LABORATORY MANUAL
AREA OF ZOOLOGY
UNIVERSIDAD MIGUEL HERNÁNDEZ DE ELCHE
Course 2010 - 2011
Table of contents
1 EXERCISE 1: OBSERVATION OF MICROSCOPIC PREPARATIONS ................ 3
1.1
UNIT I: PORIFERS AND COELENTERATA (SPONGES AND HYDRAS). ............ 3
1.2
UNIT II: PLATYHELMINTHES AND NEMATODES ........................................ 6
1.2.1
II. A. PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES ......................................... 6
1.2.2
II. B. PHYLUM NEMATODA ...................................................... 10
1.3
UNIT III: MOLLUSKS ......................................................................... 11
1.4
UNIT IV: ARTHROPODS ................................................................... 11
1.4.1
IV. A. CRUSTACEANS .............................................................. 11
1.4.2
IV.B. INSECTS ........................................................................... 12
1.5
UNIT V: ECHINODERMS ................................................................... 15
1.6
UNIT VI: PISCIFORM CHORDATES: ............................................... 15
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
VI. A TYPES OF SCALES: ........................................................ 15
VI. B STUDY OF GAMETOGENESIS IN AMPHIBIANS (FROG)
16
VI. C REPRODUCTION OF VERTEBRATES: .......................... 16
2 EXERCISE 2: COLLECTIONS INSECTS/MOLLUSKS ...................................... 17
2.1
DETERMINATION OF INSECTS USING DICHOTOMOUS KEYS ..................... 18
2.2
DETERMINATION OF BUTTERFLIES USING IDENTIFICATION GUIDES ........ 20
2.3
DETERMINATION OF GA STROPODS U SING DICHOTOMOUS
KEYS: ............................................................................................................ 23
3 EXERCISE 3: ANALYSIS OF FAUNA REMAINS ............................................ 25
3.1
PELLET ANALYSIS FROM NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY ............................. 25
4 ANNEX 1 .................................................................................................... 29
5 ANNEX ....................................................................................................... 36
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6 ANNEX 1 .................................................................................................... 40
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1
EXERCISE 1: OBSERVATION OF MICROSCOPIC PREPARATIONS
This exercise consists in learning the morphology and special structures present that animals of different
phylogenic t rees hav e ado pted. F or t his, t hat obs erved i n t he microscopes must be des cribed and t he
structures identified, making a drawing of each preparation observed.
1.1
UNIT I: PORIFERS AND COELENTERATA (SPONGES AND HYDRAS).
1. SAMPLE 1: Sponge spicules
2. SAMPLE 2: Hydra gemmation/ Hydra with buds
3. SAMPLE 3: Sperm gland
4. SAMPLE 4: Ovary
HELP: Description and drawings
The Hydra, of the phylum Cnidaria and Class Hydrozoa, is a freshwater aquatic animal found in the lower portions of aquatic leaves.
If you focus upon the figure in the photocopy, you will see the morphology the animal presents in addition
to t he names of i ts di fferent an atomical par ts. T he b ase of t he an imal has a “ foot” o r “ basal disc” b y
which the animal sticks to the substrate. Although the animal appears unable to move, the basal disc is
capable of displacement through the substrate. From the disc upwards, the cylindrical body finishes with
an opening, the mouth, surrounded by tentacles.
The figure also shows one of the reproduction methods the animal has, asexual reproduction by gemmation.
In addition to this type of reproduction, the hydra is capable of sexually reproducing in determined moments, where the male grows masculine gonads, the sperm gland that mates by rounded expansion in
its exterior. In the sample, 5 are observed. This gland, usually appearing in the fall, releases spermatozoa in the water, which enter the interior of the female, specifically towards its “ovary”, where the feminine gametes are located. From this an embryo is produced that turns into a cyst to survive the winter. In
spring, the embryo becomes active and develops into an adult.
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Hydra, sp
(1) Tentacle
(2) Gastrodermis
(3) Epidermis
(4) Basal disc ("foot")
(5) Mesoglea
(6) Gastrovascular cavity
(7) Hypostome
Longitudinal cut in the corporal wall of a hydra
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Magnification in which the epidermis, mesoglea (in the image it is a type of a dividing line) and gastrodemis are appreciated.
"Bud": (in gemmation)
Figure 3: Hydra Longitudinal section.
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1.2
UNIT II: PLATYHELMINTHES AND NEMATODES
Draw a diagram of the preparations, identifying the corresponding parts and whether the sample
is male (♂) or female (♀):
1. SAMPLE 5: Copulating Schistosoma: Identification of ♂, ♀ and gynecophorous canal.
2. SAMPLE 6: Schistosoma male: Identification of ventosa and gynecophorous canal.
3. SAMPLE 7: Schistosoma female
4. SAMPLE 8: Schistosoma miracidia
5. SAMPLE 9: Schistosoma eggs
6. SAMPLE 10: Taenia proglottid
7. SAMPLE 11 AND 12: Transversal cut, Ascaris male and female
1.2.1
II. A. PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
We will now see examples of the Phylum Platyhelminthes, or flat worms. In general they are parasites,
with the exception of the Class Turbellaria, that are free living. Being parasites, their body has developed to carry out this life form successfully. We will see examples of the Class Trematoda, the Schistosoma, and the Class Cestodo, the Taenia.
The Schistosoma is an endoparasite that presents a complex life cycle, as the figure in the photocopies
shows. It begins as an egg, freed by an adult individual found in the digestive system or the bladder of a
person. This egg is expelled with feces or urine and it emerges, freeing its first corporal form, the Miracidium. The Miracidium has an amoebic form that is capable of moving itself across the ground, searching
for i ts i ntermediate host, t he s nail. I f i t f inds i tself i n adv erse c onditions it i s c apable of enc ysting i tself
until the conditions improve. This form is called a Sporocyst. Upon finding its intermediate host, it enters
through the skin and its morphology changes to another more elongated form, the Redia. After this development, at a gi ven m oment i t c hanges t o anot her f orm, t he Cercariae, where i t l eaves t he s nail i n
search of its definitive host, a human being. The Cercariae is a form that appears when it is found in water, like a puddle, lake, etc. If it doesn’t encounter favorable conditions it can once again protect itself by
encysting itself one m ore t ime. T his f orm i s c alled Metacercariae. U pon f inding i ts h ost, it penetrates
through the skin and migrates to the liver, where it matures into its adult form. The adult form has suction
cups that allow it to grab on, in addition to hooks. Finally it passes to the intestine, rectum and bladder,
where it deposits its eggs.
