WINTER 2016 · VOLUME 10, NUMBER 2
www.msuextension.org/BSSA
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by
TA B L E O F
the
numbers
3,648
18,761
2,979
15,460
6,100
11,000
3,401
21,200
124
Winter 2016 · Volume 10, Number 2
editoria l com mit t ee
3,648 volunteers contributed 94,217 hours of time to 4-H
youth at an economic value of $1.9 million
18,761 youth participated in 4-H youth development
activities including after school programming, camps,
clubs and more
2,979 diagnosis were made by the Schutter Diagnostic Lab
through 2107 disease and insect samples collected from
clients in 11 states and 55 Montana counties
15,460 visits were made to the Montana AgAlert website
(www.mtagalerts.org) where MSU Extension specialists
delivered 67 AgAlerts
6,100 officials and board members attended one or
more of over 100 Local Government Center professional
development workshops
11,000 firefighters, 96% volunteer, in 467 fire departments,
companies and districts are served through the Montana
Fire Services Training School
3,401 individuals in 48 communities or online completed
MSU Extension financial education programming
21,200 adults and youth were directly impacted through MSU
Extension programming that encouraged healthy lifestyles,
improved nutrition, food safety and food preservation
124 Extension educators serve all 56 counties and seven
reservations through programming in Agriculture &
Natural Resources, Community Development, 4-H Youth
Development, and Family & Consumer Science
Jodie DeLay
Jeff Mosley
Jodi Pauley
Adam Sigler
line editor
Sara Adlington
m a n a g ing editor
Tracy Mosley
art
MSU Extension Communications
Cover Photo by Susan Anderegg
con t rib u t ing w rit ers
Karl Christians
Dave Martin
Bob Flesher
Don MacIntyre
Sunni Heikes-Knapton
Brent Sarchet
contents
Planning a Project On or Near a Stream................ 2
Poultry Breed Selection.......................................... 4
Featured Weed: Oxeye Daisy................................ 6
Hay, Molds and Feeding Problems in Montana..... 8
The Challenge of Badgers.................................... 10
Featured Landowner: White Deer Ranch............ 12
Herbs: The Lost Art of Gardening......................... 14
Master Gardener Q&A......................................... 16
Ask Steward......................................................... 17
Tracy Mosley
Barry Jacobsen
Stephen Vantassel
Jodie DeLay
Jodi Pauley
Toby Day
Qu est ion s for S t e wa rd?
Com men ts a b ou t BS S A?
E-mail us at: [email protected] or
[email protected]
Th a nk you to t he
follow ing re vie w ers
Cindy Peterson
Jesse Fulbright
Kari Lewis
Dan Lucas
Katrina Mendrey
Abbie Phillip
Seth Swanson
Big Sky Small Acres is published by Montana State University Extension three times per year, and
content is available online at www.msuextension.org/BSSA/.
Copyright © 2016 by Montana State University. All rights reserved.
The young man showing miniature Herefords on
page 5 of the Fall 2016 issue was incorrectly identified.
He is Joseph Brandt. We apologize for the mix-up.
Excerpts from this magazine may be reprinted with permission from the Managing Editor. Please
provide appropriate credit to Montana State University Extension and supply copies of printed
materials to the editor. Opinions expressed herein are those of the individual authors and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the university administration. Montana State University Extension
is an ADA/EO/AA/Veteran’s Preference Employer and Provider of Educational Outreach.
Common chemical and trade names are used in this publication for clarity of the reader. Inclusion of
a common chemical or trade name does not imply endorsement of that particular product or brand
of herbicide and exclusion does not imply non-approval.
Learn about the 310 permitting process and Montana’s Conservation Districts.
PHOTO BY LISA TERRY, MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY (MSU)
Pl a nning a project on or
ne a r a str e a m or r i v er
by Karl Christians 1, Dave Martin 2, Bob Flesher 3, Don MacIntyre 4, and Sunni Heikes-Knapton 5
Healthy rivers and streams are important to Montanans for
their lives and livelihoods, providing fisheries, clean water,
recreation, aesthetics, agriculture and livestock production,
as well as municipal water supply. Streams and rivers also
raise complicated management issues and one of the ways to
protect their health is through the 310 permitting process.
While there are many permits that relate to activities in or
around streams or rivers, The Natural Streambed and Land
Preservation Act of 1975 (commonly referred to as the 310
Law) is the only permit administered by local Conservation
Districts (CDs). The 310 name was derived from the 1975
Senate Bill number 310.
