learners can take benefit
from it. The advancement of speech and language technologies has opened
new perspectives on CALL systems, such as automatic pronunciation
assessment and simulated conversational lessons. It is also regarded as one
of the new and promising applications of speech analysis, recognition and
synthesis. It covers a variety of aspects including segmental, prosodic and
lexical features. The role of the computer in CALL has moved from the
‗input–control–feedback‘ sequence to management of communication, text,
vocabulary, grammar, audio and video.
3.4.42 Using Video
Authentic video and subtitles can precisely play an important role to help
learners increase and strengthen their vocabulary. For example, take a clip
from a film or TV show containing someone willing to buy or sell a house,
either going to the real state agency or visiting a house. It helps to gain
words related to one particular subject. Television is an exciting means of
communication. Useful vocabulary programmes are being telecast regularly
for children. The teacher you should utilize the T.V. programmes and make
them the basis for discussion. Any well-prepared learning task using
subtitles in authentic video clips will encourage a better understanding and
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acquisition of new vocabulary; new and old lexical items will enter the
students‘ minds more easily given the motivating and comprehensive
atmosphere provided by this familiar type of audio-visual environment. The
use of visuals, combined with cooperative learning groups, provide an
effective environment for the development of vocabulary and reading
comprehension. The translation element can likewise help higher level
students to be conscious of new and unfamiliar vocabulary items that might
otherwise be simply lost without the support of subtitles. Carter and
McCarthy (1988) aptly comments:
―the more opportunities that can be found for formal transfer
between foreign and mother-tongue words, the better the chances for
retention.”
Nowadays, educational video cassettes are available with video libraries in
the market. The Central Institute of Educational Technology and the State
Institute of Educational Technology (SIET) can also supply video cassettes
for the teachers‘ use in the classroom. Advertisements on television are also
a great source of new English words. Advertisers are often known to create
unique words or use slang words, to advertise their products. If they cannot
find a term that perfectly describes their product, they will create another.
The watchers generally appreciate the creativity of the advertisers and start
using the word on their own with their friends and family members. Thus,
concrete visual aids provide active, meaningful and repeated word use to
develop vocabulary.
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3.4.43 Audio Equipment
One of the best ways to improve the students‘ vocabulary is to hear it
because vocabulary is acquired through exposure. Books on tape can be an
outstanding supplemental tool for exposing students not only to expanded
vocabulary but also to a wide variety of literature and information. A
collection of fiction and non-fiction audio books are found in most libraries.
A teacher can use recordings of expert speakers to improve students‘
vocabulary. The types of audio-aids include: radio, gramophone, tape
recorder, audio-tapes, walk-man, and headphones etc. The beauty of these
kinds of materials is that it has no limitation and it can be used at all the
levels of teaching. In fact, radio has been made a marvelous impact on the
learners‘ development of the English language because it introduces new
words and helps everyone to expand his/her vocabulary. Listening to rich or
quality words while performing chores, driving or any other activity will
serve to improve vocabulary. It is recommended to repeat these tracks
multiple times. With a sustained practice of audio materials, the teacher can
imbibe the right kind of pronunciation. This technique can be far better than
the teaching of all sorts of theoretical elements of phonetics. Indeed, the
teaching of vocabulary can be enriched with the aid of audio materials.
3.5
Techniques of Expanding Vocabulary
The teacher should encourage students to enrich and expand their
vocabulary. There are different ways to expand the vocabulary of the
students. By studying the morphology, we know that it not only concerns
with the morphemes of words, but also the word-formation. In English
classes, teachers should help students to get to know the processes of word170
formation. Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and
provide the means in formation of new words. These rules determine how
morphemes are combined to form words.
Nowadays, the teachers in colleges pay much more attention to the teaching
of the morphological rules of English word formation in their classes. Yet,
we have a lot of work to do. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English
depends chiefly on word-formation. According to Pyles and Algeo (1982):
“words produced through affixation constitute 30% to 40% of the
total number of new words; compounding yields 28% to 30% of all
the new words; words that come from shortening including clipping
and acronym, amounting to 8% to 10%, together with 1% to 5% of
words born out of blending and other means. So by analyzing the
processes of English word-formation, we can infer word-meanings
and learn more new English words.”