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In the case of the CLASS CESTODA, we see the Taenia. The Taenia is another endoparasite of vertebrates t hat like c an be seen i n the figure, h as a f lat a nd elongated m orphology. Its bod y has in its extreme anterior a zone containing hooks and suckers. This part is called the scolex, and is for holding on
to the digestive system of its host, human beings. After this is its neck, and the rest of the body is called
the strobila.
The strobila is comprised by a succession of segments called the proglottids. Each proglottid is capable
of creating a new individual. Not all proglottids are identical in the strobila. Those closest to the neck are
immature; they do not yet have all the structures developed. As we move down its body, the proglottids
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mature, being able to distinguish reproductive male and female structures within the same proglottid. But
self-fertilization is rare for proglottids; instead, one inseminates another nearby. The spermatozoa enter
the genital pore, as c an be di stinguished i n t he ph otocopied f igure. T hey p enetrate t he vagina until
reaching the ootype where the oocytes originating in the ovaries are fertilized. Afterwards, they pass to
the uterus where the eggs mature with the help of vitelline glands that produce vitelline, nutrition for the
eggs. The most mature proglottids can be distinguished primarily by being egg sacks, which are easily
released t o b e t hen l iberated i n f eces. S permatozoa are pr oduced i n t he t esticles, w hich ar e t he l ittle
balls app earing i n t he br anched s tructure. T hese p ass t hrough t he vas deferens to t he c irrus, w hich
leaves by way of the genital pore to fertilize another proglottid.
Proglottid
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Testicles
Uterus
Vas deferens
Seminal receptacle
Ovary
Vitelline Glands
1.2.2
II. B. PHYLUM NEMATODA
From t he P hylum P latyhelminthes w e m ove t o t he Phylum Nematoda, r oundworms. The ani mals b elonging to this phylum, different from those previous, present a pseudocoelom, a structure that derives
from the blastocoele which acts as a covering of the internal organs.
As an example we see the Ascaris, an intestinal parasite that attacks domestic animals and human beings. There is not a complete example, but you will see a transversal section of the body of an adult
male and female. The difference between the body of a male and a female Ascaris can be seen in the
figure: The body of the female, larger than the male, is some 20 to 40 cm long, narrows in its anterior,
called the ´vulva´. Here the genital openings are located where the male inoculates its spermatozoa. This
is achieved with its “copulation spines”, two extensions leaving from the “orificio caudal”.
The preparation consists in the observation of transversal cuts of a male and a female Ascaris. This body
is covered by a fine cuticle that is separated from the rest of the body. Between the basal plate, which is
the delimitation of the body, and the cuticle, the syncytial epidermis is located. This epidermis is found in
contact with the pseudocele in the interior of the body, specifically by way of the 4 openings, of which
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are t he t wo excreting channels in the sides, the dorsal and ventral nerve cords. T here ar e al so
nerve c ords on the s ide of t he excreting channels. U nder the basal plate t here is a layer of muscular
cells that are employed for movement. Towards the center of the body the digestive tube is found, and
between this structure and the muscular layer is the area called the pseudocele. In the case of the female Ascaris sample, two structures within the pseudocele can be distinguished. Two uteri are on one
side of the ventral zone, full of oocytes. Another structure found in numbers is the oviducts. In the case of
the male, a multitude of spheres that correspond to the vas deferens are apparent, spheres darker than
are the testes, and a semicircle that is the seminal vesicle.
1.3
UNIT III: MOLLUSKS
female
male
SAMPLE 13: 1. Radula
The radula consists in an elongated cartilaginous base (odontophore) covered by longitudinal rows of
curved c hitinous d entricles. T he f orm and layout of t he d entricles are r elated t o t he t ype o f f ood. T he
radula i s s upplied with s trong m uscles t hat al low i t t o be pr ojected outside of t he m outh, ac ting like a
scraper. The mucous secreted by the salivary glands in the mouth lubricate the radula and agglutinate
the particles being ingested.
1.4
1.4.1
UNIT IV: ARTHROPODS
IV. A. CRUSTACEANS
Draw a diagram of the preparations identifying the corresponding parts:
SAMPLE 14: 1. Copepods: Identification of Antenna, antennule, Cephalothorax, Seminal receptacle, caudal ramus and swimming legs.
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SAMPLE 15: 2. Artemia: Identification of sex (male or female) and nauplius eye.
Help: Drawings
Ventral view of a Copepod
Side view of a Copepod
♀
Artemia Nauplius
1.4.2
IV.B. INSECTS
IDENTIFICATION OF MOUTH PARTS: Identify the type of mouthparts that the species shown possess and briefly describe it:
1. SAMPLE 16: Mouthparts fly
2. SAMPLE 17: Mouthparts mosquito
3. SAMPLE 18: Mouthparts bee
4. SAMPLE 19: Mouthparts wasp
5. SAMPLE 20: Mouthparts butterfly
HELP: diagrams
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A: chewing type, B: cutting-sucking type, C: siphoning, D: sucking-chewing type. Ir (red):
labrum, md (green): mandible, mx (yellow): maxilla, Ib (blue): labium.
IDENTIFICATION OF THORACIC LEGS OF INSECTS: Identify the femur, tibia, tarsus and pollen
basket in the sample.
SAMPLE 21: Thoracic leg bee.
HELP: MORPHOLOGY OF A BEE:
Head: foremost part.
Thorax: central part.
Abdomen: rear part.
Wing: appendage of a bee used for aerial locomotion.
Segment: part of the abdomen.
Hind leg: rear limb.
Nail: pointed nail of a bee.