The bill was enacted as part of the state’s policy to protect
and preserve Montana’s natural rivers and streams, as well
as the lands and property immediately adjacent to them in
their natural and existing state. The passage of the law placed
permitting of stream-related projects within the jurisdiction of
CDs, units of local government initially formed across the U.S.
to address soil erosion following the Dust Bowl of the 1930s.
Today, CDs continue to encourage landowners to adopt
voluntary, grassroots conservation through education and
support. Conservation District boards are made up of locallyelected supervisors who volunteer their time to promote the
wise use of our natural resources. This built-in connection to
local landowners makes CDs a fitting entity to administer the
310 Law, providing a comprehensive, locally-based regulatory
framework to protect streams and rivers in Montana with the
aim of minimizing soil erosion and sedimentation.
1. Conservation District Specialist, MT Department of Natural Resources
and Conservation (DNRC); 2. Public Information Specialist (DNRC); 3. Stream Permitting Coordinator (DNRC); 4. Legal Counsel (DNRC); 5. Madison Watershed Coordinator, Madison Conservation District
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By definition, the written consent of the supervisors
(commonly referred to as a 310 permit) is needed by any
private, non-governmental individual or entity for any activity
that physically alters or modifies the bed or banks of a
perennially-flowing stream or river. This means that any body
of water that has continuous, year-round flow is covered by
the 310 Law, and the land area the law covers goes from
the bottom of the stream channel up to and including the
immediate banks (and the vegetation that grows along it) on
both sides of the body of water.
An integral part of the 310 Law is the minimum standards that
the inspection team and Conservation District supervisors
use to make determinations. This includes a requirement for
the team and the CD to determine several factors, including
the project’s effects on soil erosion, sedimentation, risks of
flooding or damage to adjacent property, effects on stream
channel alteration, water quality, and aquatic habitat. A
project must demonstrate that the approach proposed is
a reasonable means of accomplishing the purpose. If not,
modifications by the team or the CD can be required.
The 310 permit application is part of a comprehensive
document called The Joint Application for Proposed Work
in Montana’s Streams, Wetlands, Floodplains, and other
Waterbodies. This single document can be used to apply for
other permits that may be required from local, state, or federal
entities and the instructions for the form provide useful
information about permitting details.
Upon granting and receipt of a 310 permit, the proposed
work can proceed as described. It is important to note that
the applicant is fully responsible for securing any other
permits that may also be required, including permits related
to floodplains, wetlands, or other related topics. Any other
permits are described in the Joint Application Instructions.
An applicant can find the application and instructions in
several locations, including the Montana DNRC website, local
CD website, or by visiting a local CD office. A directory of all
Montana CDs can be found at the Montana Association of
Conservation Districts (MACD) website (http://macdnet.org/).
Upon submission of a complete application, the CD may
schedule a site visit to evaluate the proposed approach for the
project. A 310 inspection team is formed by a representative
from the CD along with the applicant and a representative
from Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. It is reasonable to
anticipate between 30 and 60 days for the CD to process an
application and schedule a site visit.
It is recognized that sometimes emergency circumstances
arise requiring unpermitted work to take place. Under these
conditions, an emergency notice of 310 activities can be
submitted. Upon receipt of an emergency notice, the CD
supervisors determine whether the action qualifies as a
project. An inspection team makes an onsite inspection
and recommends denial, approval, or modification of the
project. The supervisors then review the emergency project
and approve, deny, or approve with modifications, and
notify the applicant and team members of the supervisors’
determination.
A person who has undertaken an emergency action that is
denied or modified is required to submit a written notice to
obtain approval under the normal process to mitigate the
damages to the stream caused by the emergency action and to
achieve a long-term solution. The supervisors’ determinations
under both the permit and emergency provisions of the
310 Law are subject to review through arbitration or, at the
election of the applicant, judicial review.
There are also provisions for those that violate the laws
related to activity that physically alters or modifies the bed
and banks of a perennially-flowing stream. The 310 Law
provides that a project engaged in by any person without prior
approval or activities performed outside the scope of written
consent of the supervisors is a public nuisance and subject to
immediate abatement.
The 310 Law also embodies the more standard form of
enforcement; violations may be misdemeanors subject to
criminal fine or subject to civil penalty. Enforcement under this
statute is strengthened by legislative declaration that each
day a person continues to physically alter or modify the stream
subjects the person to a separate cause of action. In addition
to collecting a misdemeanor or civil penalty, the board of
supervisors may pursue action to require the person to
restore, at the discretion of the court, the damaged stream, as
recommended by the supervisors, to as near its prior condition
as possible.