The word ‗morphology‘ has been derived from Greek word ‗morphe,‘
meaning form, and ‗ology‘, meaning the study of. Morphology works in
much the same manner, with students manipulating the parts of words to
create new meanings or words similar in meanings. Morphology relates to
the segmenting of words into affixes (prefixes and suffixes) and roots or
base words, and the origins of words. Understanding those words connected
by meaning and spelling can be critical to increase students‘ vocabulary.
Direct instruction of morphology is an effective means to help with
understanding and applying word structure for decoding, spelling, and
vocabulary study.
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There are several ways to remember new words. By analyzing the features
of morphemes, roots, affixes and the processes of word-formation, students
are likely to strengthen their comprehension in remembering new words. For
example, in the series of words ‗act— actor— actress— action— active—
activity‘, they have the same root ―act‖ and different suffixes. It is necessary
to do a lot of exercises by activities of listening, speaking, reading and
writing in the course of studying.
Morphological clusters refer to what Nagy calls ‗the word formation
process.‘ These clusters will often build around a base or root word. For
example, if a teacher were to teach the word arm not as a body part but as a
verb meaning ‗to provide with a weapon,‘ then it would probably be useful
to teach the morphologically related words such as arms (noun), armed
(adjective as in armed guard), disarm, rearm, unarm, armor, armory,
armament, etc. The following are the ways to expand students‘ vocabulary:
3.5.1 Affixation
The process of adding a letter or sound to a root word is called affixation.
Affixes are bound morphemes can be added at the beginning of a root word
(prefix) and at the end of a root word (suffix). For example, in the word
‗unfriendly‘, ‗friend‘ is the root word. ‗un-‘ and ‗-ly‘ are the affixes. ‗un-‘ is
the prefix. ‗-ly‘ is the suffix. Direct instruction in the most common affixes
(prefixes and suffixes) helps students expand their vocabulary knowledge. If
the students know how the affixes are used, they will be able understand the
process of word- formation and thus help them to increase their vocabulary.
The definitions of common prefixes and suffixes are included in
dictionaries, internet searches and in the programmes. According to Nation
(1990) students can learn unknown words if they recognize the word parts
then make use of each part to understand the meaning of the whole.
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There are various types of prefixes like bi-, un-, bi-, non-, post-, pre-, ex-, re,
vice-, mini- etc. and suffixes like -able, -ness, -full, -ism, -less, -ly, -like etc.
They should be introduced to the students at the early stage. Nattinger
(1988:69) stated that the impact of word parts as follows:
“many words built about a particular root are gathered so that the
associations among them can be seen. Even though the meanings of
these words may be slightly different, clustering them will help
students in remembering their general meaning.”
Affixation helps to form new words from existing stock of vocabulary. It
aids the students‘ to know more about the vocabulary.
a)
Affixes and Roots
Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is
common in academic English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base
(like
dislike), whereas suffixes are added to the end of the base (active
activate). Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word, but
suffixes usually do change the class of a word. The most common prefixes
used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-, un-, mis-,
out-. The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy. The following
tables indicate the nature of the affixes:
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b)
Verb
Prefix + Verb
Prefix
Verbs
Meaning
Examples
restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild,
refinance
re-
again or back
dis-
reverses the meaning of disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect,
the verb
discontinue
over-
too much
un-
reverses the meaning of
unbend, uncouple, unfasten
the verb
mis-
badly or wrongly
mislead, misinform, misidentify
out-
more or better than others
outperform, outbid
be-
make or cause
befriend, belittle
co-
Together
co-exist, co-operate, co-own
de-
do the opposite of
devalue, deselect
fore-
earlier, before
foreclose, foresee
inter-
Between
interact, intermix, interface
pre-
Before
pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub-
under/below
subcontract, subdivide
overbook, oversleep, overwork
trans- across, over
transform, transcribe, transplant
under- not enough
underfund,
undersell,
underdevelop
Suffix
undervalue,
Verb
Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be.‖ The following are
suffixes:
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i.