Middle leg: middle limb.
Fore leg: front limb.
Spur: projecting part of the foreleg of a bee.
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Tarsus: each of the parts that make up the segment of the bee's leg below the tibia.
Tibia: central part of the bee's leg.
Femur: first part of the bee's leg.
Mouth parts: parts of the mouth.
Compound eye: complex sight organ.
Antenna: touch organ of a bee.
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1.5
UNIT V: ECHINODERMS
Draw a diagram of the preparations identifying the corresponding parts:
1.6
1.6.1
UNIT VI: PISCIFORM CHORDATES:
VI. A TYPES OF SCALES:
SAMPLE 22: Ctenoid scale: with small spines on its surface that overlap like a comb.
SAMPLE 23: Cycloid scale: are round with smooth edges.
CTENOIDEA/CICLOIDEA
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1.6.2
VI. B STUDY OF GAMETOGENESIS IN AMPHIBIANS (FROG)
SAMPLE 24: 1. Unicellular egg of a frog
SAMPLE 25: 2. Bicellular egg
SAMPLE 26: 3. Morula
SAMPLE 27: 4. Blastula
SAMPLE 28: 5. Gastrula in its initial and late phases
You have to see each one of the phases and draw a diagram of them.
Once the oocyte has been fertilized, i t p asses t hrough a c omplicated pr ocess until forming a complete
individual. You will see pr eparations of different phas es it passes through, f rom fertilization until b eginning the tissular differentiation, called gastrulation. The oocyte begins as a single cell that fuses its nucleus with that of the spermatozoa, making the individual diploid. This cell splits into two, these two become four, and so on. Once it reaches the phases of some 4-16 cells, called blastomers, it forms a structure called a morula. Once it is in this structure, the morula is seen changing into a hollow sphere comprised of a covering called a trophoblast, that will give rise to the extraembrionic tissues, and the internal cell mass will become an embryo. From the blastula, that is already found implanted in the uterus of
the animal, this becomes a gastrula, where the differentiation process begins of the different tissues that
will comprise the embryo body.
1.6.3
VI. C REPRODUCTION OF VERTEBRATES:
1. SAMPLE 29: Testicle
2. SAMPLE 30: Ovary (2)
3. SAMPLE 31: Spermatic count
In this last section, we are going to see reproduction of animals from the Phylum Chordata. In general,
there is no asexual reproduction in these animals. Therefore, there is clear dimorphism, with individual
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males possessing testis producing spermatozoa, and females with ovaries capable of producing oocytes.
Fertilization is i nternal, and t he em bryonic development c an be internal, or ex ternal with a waterproof
protective shell.
There is one preparation of testicle and two of ovary:
- In the case of the testicle, you must be able to distinguish the seminiferous tubules that are
found i n t he i nterior of t he t estis. T he spermatozoa, al though immature, migrate f rom t he ep ididymis,
where they complete their maturation and are stored.
- In the ovary samples, you must be able to identify different phases of the oocyte. In the first
place, the oocyte is covered by cells that form the follicle. These follicular cells are responsible for nourishing the oocyte until ovulation. At this moment, the oocyte detaches toward the Fallopian tube, waiting
to be f ertilized. T he f ollicle c onverts i nto a corpus l uteum, w hose nam e c omes from t he yellow c olor i t
presents. T his c orpus l uteum l iberates pr ogesterone unt il i ts f ull d ecomposition, at w hich m oment t he
cycle is repeated. If there is no fertilization, the corpus luteum finishes decomposing completely, and the
uterine covering that has been forming for a possible pregnancy, detaches, eliminating the oocyte in the
process. I n the c ase of hu mans, t his onl y occurs w ith one ooc yte eac h t ime, b ut i n ot her s pecies t his
number can vary.
2
EXERCISE 2: COLLECTIONS INSECTS/MOLLUSKS
The exercise consists in using a dichotomous key guide to classify the insects placed upon the tables.
These keys have also been seen in botany. Briefly, the keys consist in a series of points where there are
two options and the option that is most similar to t he animal or pl ant in q uestion must be chosen. The
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points will reference some morphological feature, and will begin with the most general features and become more specific each time. Choosing one of the options will lead to another specific point, or will directly give the classification of the animal.
2.1
DETERMINATION OF INSECTS USING DICHOTOMOUS KEYS
In or der to conduct this experiment, you must know t he primary f eatures of insects. Let’s r eview t hese
features.
In the first place, we see that the insect is an animal whose body is divided into three segments or tagmas: head, thorax and abdomen. The entire body is covered by an exoskeleton that can be more or less
hard.
Head: Has a pair of antenna and most of the insect’s sensory perception organs
Eyes: 2 compound eyes in individual adults and 3 simple “ocelli” eyes. Antennae: Always two and
can present various morphologies (lamellate, clavate, filiform, etc.).
Mandibles: Many types exist, depending upon the type of alimentation.
Sensory organs:
Smell: Mos t i nsects hav e chemoreceptors i n t he m outh, a lthough i n the c ase of ant s, bees and
wasps, these are found in the antennae. For butterflies, moths and flies, their chemoreceptors are
found in their legs.
Sound: Not all insects can detect sound, but those that can, like grasshoppers, butterflies and leaf
insects, possess tympanic organs in their legs or abdomen. These organs detect substrate-borne
vibrations.
Mechanorreception: M ovement i s det ected, i n ad dition by t heir e yes, b y s ome s ensilas or hair
that covers their legs and body.
Thorax: Here are 3 coupled pairs of legs, in addition to one or two pairs of wings if they exist. The thorax
is divided into three segments. They carry the names of prothorax (that closest to the head), mesothorax
(middle), and metathorax (next to the abdomen). There is a pair of legs in each thoracic segment. If the
animal has wings, these are located in the meso- and metathorax.