While the 310 Law and permitting process may seem complex,
it serves to ensure that the original intent remains the focus
of the procedures: evaluation and examination of activity
that may potentially threaten the health and future of our
important waterways. Local Conservation Districts serve their
role in this process with the goal that securing a permit be
straightforward and reasonable, while keeping in mind the
crucial importance of our state’s streams and rivers. 
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
3
poultry br eed selection
for extinction. Some breeds on the critical list include:
Campine, Holland, Nankin and Sultan. Some people,
especially those that are interested in breeding poultry,
may be interested in trying to preserve such a breed.
If you are looking for a meat bird that will be a good
forager, the Freedom Ranger or the Delaware will do a
better job of foraging than the Cornish Cross, which tend
to like to hang out by the feeder, due to their inherent
mobility issues.
The American Standard of Perfection has over 60 breeds:
which breed is right for you?
by Brent Sarchet
Lewis and Clark County Extension Agent, Montana State University
Backyard flock
Egg production
If the goal is to raise birds just for egg production, particularly
selling the eggs, the Leghorn breed will produce the most
eggs, which are a white egg. In fact, this breed holds the
record for the most eggs laid, 371 eggs in one year. Australorp,
which produces a brown egg, is another good egg laying
breed, with records of 364 eggs in one year. Another good egg
layer is a Welsummer, which lays a dark brown egg.
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If you are looking for a breed that will be dual purpose (i.e.,
meat and eggs), most of the heritage breeds (see sidebar)
are dual purpose. However, dual purpose breeds tend to be
superior in one trait versus the other. As an example, the
Orpington is a dual purpose breed that was bred to have a
better carcass than some other dual purpose breeds, and their
egg laying is average (175 – 200 eggs per year). Orpingtons
have white skin, which may be foreign to most consumers that
are used to seeing yellow skin on a meat chicken. Another
example is the Welsummer which is usually better at laying
(200 plus eggs per year) than for its carcass. The breeds
mentioned above for backyard flocks, with the exception of
the Leghorn, are dual purpose breeds. Other common dual
purpose breeds include Barred Plymouth Rock, Buckeye and
Wyandotte.
There is a lot of consideration that goes into selecting
breeds that will fit your goals. Become familiar with a
breed before you select one. The American Livestock
Conservancy, an organization working to protect
endangered livestock and poultry from extinction, has
a table on their website (www.livestockconservancy.
org) that may aid in selecting a breed. For additional
information, contact your local MSU county or reservation
Extension office. 
Meat
There are some breeds that are not recognized by The
Standard that are commonly used in commercial poultry
production. The most common meat breed, the Cornish Cross,
is an example of one such breed. They have an extremely
fast growth rate; from chick to a finished carcass in as little
as six to seven weeks. Freedom Ranger is another commonly
used meat breed not recognized by The Standard. Other meat
breeds include Jersey Giant, Delaware, Chantecler, Cornish,
and Buckeye.
Other motivations and considerations
Several poultry breeds are in critical threat of becoming
extinct. The Livestock Conservancy has a list of such breeds
and classify them as critical, threatened, watch, recovering
and study. The critical classification has the greatest potential
BELOW: Welsummers; RIGHT: Mottled Javas.
PHOTOS BY BRENT SARCHET, MSU
People who are raising a backyard flock are typically most
interested in the eggs and often want that connection to
raising their own food. Seeing a mix of breeds is common in
backyard flocks as a means to try several different breeds.
In Montana, almost every backyard flock has at least one
Araucana or Ameraucana for their pastel-colored eggs. Other
common backyard flock breeds include Orpington, Rhode
Island Red, Leghorn, Australorp or Sussex.
Dual purpose
PHOTO COURTESY OF CLIPART.COM
If you are new to raising poultry, breed selection can seem a
bit overwhelming. The American Standard of Perfection (see
sidebar) has over 60 breeds. Which breed is right for you?
Determining what your goals are in raising birds will help
answer that question. Also take into consideration the climate,
shelter, free range or not, etc. Is this a backyard flock to get
a few eggs? Are you interested solely in egg production?
Do you want a bird that will lay eggs and have a decent
carcass to harvest? Are you raising a bird just for meat? Do
you have other motivations, such as breed conservation, or
do you just want to have an interesting mix of different and
unique-looking birds? Below are some recommended breeds,
depending upon your goals.