Typical noun suffixes are -ence, -ance, -or, -er, -ment, -list, -ism, ship, -ency, -sion, -tion, -ness, -hood, -dom
ii.
Typical verb suffixes are -en, -ify, -ize, -ate
iii.
Typical adjective suffixes are -able, -ible, -al, -tial, -tic, -ly, -ful, ous, -tive, -less, -ish, -ulent
iv.
The adverb suffix is -ly (although not all words that end in -ly are
adverbs—like friendly)
Suffix
Example
-ise
stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise
-ate
differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy
classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en
awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
c)
Nouns
The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English
are: co- and sub-. The most common prefixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism,
-ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery. The most common noun affix in academic
English is -tion.
The following tables show how the prefixes are formed:
Prefix + Noun
Prefix
Nouns
Meaning
Examples
anti-
against
anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
auto-
self
autobiography, automobile
bi-
two
bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism
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co-
joint
co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant
counter- against
counter-argument, counter-example,
dis-
the converse of
discomfort, dislike
ex-
former
ex-chairman, ex-hunter
hyper-
extreme
hyperinflation, hypersurface
in-
the converse of
inattention, incoherence, incompatibility
in-
inside
inpatient,
inter-
between
interaction, inter-change, interference
kilo-
thousand
Kilobyte
mal-
bad
malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition
mega-
million
Megabyte
mis-
wrong
misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement
mini-
small
mini-publication, mini-theory
mono-
one
monosyllable, monograph, monogamy
neo-
new
neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism
out-
separate
outbuilding,
poly-
many
Polysyllable
pseudo-
false
pseudo-expert
re-
again
re-assessment, re-examination
semi-
half
semicircle, semi-darkness
sub-
below
subset, subdivision
super-
more than, above
superset, superimposition, superpowers
tele-
distant
telecommunications,
tri-
three
tripartism
ultra-
beyond
ultrasound
under-
below, too little
under-development, undergraduate
vice-
Deputy
vice-president
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The following table shows how suffixes are added to verb, noun or adjective
to make nouns:
Suffix + Verb, Noun or Adjective
Suffix
noun
Meaning
Examples
-tion
-sion
action/instance of V-ing
alteration, demonstration
expansion, inclusion,
admission
-er
person who V-s
something used for V-ing
advertiser, driver
computer, silencer
-ment
action/instance of V-ing
development, punishment,
unemployment
-ant
-ent
person who V-s
assistant, consultant
student
-age
action/result of V
breakage, wastage, package
-ence
-ance
action/result of V
preference, dependence,
interference
attendance, acceptance,
endurance
-ery/ry
action/instance of V-ing
place of V-ing
bribery, robbery, misery
refinery, bakery
Suffix Meaning
-er
person concerned with
N
Examples
astronomer, geographer
-ism
doctrine of N
Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ship
state of being N
friendship, citizenship, leadership
-age
collection of N
baggage, plumage
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Suffix Meaning
-ity
-ness
-cy
Examples
state or quality of being ability,
A
similarity,
responsibility,
curiosity
state or quality of being
A
state or quality of being
A
darkness, preparedness, consciousness
urgency, efficiency, frequency
d) Adjectives
Many adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix
(e.g. -less, -ous). Adjectives can also be formed from other adjectives,
especially by the negative prefixes (un-, in- and non-). The most common
suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less.
The following table shows how suffixes are added to verb or noun to make
adjectives:
Suffix
Example
-ent
different, dependent, excellent
-ive
attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-ous
continuous, dangerous, famous
-ful
beautiful, peaceful, careful
-less
endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-able
drinkable, countable, avoidable,
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Negative + Adjective
Adjectives
Prefix
Examples
un-
unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust
im-/in-/ir/il-
immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable,
illegal
non-
non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral
dis-
disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest
3.5.2 Conversion
When an item changes its word class without the addition of any affix is
called as conversion. It is the word formation process in which a word of
one grammatical form becomes a word of another grammatical form without
any changes to spelling or pronunciation. Conversion is also referred to as
zero derivation or null derivation with the assumption that the formal change
between words results in the addition of an invisible morpheme. However,
linguists argue for a clear distinction between the word formation processes
of derivation and conversion.