Legs: Various types of legs exist, where in general the two anterior pairs are ambulatory, for walking,
while the third can be specialized for different forms of displacement. The grasshopper, for example has
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its l ast pa ir of l egs s pecialized f or j umping. I t has a strongly-muscled f emur, al lowing i t t o m ake l ong
jumps. Other insects have small cushions on parts of their feet. These legs are called tarsi (segmented in
tarsomers, normally fewer than 5). These small cushions create a film when they are on the water, allowing t hem t o float. T hese ar e s wimming f eet. O ther i nsects hav e l egs which ar e us ed l ike s hovels f or
swimming. The feet are segmented.
Wings: In general, insects have two pairs of wings, although in some cases the second pair is poorly
developed and has a bal ancing function. These ar e c alled hal teres. There ar e many types of w ings;
some are scaly, like those of a butterfly, others membrane-like, like in flies. Some insects have their first
pair of wings covered by a hardened structure, in such a way that when they are not flying these cover its
body in a protective fashion. These types of wings are called elytra.
Abdomen: the abdomen is al so segmented, normally between 9 a nd 11. It is important to c ount them
because this is a characteristic used for their classification. In the case where there are 11 segments, the
last o ne is r educed t o f orm a s tructure c alled c ercus, pr olongations t hat ar e always 2 of t hem. These
cerci can be short or long, and sometimes a third appears between the two. This is called a paracercus.
Other structures to keep in mind are:
1. APTEROUS insects are those that do not have wings, therefore they cannot fly.
2. When describing the presence of STYLI, a protruding structure in the ventral area of the abdomen. In
general, I can tell you that there aren’t any.
3. Some insects have a PETIOLE. This is a narrowing of the abdomen where it unites with the thorax,
present in certain insects.
4. Sometimes inquire as to the number of TARSOMERS of the insect. These are the segments forming
the tarsus. Some have fewer than 5, while others have 5 or more.
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Source of grasshopper diagram:
http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/insects/grasshoppers/largebody.html
2.2
DETERMINATION OF BUTTERFLIES USING IDENTIFICATION GUIDES
For t his portion of t he experiment we will us e t he p ublication "Diurnal butterflies of the Valencian Community", by Sergio Montagud Alario an d Jose A ntonio García Alama, an d ed ited
by t he Consellería de Me dio A mbiente, A gua, U rbanismo y V ivienda, w ithin t he B iodiversity
collection, #17 (2010).
Various examples of b utterflies are s hown. W ith assistance f rom t he illustrations ( pages 359440), the species is identified.
Then the species will be briefly described, searching for information in the book regarding distribution, habitat, the most representative nutritious plans, their location and state of conservation. Next in the list are the 159 species of butterflies described in this publication:
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2.3
DETERMINATION OF GASTROPODS USING DICHOTOMOUS KEYS:
Source:
http://www.palaeos.com/Invertebrates/Molluscs/Gastropoda/Images/gastropod_shell.gif
Here is an image of the “ideal shell” gastropod with their general characteristics summarized.
Next, the primary structures described in the preceding figure are described:
The shell begins at the apex or vertex (protoconch) coiling around a central axis that is called the Columella.
The c onch i s pl aced with t he ap erture po inted downwards and f acing t he o bserver, di fferentiating b etween:
Dextral Conch: clockwise advance with the aperture to the right of the columella
Sinistral Conch: counter-clockwise advance with the aperture to the left of the columella.
The collection of whorls, except for the last one, is called the spire, and each one of these revolutions is
delimited by a groove called the suture. The last revolution tends to be the larger than the rest and ends
in t he ap erture of t he c onch, i nappropriately c alled t he m outh. T he edge of t his aper ture i s c alled t he
peristome, and the open portion of this is the OUTER LIP:
-
Complete peristome: the outer lip continues without interruption throughout the columella or parietal
edge
-
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-
Incomplete peristome: the internal margin remains constituted by the columella or parietal edge.
-
Entire peristome: HOLOSTOMA conch.
Peristome presenting an i ndentation i n the form of a canal or tube, s iphonal canal: SIPHONOSTOMATOIDA conch.
La columella can be solid or hollow. In the case of it being hollow, an orifice opens in the inferior portion
of the conch or umbilicus. CONCH UMBILICUS.
The conch height is the maximum measurement of its central axis, measured from the apex to the base
(this does not include the siphonal canal unless other specified).
The width is the maximum dimension, measured perpendicularly of its apex-base axis.
The surface can be smooth or striated, and in the latter case showing more or less fine striation marks. It
can be adorned with spines, ribs or tubercles.
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3
3.1
EXERCISE 3: ANALYSIS OF FAUNA REMAINS
PELLET ANALYSIS FROM NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY
Some groups of birds, among which birds of prey are found, consume their prey whole or partially so, without first removing the difficult to digest elements. These elements (hair, feathers, chitin, s kin, bones , i nsect s hells, et c.) ar e s ubsequently r egurgitated i n t he f orm of PELLETS.
Thanks to the pellet analysis, we can analyze the diet of these birds of prey.
The obj ective of t his experiment i s t o an alyze the d iet of Eurasian Eagle-Owls (Bubo bubo)
and Barn Owls (Tyto alba) using pellets collected at the Fauna Recuperation Center of Santa
Faz, Alicante.
NECESSARY MATERIAL: Pellets, paper and tweezers, magnifying lens:
Pellets
Pellets are small masses that the bird spits out, composed of material ingested but not digested;
it is n ot evacuated with the an imals’ de positions. T hey usually c ontain hair or feathers m ixed
with remains of bones. They constitute the fraction of food taken by the bird that remains in their
stomach once the soft parts have been digested.
Most peo ple be lieve t hat t hese m asses ar e ex clusive t o bi rds of pr ey, b ut i n r eality t here ar e
other b irds t hat pr oduce t hem, l ike gul ls, s ome c orvids and l ong-legged birds, and e ven s mall
birds that consume berries and insects.
Some of the most common pellets
Approx. 50 mm
Δ Tawny owl M ass in f orm of a s ausage. N ormally it is c omprised of gr ayish
hairs and bones that only appear upon taking it apart. Usually found under trees.
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Approx. 30 mm
Δ Common falcon Found under trees and posts. Normally lightly crushed, with
the edges sufficiently sharpened and with velvet-like in appearance.