Montana’s cold winters can be harsh on breeds like the
Leghorn that have a large, single comb. If exposed to cold
temperatures, their combs can easily succumb to frost
injury, which won’t kill the birds, but is very stressful and
may decrease production. Consequently, if raising birds
like the Leghorn, you will need to have adequate shelter
and supplemental heat during the winter.
The American Standard of Perfection is the official
breed standard for poultry in North America.
It was first published in 1874 by the American
Poultry Association. Often referred to as the
“The Standard,” it classifies and describes the
recommended physical appearance, coloring, use,
etc. for all recognized breeds of poultry, including
chickens, ducks, turkeys, and geese. The current
edition was published in 2010.
Heritage Chickens, as defined by The
Livestock Conservancy, must meet the
following criteria: 1) American Poultry
Association Standard breed established
prior to the mid-20th century, 2) able
to naturally mate, 3) have a long and productive outdoor lifespan, and 4) have a slow growth rate.
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
5
Featur ed Weed:
Oxey e Daisy
but can continue throughout the growing season. Flowering
occurs from June through August, with seeds reaching
maturity beginning in August.
Management
by Tracy Mosley
Park County Extension Agent, Montana State University
Oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare), also called white
daisy, marguerite, field daisy, and several other common
names, is a showy, perennial weed that invades a variety of
landscapes. Oxeye daisy is found in pastures and meadows,
along roadsides and railroad beds, and in urban landscapes,
and has become increasingly abundant in parts of Montana
in the recent past. Unfortunately, this ‘pretty’ plant is often
not perceived as a weed by landowners and land managers,
resulting in under-management of this invader.
Oxeye daisy is classified as a Priority 2B noxious weed in
Montana. This classification includes weeds that are abundant
in Montana and emphasizes local management strategies
and priorities for oxeye daisy and 16 additional weeds in
this category. A complete list of Montana’s noxious weeds
can be found at http://agr.mt.gov/agr/Programs/Weeds/
PDF/2015WeedList.pdf.
Origin and Distribution
Identification
Oxeye daisy looks like a typical white daisy, usually with a
single white flower at the end of each branch on the stem.
Flowers are 1.5 to 2 inches across, have 20-30 white ray flowers
(i.e., petals) that are slightly notched at the tip and surround
a yellow center, and can produce up to 250 seeds. Seeds are
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Oxeye daisy seed remains viable in soil for an extended period
of time, requiring long-term management of infestations. One
study documented that while a majority of seeds germinate
within the first six years of production, they have the ability to
remain viable in the soil for up to 39 years.
brown to black, approximately 1/16th inch long, and have eight
to 10 white ridges that run lengthwise down the seed.
Oxeye daisy plants grow 1 to 3 feet tall. Stems are smooth,
but often grooved, branch at the top, and can sometimes be
pubescent (i.e., have small hairs). Its leaves are dark green and
smooth, and decrease in size from the bottom to the top of the
plant, with the smallest near the top of the stem. Lower leaves
are lance-shaped (i.e., long and narrow) and have toothed
margins, giving them a jagged appearance. Upper leaves are
narrowly oblong with toothed to shallowly-lobed margins and
regularly clasp the stem.
Oxeye daisy is supported by a shallow, branched rhizomatous
root system that produces adventitious roots (i.e., roots that
develop from unusual places, such as stems). It is sometimes
confused with two ornamental daisy species, scentless
chamomile (also known as scentless false mayweed) and
Shasta daisy. Shasta daisy can be distinguished from oxeye
daisy because it grows 6 to 12 inches taller and it has larger
flowers. Scentless chamomile differs in its root structure. As
an annual, scentless chamomile roots are smaller than oxeye
daisy’s roots and its leaves are very finely divided.
Growth Habits
Oxeye daisy reproduces primarily through seed production.
Each flower has the potential to produce up to 250 seeds,
making total seed production per plant average 1300-1400
seeds per smaller plant and up to 26,000 seeds on large,
healthy plants. New oxeye daisy stems can also arise from
rhizome buds, offering the plant an additional means of
propagation. Seed germination occurs primarily in the spring
Mechanical control of oxeye daisy can be done with hand
pulling, mowing, and tillage. It is important, however, that
these methods be used prior to seed formation of oxeye
daisy to prevent seed spread. Hand pulling in conjunction
with digging roots can be effective for small populations,
however, it is important to ensure removal of root fragments,
as sprouting can occur from root buds to form new plants. In
cropland, oxeye daisy can be effectively controlled by tilling the
shallow roots of the plant. Care should be taken to clean tilling
equipment before moving to different fields to avoid spread.