New words can be created by a process called conversion, when a word that
in one context is one part of speech (such as a noun), in another context and
can be enlisted to serve a different function (such as a verb). Hence, one
may have heard the relatively recent term to board as in The teacher
boarded the new words and the students wrote them down. The following
are the glaring examples of conversion:
1.
a) Mohan‘s English is perfect. (Adj.)
b) Written examination helps students perfect their writing skill (V).
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2.
a) John was present in the classroom. (Adj.)
b) John offers a present on Mary‘s birthday. (Noun)
3.5.3 Compounding
Compounding is the word formation process in which two or more lexemes
combine into a single new word. Compound words may be written as one
word or as two words joined with a hyphen. For example:
i.
noun-noun compound: note + book → notebook
ii.
adjective-noun compound: blue + berry → blueberry
iii.
verb-noun compound: work + room → workroom
iv.
noun-verb compound: breast + feed → breastfeed
v.
verb-verb compound: stir + fry → stir-fry
vi.
adjective-verb compound: high + light → highlight
vii.
verb-preposition compound: break + up → breakup
viii.
preposition-verb compound: out + run → outrun
ix.
adjective-adjective compound: bitter + sweet → bittersweet
x.
preposition-preposition compound: in + to → into
Compounds may be compositional in the sense that the meaning of the new
word is determined by combining the meanings of the parts. It can be noncompositional which means that the meaning of the new word cannot be
determined by combining the meanings of the parts. For example, a
blueberry is a berry that is blue. However, a breakup is not a relationship
that is severed into pieces in an upward direction.
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3.5.4 Clipping
Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or
shortened without changing the meaning of the word. They are used in
shortened forms by subtracting one or more syllables from a word. Clipping
differ from back-formation in that the new word retains the meaning of the
original word. Consider the following examples of clipping:
i.
advertisement – ad
ii.
alligator – gator
iii.
examination – exam
iv.
gasoline – gas
v.
gymnasium – gym
vi.
influenza – flu
vii.
laboratory – lab
viii.
mathematics – math
ix.
memorandum – memo
x.
photograph – photo
xi.
public house – pub
xii.
raccoon – coon
xiii.
reputation – rep
xiv.
situation comedy – sitcom
xv.
telephone – phone
The four types of clipping are back clipping, fore-clipping, middle clipping,
and complex clipping. Back clipping is removing the end of a word as in gas
from gasoline. Fore-clipping is removing the beginning of a word as in
gator from alligator. Middle clipping is retaining only the middle of a word
as in flu from influenza. Complex clipping is removing multiple parts from
multiple words as in sitcom from situation comedy.
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3.5.5 Blending
It is a word formation process in which parts of two or more words
combines to create a new word whose meaning is often a combination of the
original words. Blended words are also referred to as portmanteaus. Study
the following examples:
i.
biographical + picture → biopic
ii.
breakfast + lunch → brunch
iii.
chuckle + snort → chortle
iv.
cybernetic + organism → cyborg
v.
guess + estimate → guesstimate
vi.
hazardous + material → hazmat
vii.
motor + hotel → motel
viii.
prim + sissy → prissy
ix.
simultaneous + broadcast → simulcast
x.
smoke + fog → smog
xi.
Spanish + English → Spanglish
xii.
telephone + marathon → telethon
xiii.
web + seminar → webinar.
3.6 Conclusion
The present chapter has highlighted a brief historical development of
methods and techniques. In addition, it has put into words the aspects of
vocabulary that need to be known by the teachers as well as the learner.
Further, the discussion has been made of those crucial theoretical issues
related to the teaching of vocabulary. Techniques and methods of teaching
new vocabulary and expanding vocabulary also have been discussed in the
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chapter. These techniques give the students the opportunity to become
independent and allow them to activate their previous knowledge in working
with words by themselves. In addition, they feel more confident when they
try to express themselves in English, because they have already grasped a lot
of vocabulary as a result adopting above mentioned techniques. Teacher
must make use of such techniques while teaching of vocabulary. It has also
focused on expansion of vocabulary. The next chapter is devoted to the
detailed analysis of the collected data.
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