Approx. 15 mm
Δ Moorhen S mall m ass and c learly oval f orm t hat c ontains r emains of s hells
and other food remains. Usually found in high tide perching areas.
Approx. 50 mm
Δ Common owl Commonly found on the ground around farms and barns, without disintegrating. Sometimes has a brilliant appearance.
Approx. 60 mm
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Δ Common buzzard Similar to that of the Tawny owl, put smoother (like shown
in t he dr awing. C omposed of ha ir or f eathers a nd pi eces of bo nes. F ound where b uzzards perch.
Approx. 80 mm
Δ Fox excrement Be careful! Pellet manipulation is not unpleasant, but can be
confused with fox excrement, which is.
Necessary Material:
One pl ate w ith w ater, di sinfectant, two pa irs of fine t weezers or two long needles, one
magnifying lens.
Identification of the remains
It is possible to identify the animal devoured by the bird. The bones found most frequently are
craniums, jaws and teeth, but they can be split. With the adequate documentation, you can figure out what species the remains belong to.
You may find whole insect shells, for example from a beetle, but to observe legs and other small
parts of insects you will need a low magnification microscope.
Pellet treatment
Upon s eparating t he p ellets, t heir c ontents c an often be identified. And f rom t here i nteresting
information about the bird can be ascertained.
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1. First, soak the pellet in a plate with water. This impedes bits of hair from escaping. A drop of
disinfectant can be added to the water as a hygienic precaution.
2. Remove the pellet from the water (or if you prefer, dissect it within the water).
3. Open the pellet carefully with the two tweezers, needles or any two sharpened instruments.
4. C lean, dry and i dentify the r emains found. If you wish to conserve t hem, t hey can be s tuck
upon a card with transparent glue.
Mouse cranium
Ribs
Teeth
Cranium of a small bird
Legs
Hips
Mandibles
Bibliography: Aves de Presa. Guías de naturaleza. Meter Holden y Richard Porter. Ed.
Juventud. 1993.
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4
ANNEX 1
INSECT ORDER KEY (ADULTS)
(Based on Barrientos & Rodríguez, 1993)
1. Primarily ap terous i nsects w ith i nternal m outhparts ( Entognatha) a nd m odified ab dominal
appendages for leaping and without cerci (fig. 12.5) Small size (<5 mm).
Apterous or winged insects, but with external mouthparts (Ectognatha) and with or without abdominal cerci
(2).
Ocellar group
Conical mouthparts
Ventral tube
furcula
Fig. 12.5. Collembola (taken from Barrientos, 1988).
2. Abdomen with cerci, on occasion with an intermediate paracerco (3).
Abdomen without cerci or paracerco, although there can be hard to see vestigial cerci (13).
3. Primarily apterous insects, with two large and pluriarticulate cerci and a central cercus. With
stylus in the abdominal segments (Fig. 12.6a) (4).
Winged or apterous insects. Without stylus (5).
4. Large compound eyes and developed ocelli. Larger and thicker central cercus than the cerci
(Fig. 12.6b) Microcoryphia.
Small compound eyes and inexistent ocelli. Central cercus of similar thickness and slightly larger
than the cerci (fig. 12.6c) Thysanura.
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Fig. 12.6. a: abdominal styli; b: microcoryphia; c: Thysanura (taken from
Barientos & Rodríguez, 1993).
5. Membranous wings (the second pair is smaller and absent in some species); abdomen with a
pair of very long and filiform cerci, able to present a central cercus. Reduced mouthparts Short
antennae (fig. 12.7a) Ephemeroptera.
Characters not mentioned earlier (6).
Fig. 12.7. a: Ephemeroptera; b: Odonata; c: Mecoptera (taken from Viedma et al., 1985).
6. Short and setiform antennae. Two pairs of wings with strong venation and reticulated. Small
cerci (cercoides). Very developed compound eyes (fig. 12.7b) Odonata.
Generally long antennae; if they are short they do not present other characters of the preceding
proposition (7).
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7. V ertically e longated head i n a b eak w hose m andibles ar e s ituated at t he edge. Very s hort
cerci. Two pairs of similar membranous wings, on occasion speckled. Males with thickened abdominal edge and pointed up vertically while flying (fig. 12.7c) Mecoptera.
Non-elongated beak (8).
Fig. 12.8. a: Phasmida; b: Dictyoptera (Blattaria); c: Dictyoptera (Mantodea); d: Plecoptera; e: Dermaptera; f: Isoptera, reproductive and soldier (taken from
Viedma et al., 1985).
8. Legs with 5 tarsomers (9).
Legs with less than 5 tarsomers (10).
9. Short antennae. Short cerci, with only one segment. Long and thin body and legs, especially
the meso- and metathorax, without wings and having a stick-like aspect in the European species
(fig. 12.8a) Phasmida.
Long and filiform antennae. Pluriarticulate cerci. Without stick-like aspect. Wings, brachypterous
and apterous (figs. 12.8b and 12.8c) Dictyoptera.
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10. Long and pluriarticulate cerci. Long and filiform antennae. Two pairs of membranous wings
with abundant venation, second pair larger and folding upon the abdomen (fig. 12.8d) Plecoptera.
Generally short cerci (11).
Very sclerotized cerci, of only one segment, forming a pincher. Short wings that do not cover the
abdomen, t he f irst pai r m odified in alytes, t hat at r est, us ually c over t he s econd membranous
pair, folded and bended (fig. 12.8e) Dermaptera.
Short cerci that do not form pinchers (12)
12. The three pairs of legs are similar size; the third pair is not modified for jumping. Social insects w ith d ifferent c astes. Mos t a pterous ( workers, soldiers); t he wings f orms (reproductives)
are made up of two pairs of membranous and similar wings (fig 12.8f) Isoptera.
Third pair of wings larger than the rest; with developed femurs adapted for leaping. Short singlesegmented cerci. Generally winged, with the first pair of them partially hardened (tegmina), although there are brachypterous and apterous (fig. 12.9a) Orthoptera.