PHOTO BY MARY ELLEN (MEL) HARTE, BUGWOOD.ORG
Oxeye daisy was introduced to the U.S. from Europe primarily
as an ornamental plant, but also likely in imported hay and
grain seed. It currently exists in every state in the United States
and is documented in 27 Montana counties. In Montana, its
distribution dominates the western third of the state but it is
also present in Blaine, Phillips and Valley Counties.
Prevention of invasive weed establishment is always the
most economical approach to management. Oxeye daisy is
sometimes included in wildflower mixes, so be sure to read
the package prior to planting wildflower mixes to prevent
establishment and spread of oxeye daisy and all other noxious
weeds.
PHOTO BY TRACY MOSLEY, MSU
Unfortunately, this ‘pretty’ plant is often not perceived
as a weed by landowners and land managers.
Mowing plants at bud formation to remove flowers and
subsequent mowing throughout the growing season as more
buds appears is effective at minimizing seed input into the
soil. Mowing sometimes stimulates lateral branching of oxeye
daisy. An integrated approach of mowing and herbicides can
be effective for control.
There is no biological control agent approved for use on oxeye
daisy, currently. Sheep, goats, and horses will graze oxeye
daisy but cattle avoid grazing it due to its bitter taste. Sheep
and goats are more likely than horses to graze it effectively.
Grazing should be applied strategically with high densities of
animals within an infestation prior to flowering. The infested
area should only be grazed until 50% of the above ground
biomass of desirable grasses is removed to avoid degradation
of the desirable plant community. If animals graze an area
after flowering, they should be confined for five days prior to
moving them to weed-free areas to prevent new infestations.
Herbicides can be used to manage oxeye daisy on rangeland
and pastures. Several herbicides have been labeled for use
on rangelands and pastures. Montana research has shown
that aminopyralid and metsulfuron provide the most effective
control one year post-treatment, with picloram also providing
good control. Table 1 provides a list of some herbicides labeled
for use on oxeye daisy, as well as recommended rates and
timing of application for management. 
TABLE 1. Rangeland and pasture herbicides labeled for oxeye daisy management with rates and
timings of application.
Herbicide Active Ingredient
(Trade Names)
Rate of Application
Timing of Application
Metsulfuron methyl
(Escort®, Cimarron®)
0.1-1.0 ounces per acre
Rosette to early flowering
Aminopyralid
(Milestone®)
4 – 6 ounces per acre
Rosette to early flowering
Aminopyralid + 2,4-D
(ForeFront® R&P)
1.5 – 2 pints per acre
Young, active growth
Picloram
(Tordon® 22K)
1.5 – 2 pints per acre
Active growth prior to budding
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
7
H ay, Molds, a nd Feeding
Problems in Monta na
To determine mycotoxin risk, it is important to determine what
mold species are present. If Aspergillus or Fusarium species are
present, there are laboratory tests that can determine levels of
some common and specific mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, T2,
DON, and Zeralenone. Unfortunately, there are few laboratories
that can do specialized determination of mycotoxins produced
by Alternaria and Penicillium species. It is likely that multiple
mycotoxins from a single species or from multiple species
can be present and their effects can be additive or even
synergistic. Representative samples can be sent to the Schutter
Diagnostic Lab at Montana State University for determination
of fungal species present. If mycotoxigenic fungi are present,
diagnosticians can suggest laboratories where actual mycotoxin
content can be determined.
All hay contains molds, but not all molds are directly dangerous to livestock.
by Barry Jacobsen
Associate Director, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station and Emeritus Professor of Plant Pathology, Montana State University
Mold problems in hay can result from infection of the forage
before cutting. A common example is ergot, which is caused
by a fungus that infects the floral organs of grasses at or near
the time of flowering. Ergot is typically a problem when cool,
wet springs favor infection by the ergot fungus. The small
black ergot sclerotia (i.e., black, hard bodies varying from the
size of the grass plant’s seed up to ½ inch, depending on the
grass) can be found in the heads of all grasses. When ingested
by animals, it will cause ergotism, which is characterized by
skin necrosis (i.e., death of cells), rough hair coats, necrosis
of the ears or tail, lameness or loss of extremities, poor milk
production, and poor weight gain. When these symptoms are
visible, hay should be examined for the presence of the small
black ergot sclerotia that resemble rodent feces.
Slobber syndrome, another issue related to moldy hay, is
associated with Rhizoctonia infection of red clover and a few
other legume forages. The Rhizoctonia fungus produces the
mycotoxin slaframine which, upon ingestion, causes excessive
salivation. This problem is not common in Montana, but is much
more common in the Midwest and adjoining portions of Canada.
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Every year, MSU receives samples of moldy hay with
questions regarding feed safety, colic, abortion, poor
performance, or even death. Frequently, these samples have
been submitted to a lab and a mold spore count is reported.
Labs will discuss livestock feeding risks based on mold spore
counts. While this might be useful in addressing potential for
allergic reactions, it is the mold species present that is critical
in determining mycotoxin risk - not the total mold count.
Determining the risk of mycotoxin poisoning from moldy hay
can be very difficult and often can only be implied following a
veterinary pathologists’ report or observation of the symptoms
expressed on the animal(s) in question. Diagnosis can be further
complicated by the fact that the suspect hay has typically
already been consumed, making sample availability minimal.
PHOTO BY BARRY JACOBSEN, MSU
Fescue toxicosis, caused by alkaloids produced by fungal
endophytes (i.e., fungi organisms that live between plant
cells) of forage grasses, can also cause problems similar to
ergot poisoning. In Montana, grasses infected with endophytic
fungi, particularly tall fescue, have been identified, but a
case of fescue toxicosis has never been observed. This is
most likely because the problem is typically associated with
pure stands of tall fescue and in Montana, mixed species of
grasses are more common in pastures and hayfields.
Once hay is cut, molds, including yeasts, will grow until
moisture is less than 14-15%. The most common fungi
associated with moldy hay are members of the fungal genera
and include Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium,
Mucor, Penicillium, and Rhizopus. As these fungi grow, they
produce heat and moisture as they break down plant tissues,
which, ultimately, can result in spontaneous combustion
of haystacks under certain conditions. The temperature,
moisture content, and duration of moisture content above
15% will determine the extent of mold growth. Depending on
which molds predominate in a hay source, there may or may
not be mycotoxins present. Analysis of moldy hay samples,
particularly those showing heat damage, will show lower
levels of total digestible nutrients (TDN) and lower levels of
vitamins A, D3, E, K, and thiamine availability, creating an
immediate loss of nutritional value in moldy hay. A second
effect is that mold spores can cause allergic reactions and
symptoms resembling human asthma in both horses and
cattle. Production of mycotoxins by molds that can cause
direct toxicity or suppress the immune system are members of
the genera Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium.
While Mucor species do not produce mycotoxins, they, along
with some species of Aspergillus, can cause mycotic abortion
when they infect cattle.
PHOTO BY KELLY GORHAM, MSU
Molds in hay can affect animals by infecting them, producing
mycotoxins (or changing natural plant compounds to toxic
compounds), producing allergic reactions, and, ultimately,
reducing the palatability and nutritional value of the hay.
Symptoms associated with feeding moldy hay include, though
are not limited to, feed refusal, allergy symptoms similar to
asthma (e.g., heaves or recurrent airway obstruction in horses
or interstitial pneumonia in cattle, also known as “Farmers
Lung” in humans), reduced feed intake, poor weight gain, colic
in horses, diarrhea, lower fertility, abortions, lethargy, poor
hair coats, increased water consumption, estrogenic effects
such as unexpectedly swollen nipples and vulva, poor kidney
or liver function, lameness, and vaccine failure, among other
serious problems. It is important to remember that allergies
and health problems associated with mold spores also affect
people, not just livestock. When working around moldy hay,
wear a mask capable of excluding 5 to 10 micron particles.
Determining whether moldy hay is safe to feed depends on
several factors, including:
• Species: Ruminant animals are generally less sensitive
since many mycotoxins are broken down in the rumen.
Horses, which are cecal digesters, are considered to be the
highest risk.
• Reproductive state: Pregnant animals and young animals
are at higher risk.
• Nutritional status: Animals in poor condition are more
likely to be affected.
• The dose: The dose makes the poison. Consider what
proportion of the ration moldy hay comprises and what the
level of mycotoxin present is. If feeding moldy hay, consider
spreading the hay out on the ground so that animals avoid
the moldy portions while consuming good hay.
• Total digestible nutrient (TDN) content of hay: The
higher the TDN, the lower the chance of nutritional
problems associated with moldy hay.