13. S ucking m outhpart f ormed b y a pr obiscus t hat i s c oiled u p at r est bet ween t he pal ps ( fig.
12.9b). Two pairs of membranous wings, generally covered by scales (fig. 12.9c) Lepidoptera.
Mouthpart without probiscus, with wings not covered by scales or apterous (14).
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Fig. 12.9. a: Orthoptera; b: mouth part of Lepidoptera (with palps (short)
and probiscus (long)); c: Lepidoptera; d: Diptera; e: Hemiptera head; f: Siphonaptera (taken from Viedma et al., 1985, Ruppert & Barnes, 1995 and
Barrientos & Rodríguez, 1993).
Fig. 12.10. a: Anoplura; b: Mallophaga; c: Coleoptera (taken from Viedma et
al., 1985 and from Richards & Davis, 1984).
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14. S econd p air of w ings r educed t o t wo ha lters, t he first pair i s membranous and well d eveloped ( fig. 1 2.9d). Exceptionally a pterous. s iphoning, pi ercing-siphoning or c utting-siphoning
mouthparts with a soft probiscus Diptera
Apterous insects or with the two pairs of wings developed (15)
15. Piercing-sucking mouthpart with beak (16)
Chewing mouth part, on occasions modified t o siphoning-sucking i n whose case the abd omen
presents a petiole (18)
16. Winged or a pterous i nsects. Man ifest an d m ultiarticulated be ak, w ithout pa lps ( fig. 12.9e)
Hemiptera.
Always apterous insects, with beak of another form. Small size and ectoparasitic. (17)
17. C ompressed bod y. L egs w ith l arge c oxa, t he t hird pa ir ad apted f or l eaping ( fig. 12. 9f) Siphonaptera.
Depressed body, with fused thoracic segments. One-segmented tarsi, with a large hooked nail.
Retractable mouthparts in the cephalic capsule (fig. 12.10a) Anoplura.
18. F irst pai r of w ings har dened, t ransformed i n el ytra t hat c an bec ome f used t ogether ( fig.
12.10c) Coleoptera.
With two pairs of membranous or apterous wings (19).
19. Small a pterous i nsects w ith a depressed bo dy, with n on-fused t horacic s egments. S hort
antennae and reduced eyes. Legs with one or two nails (fig. 12.10b) Ectoparasites Mallophaga.
Insects not possessing these reunited characters (20).
20. Legs with 1-3 tarsomers. Clypeal well developed that gives a convex aspect to the anterior
part of t he head. S mall insects ( < 8 mm) w ith l ong an d filiform ant ennae. A pterous or w ith t wo
pairs of membranous wings (fig. 12.11a) Psocoptera.
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Legs with 5 tarsomers (21).
21. T wo p airs of m embranous wings c overed by f ine s ilk. Long an d f iliform ant ennae ( fig.
12.11b) Trichoptera.
Without these characters (22).
22. Insects with membranous wings (23).
Apterous insects, with petiole at abdomen beginning. Chewing mouthparts (fig. 12.11c) Hymenoptera.
23. Forewings larger than the hind wings, connected by a line of small hooks present in the anterior edge of the second pair. The petiole is frequent in the abdomen, and the chewing mouthpart can be modified to sucking-siphoning (fig. 12.11d) Hymenoptera.
Fore- and hind wings generally similar, not connected and with reticulate venation (24).
Fig. 12.11. a: Psocoptera (with labium); b: Trichoptera; c and d: Hymenoptera (petiole)
(Taken from Viedma et al., 1985).
24. Hipognata head, generally filiform antennae, but can be mazuda, pectinate or setaceous (fig.
12.12a) Neuroptera.
Prognata head, antennae always filiform (25)
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25. Q uadrangular pr othorax, s omewhat wider t han l ong. 5 c ordiform t arsomers ( fig. 12. 12c).
Pardusco wings, at rest folded over the abdomen (fig. 12.12b) Megaloptera.
Prothorax with a neck-like aspect, much longer than is wide (fig. 12.12e). Third tarsomer is cordiform (fig. 12.12d) Females with an ovipositor. Raphidioptera.
Fig. 12.12 a: Neuroptera; b: Megaloptera; c: Megaloptera tarsomer; d: Raphidioptera tarsomer; e: Prothorax and head (without antennae) of Raphidioptera (taken from Viedma et al., 1985 and from Barrientos, 1988).
5
ANNEX
MARINE GASTROPODS KEY
(Based on Beedham, 1972)
1. Well visible conch. The head with a pair of tentacles. (primarily Prosobranchia) (2)
-Reduced conch, normally internal or absent. The head generally has two pairs of tentacles (the
majority of Opisthobranchs) (31)
2. Animal without opercule (3)
-With oper cule ( generally possessed b y m ost gas tropods, with ex ception l impets and pu lmonates) or exceptionally without opercule and with a very narrow aperture. (11)
3. Spiral conch (7 whorls) pointed, small (7mm) and thin. Phytia myosotis
- Non-spiral conch or reduced spiral, often conical or in cup form, stuck to rocks and seaweed;
like a limpet. (4)
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4. Conch with an internal salient as shelf. (5)
- Conch without internal salient, typical limpets. (6)
5. Oval and arching conch, with a horizontal internal salient in the posterior half. Crepidula fornicata
- Rounded conch, thin, with the apex slightly pointed. Calyptraea chinensis
6. Conch with aperture (s) or fissure. (7)
- Conch without aperture (s) or fissures. (8)
7. Conch with a series of holes. Haliotis tuberculata
- Conch with marginal fissure. Emarginula
- Conch with only one apexial hole. Diodora apertura
8. Conch surface with ribs, dentate or crested internal margin. (9)
- Conch surface and smooth margins. (10)
9. Conch generally talk, conical, strongly ribbed. Internal surface white or yellow, the mark the
animal leaves is white mother-of-pearl or opaque. Foot clear, grey-greenish. Patella vulgata
- Conch less conical, finer ribs, internal surface darker. Internal m argin strongly stripes br own;
impression of t he a nimal i n t he i nternal p ortion of t he c onch is c ream or dar ker, t inged with
orange, foot dark. Patella intermedia
- Conch somewhat flattened, internal portions white, generally without marginal stripes, interior
yellow or orange; foot cream or pale orange. Patella aspera
10. Conch with brilliant blue lines. Patina pellucida
- Conch with flattened cone, with irregular brown-reddish marks. Acmaea
11. Conch with siphonal canal. (12)
- Conch without siphonal canal. (18)
12. T he bod y whorl c overs t he ot her whorls, aperture i n t he f orm of l ongitudinal f issure ( the
conch is similar to a coffee bean). Trivia
- Conch typical of snail with differentiated whorls. (13)
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13. Siphonal c anal c losed in adults. R ough c onch with pr onounced undulated r ibs. O cenebra
erinacea
- Open siphonal canal. (14)
14. Lar ge c onch ( 100 m m) w ith whorls w ell s culptured and s utures c learly d efined. A perture
large and oval, siphonal canal wide. Buccinum undatum
- Smaller conch, aperture smaller and thinner siphonal canal. (15)
15. Wide, conical conch, with short whorls, mature conch without longitudinal ribs but with spiral
crests. Pale color, can have bands. Nucella lapillus
- Conch of a different form. (16).