Other livestock problems that can mimic mycotoxin
intoxication are the presence of toxic plants incorporated into
the hay or the presence of toxic seeds. One common example
is the presence of dodder seeds in hay. Dodder is a parasitic
plant that will appear in field as yellowish or golden-colored
string-like vines that produce numerous tiny seeds from midsummer to fall. Ingestion of these seeds will cause colic in
horses. It is always a good idea to survey fields for poisonous
plants or dodder before cutting.
If you have questions about mycotoxins or are concerned
about moldy hay, contact Barry Jacobsen (bjacobsen@
montana.edu), the Schutter Diagnostic Laboratory (http://
diagnostics.montana.edu/) or your local MSU county or
reservation Extension office. 
Where hay or straw has been flooded or kept above 90%
moisture, the Stachybotrys species can grow and produce
mycotoxins in straw or be associated with inhalation of the
black mold spores they produce. This is one of the key fungal
species responsible for “building sickness.” These mycotoxins
affect humans and most warm-blooded animals. Strachybotyrs
symptoms include dermatitis, fever, various chest and upper
airway symptoms, inflammatory disorders of the mouth,
rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and neurological disorders. Generally
symptoms start within two to three days of exposure. Without
new exposure, symptoms may last for three weeks or more.
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
9
The Ch a llenge of Ba dger s
prey species can be expensive and time consuming. If rapid,
but short-term, results are required, then landowners should
consider the methods mentioned below.
In Montana, badgers may be hunted or trapped throughout
the year. Always obtain permission from the landowner before
initiating control measures. There are no pesticides registered
for control of badgers.
Badgers occur throughout Montana wherever ground squirrels and prairies dogs are present.
Trapping
Badger Biology
Damage by Badgers
Badgers (Taxidea taxus) are medium-sized predators (14-17
pounds) that have a white vertical stripe that extends from the
nose, between the eyes, and across the forehead. Gray, black,
and brown fur gives their low profile bodies an overall grayish
appearance. They have bushy 5-6 inch tails and a body length
of 22-23 inches. Badgers mate between May and August and
females give birth to one to five young between February and
May of the following year. Males do not participate in rearing
young. Juveniles disperse during the mating season or by fall.
Badger holes and the resultant mounds of excavated soil reduce
production, damage harvesting equipment, and visually scar the
landscape. In some instances, badger digging can undermine
the integrity of dikes and similar structures raising significant
safety concerns. Poultry producers may experience predation if
pens are not sufficiently strong enough to prevent badger entry.
Badgers occur throughout Montana wherever ground squirrels
and prairie dogs are abundant. They use powerful front legs
with 1-inch claws to dig up burrowing prey. Most landowners
see only the 8-plus inch diameter holes and mound of
excavated soil characteristic of badger hunting activity the
previous night. What isn’t seen is the remarkable speed at
which the badger dug that hole.
The number of badgers in an area depends mainly on the
availability of prey. In ideal habitats, a badger’s home-range
can be as small as 0.15 square miles, but one to three square
miles is more common.
The claim that livestock may injure themselves by stepping
into badger holes has little evidence to support it, as cattle
and similar livestock seem able to avoid these holes. Galloping
horses, however, are an exception. Riders should avoid fast
speeds in areas where badgers are present.
Management of Badger Damage
When discussing management of badger damage, it is
important to emphasize that the problem for landowners
is not primarily the badger, but its digging. If you are not
experiencing badger damage on your landscape, then there
is no reason to kill badgers preemptively. In fact, preemptive
killing is likely to increase the likelihood that land will be
invaded by ground squirrels because of reduced predatory
pressure on ground squirrels elsewhere.
The most efficient way to stop badger damage over the
long-term is to remove their prey. Research has shown that
badger activity drops following reductions in the numbers
of ground squirrels and prairie dogs. Simply put, “no food,
no badgers.” Details on how to control ground squirrels and
prairie dogs can be obtained from the Montana Department
of Agriculture’s website at http://agr.mt.gov/Programs/
PestMgt/VertebratePest/Bulletins/. MSU Extension also has
Montguides on ground squirrel and pocket gopher control
at http://store.msuextension.org Unfortunately, control of
10
| big sky small acres
PHOTOS AND ILLUSTRATION BY STEPHEN VANTASSEL
by Stephen Vantassel
Vertebrate Pest Specialist, Montana Department of Agriculture
Trapping badgers requires diligence, proper equipment,
and correct trap placement. Trap when badgers are active,
typically in warmer months. Winter trapping is not advisable
for inexperienced trappers because badgers may den up for
weeks at a time. Select trap sites carefully as traps can injure
non-target animals like free-ranging pets and skunks. Always
consider the potential for non-target capture before deciding
to use traps. Badgers may be caught in baited or blind sets.