16. Conch (of some 20 mm maximum) with a network of crests and ribs crossing on the surface.
Hinia reticulata {Nassarius reticulatus}*
- Larger conch, with tubercles or spines. (17)
17. Long and straight siphonal canal. Spiral crests with very clear spines. Murex brandaris
- Short and c urved s iphonal c anal. S piral c rests with t ubercles. C oloration with c lear and d ark
bands. Trunculariopsis trunculus {Murex trunculus}*
18. P olished g lobular c onch, s mall s piral; pr ominent
umbilicus Digger in the sand Natica
- Conch of ot her f orm or colored. D oes no t di g in t he
sand. (19)
19. Wide base conch. Umbilical often clear. (20)
- Conch of other form. (25)
20. Small conch (4 mm) brown-orange color. Margarites helicinus
- Larger conch. (21)
21. Flattened conch on one side and pointed, pyramidal or conical; without umbilicus. (22)
- Blunt conch; umbilicus can be well marked. (23)
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22. Lar ge c onch ( approximately 2 5 m m maximum) i n p yramidal f orm, w ith wide and f lattened
base 10-12 whorls, Clear red stripes in base. Calliostoma zizyphinum
- Smaller conch, with narrower base. Cantharidus
23. Conch with umbilicus almost covered; large (18 mm); eroded apex; tooth in the internal side
of aperture. Monodonta lineata
- Conch with clearly visible umbilicus. (24)
24. Large conch (to 19 mm); solid keel in the edge of the base, red stripes in yellow background;
wide umbilicus. Gibbula magus
- Smaller c onch ( to 1 2 m m) w ith f orm of bl unt c one, bac kground c lear gr ey with t hing darker
lines, umbilicus small and narrow. Gibbula cineraria
- Conch generally more flattened; wider (to 18 mm) than tall (to 13 mm), green background with
prominent purple wide strips, umbilicus similar to that preceding. Gibbula umbilicalis
25. Rounded or conical conch. (26)
- Conch with wide whorl. (29)
26. Conch with umbilicus in form of fissure. Lacuna
- Conch without umbilicus (Litorinas). (27)
27. Non-pointed conch, apex flattened; color variable. Littorina littoralis
- Pointed conch. (28)
28. Small conch (to 6 mm), fragile. L. neritoides
- Larger conch ( to 12 m m), r obust an d r ough, with wrinkles on
the surface; the external lip of the aperture reaches a right angle
to t he l ast s piral; f ound i n t he s upratidal zones of t he beac h.
L. saxatilis
- Larger f orms ( to 25 m m) bl ackish with dar k c oncentric l ines;
the external lip of the aperture reaches the last spiral tangentially. Upper shore, sub-littoral zones.
L.
littorea
29. Small conch (less than 6 mm) smoother surface. Hydrobia ulvae
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- Larger sculptured conch. (30)
30. Conch with the external lip expanded. Aporrhais pespelecani
- Conch in the form of high tower with many whorls (to 19). Turritela communis
31. Opercule present; conch very well developed. Acteon tornatilis
- Without opercule. (32)
32. External conch reduced, partially covered by mantle. Akera bullata
- Conch reduced and internal, or absent. (33)
33. With parapods. (34)
- Without parapods; with secondary gills. Nudibranchs
34. Posterior tentacles- rhinophores – moderately long, coiled in the forms of spoons. Adults of
pale green color with pink spots. Aplysia punctata
- Body and internal conch white. Philine quadripartia
6
ANNEX 1
IDENTIFICATION KEY OF MARINE BIVALVES
(Based on Tebble, 1976)
1. Hinged taxodont. (2)
- No taxodont. (3)
2. Internal ligament. Nucoloidea
- External ligament. Arcoidea (fig. 1)
3. Hinge line with lateral projections or ears. Monomyarian. (4)
- Without ears. One, two or three muscular scars.
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4. Internal ligament united to a triangular or chondrophorous depression. Pectinoidea (fig. 2)
- External ligament united to a large stretch mark or groove in the cardinal area. Pterioidea
5. Posterior region of a conch projected outwards by a beak. Poromioidea
- Without posterior projection. (6)
6. Monomyarian. Inequivalve. (7)
- Dimyarian. Equivalve or inequivalve. (8)
7. Right valve (inferior) with an opening. Fragile conch, brittle Anomioidea
- Valves without opening; animal united to the substrate by its left valve. Both valves normally
thick. Ostreoidea
8. Very reduced internal ligament. True teeth absent. Hinge near umbones, generally turned up
and over, forming an umbonal reflection. Developed accessory plates united or not with the primary conch. Pholadoidea (fig. 6)
- Without these characteristics. (9)
9. Hinge without teeth or chondrophore. (10)
- Hinge with teeth and chondrophore, without teeth but with a chondrophore, or with teeth but
without chondrophore. (14)
10. Internal ligament, but not in a chondrophore. (11)
- External ligament. (12)
11. Crenulate process similar to teeth in front of ligament Mytiloidea
- Without crenulate process Erycinoidea
12. Umbones in the extreme anterior or closer to it than the central line. (13)
- Umbones closer to the middle line than the extreme anterior. Lucinoidea
13. Conch in the form of a fan with a clear ventral margin. Pterioidea
- Conch in another form. Pallial line without sinus. Mytiloidea
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14. Conch pallial sinus. (15)
- Conch integrated pallial. Sculpture normally strong, primarily with radial ribs.
External ligament. Cardioidea
15. Ligament totally external, without internal element or chondrophore. (16)
- Internal ligament or internal and external; the internal is in the chondrophore. (18)
16. Ligament like that of the umbones and teeth displaced toward the anterior margin. Elongated
conch of rectangular profile, 4 or 5 times longer than wide. Impression from the anterior muscle
much greater than that from the posterior. Solenoidea (fig. 4)
- Ligament closer to the central line than the anterior margin. Umbo and teeth normally on the
central line. (17)
17. Hinge with two cardinal teeth at least in one valve. In the majority, the lower extreme of the
pallial sinus comes together with the pallial line. Tellinoidea
- Hinge with three cardinal teeth at least in one valve. Veneroidea (fig. 3)
18. L eft v alve with two cardinal teeth united i n form of an i nverted “ V”. Right valve sometimes
with two anterior lateral teeth and two posterior teeth. Mactroidea (fig. 5)
- left valve with one cardinal tooth, if there are two they are never united in form of an inverted
“V”. Right valve without lateral teeth. Tellinoidea
Arcoidea
1. Inequilateral conch. (2)
- Equilateral conch. Dark brown or brownish-yellow color, sometimes with zigzag designs
Glycymeris glycymeris
2. Conch longer than it is tall. Ligament extending generously upon the cardinal area. Arca
- Circular or oval conch. Ligament confined to a narrow triangular area. Limopsis aurital
Pectinoidea
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1. Valves with well developed ears, of which the anterior of the right valve has a notch which is
the byssal fissure. Smooth surface or with radial ribs. Often very colorful. Pectinidae (2)
- Valves without well-developed ears. Byssal notch small or absent. Generally white, never very
colorful. Lima
2. Profile of irregular valves. Right valve (inferior) with distorted form, often very convex
Chlamys distorta
- Both valves regular in form and profile. (3)
3. Both valves convex. (4)
- Left valve (superior) flat, the right (inferior) convex, each with 15 to 17 wide radial ribs. Pecten
maximus
4. Anterior ears of each valve markedly greater than the posterior ears. Chlamys varia
- Equal or almost equal ears. Aequipecten opercularis
Ostreoidea
1. Scar of the adductor muscle white or only lightly colored. Margins together with the vertices
with small crenulation. Ostrea edulis
- Colored s car of t he adduc tor m uscle, pur ple or br ownish-red. Mar gins t ogether with t he
smooth vertices. (2)
2. Conch margins with folds or prominent undulating crests. Crassostrea angulata
- Conch margins without folds or prominent undulating crests. Crassostrea virginica
Cardioidea
1. Rough conch surface, with radial ribs sticking out having spines or scales. (2)
- Smooth conch surface; the radial ribs do not have spines or scales. Laevicardium crassum
2. Marginal crenulations extended throughout the majority of the interior portion of the conch like
furrows. With spines or tubercles upon the ribs. (4)
- Without these characteristics. (3)
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3. Right valve with two posterior lateral teeth. With 22-28 radial ribs. Cerastoderma edule
- Right valve with one posterior lateral tooth. With 20-22 ribs. Parvicardium exiguum
4. Spines upon the ribs united together by a furrow. Acanthocardia echinta
- Without these characteristics. Acanthocardia tuberculata
Solenoidea
1. With one v ertical f old o n t he exterior p ortion of t he c onch, j ust be hind t he a nterior m argin.
Without lateral teeth. Solen marginatus
- Without vertical fold. With lateral teeth. (2)
2. Posterior cardinal tooth of the forked left valve. Impression from the posterior adductor muscle
meeting directly the edge of the pallial sinus. Cultellus pellucidus
- Impression from the posterior adductor muscle separated from the dorsal margin of the pallial
sinus. (3)
3. Dorsal and ventral margins of the conch curved in the same extension. Ensis ensis
- Dorsal and ventral margins of the conch almost straight. Ensis siliqua
Tellinoidea
1. Ligament totally external. (2)
- Ligament external and internal, the first in a prominent chondrophore. Scrobicularidae (4)
2. Conch in the form of a wedge, triangular profile. Donacidae: Donax
- Conch with oval or circular profile. (3)
3. Hinge without lateral teeth. Garidae: Gari
- Hinge with lateral teeth
4. Sculpture of concentric lines comparatively rough; without radial lines. Scrobicularia plana
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- Fine sculpture of concentric lines. Abra
Veneroidea
1. Internal margin of the crenulated conch. (2)
- Smoother internal margin. (4)
2. Left valve with an anterior lateral tooth with form of tubercle that fits in a small depression of
the right valve. (3)
- Without lateral teeth. Chamalea striatula
3. Sculpture of concentric furrows directed outwards on spines with a wart-like form along with
the anterior and posterior margins. Venus verrucosa
- Without these characteristics. Venus casina
4. Radial ribs and concentric sculpture. Tapes decussatus [Venerupis decussata]
- Only concentric sculpture. Venerupis rhomboides.
Mactroidea
1. Conch markedly inequilateral; vertex in the anterior half. (2)
- Equilateral conch or only weakly inequilateral; vertex next to the middle line. (3)
2. Pallial sinus margin not coming together with pallial line. Lutraria lutraria
- Pallial sinus margin comes together with pallial line in the majority of its length. L. magna
3. Superior and inferior surfaces of the smother lateral teeth. Fragile conch. Mactra corallina
- Superior a nd i nferior s urfaces of t he l ateral s aw t eeth. Conch c omparatively solid. S pisula
solida
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