Baited sets use an attractant such as food, urine, or animal
glands to draw the badger to the trap. Since baited sets
increase the risk of non-target captures, blind sets, which do
not use bait, may be a preferred option.
In blind sets, traps are placed where the badger is expected to
travel. Locate fresh badger digging, identified by the 8-inch tall
and 9-inch wide hole that extends well into the ground. Ignore
holes where you can see the bottom, but be sure to distinguish
between holes that are plugged and holes that are shallow.
Badgers may plug the burrows they occupy. Identify plugged
holes by probing the obstruction with a long pole. If the stick
breaks through, you have found a plugged hole. Avoid placing
traps over plugged holes, as badgers may trigger or bury
traps as they push out soil. Instead, set traps in holes created
nearby that the badger will investigate. Place a 220-sized
conibear-style trap (330 size can also be used) in the hole with
trigger wires pointing down. Ensure that the jaws will close
freely. Secure the conibear-style trap in place with three,
24-inch re-rod T-stakes. Place two stakes between the jaws in
a criss-cross fashion to stabilize the trap in the burrow or use
a manufactured stabilizer (see photo). Use the third stake to
secure the trap chain.
If you prefer footholds, use traps sized 1.75 to 3. Ensure that
the trap has an 18-inch long chain that has at least three
swivels. Chain and swivels should be suitable for catching
coyotes or larger animals. Do not use inferior equipment.
Dig a small depression on one side of the burrow (not in the
middle), large enough to fit the trap. Bed the trap so it lies
on the ground without wobbling. Cut a piece of waxed paper
large enough to fit inside the jaws of the set trap. Place the
paper over the trap pan and cover the trap with soil. The paper
prevents soil from sliding under the pan which would prevent
the trap from firing. Stake the trap with a 24-inch long re-bar
stake (or longer) as far away from the entrance of the burrow
as the chain will allow. The reason for this is to prevent the
trapped badger from reentering the burrow.
Check traps every morning they are set. Badgers caught in
conibear-style traps will usually be found dead. Use a .22
caliber rifle to dispatch live badgers caught in footholds,
provided it is safe and legal to shoot in the area.
Shooting
Most badgers killed by shooting are taken as targets of
opportunity rather than by planned hunting. Always follow
firearms laws and safety recommendations when using
firearms. Shotguns (#4 shot or larger) and rifles (.22 cal or
larger) will take badgers with proper projectile placement.
Hunting badgers at night with spotlights can improve hunting
success. Identify badgers by their movements and green eye
shine. Hunt into the wind. Dogs can be helpful but care needs
to be taken that the dogs avoid engaging with the badger.
Badgers have loose skin, so if the dog bites, the badger will
often have enough freedom to turn and bite the dog and cause
significant injury.
If you are interested in learning more about badgers or other
vertebrate pests, or to schedule presentations, training,
and consultation on issues related to the management of
vertebrate pests, contact Stephen Vantassel at 406-538-3004
or by e-mail [email protected]. 
2 rods to stabilize the trap
stake
220 CONIBEAR
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
11
Fe at ur ed L a ndowner:
White Deer R a nch
harvested after a couple weeks at about 1-3 inches in height.
Common microgreens include mustard, radish, buckwheat,
lettuce, and spinach. They are packed with flavor and add
color, texture, and nutrition to soups, salads, sandwiches,
and other dishes. A United States Department of Agriculture
study published in the August 2012 issue of the Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry found that, in general, the
cotyledon leaves (i.e., the embryonic first leaves of a seedling)
had considerably higher nutritional densities, in some cases 40
times more, than the mature leaves.
Owners and operators of the ranch since 1990, the Dunns value the
tranquility, natural beauty and bounty that Mother Nature provides.
by Jodie DeLay
Extension External Relations Coordinator, Montana State University
The Dunns are committed to a chemical-free environment
where each component of the farm/ranch ripples out to
enhance another. As they have diversified their operation, they
have stayed true to this mission, placing the highest priority on
good stewardship.
At the core of everything is food. When asked her favorite part
of the farm/ranch lifestyle, Roxanne replied simply, “Eating.”
Concerned with the use of chemicals in America’s food
chain, the Dunns have created a farm/ranch experience that
highlights many ways that food can be grown or gathered in a
natural setting. Ninety percent of what they grow for food is
grown on less than five acres, if you don’t count the space for
the beef cattle. Lee and Roxanne are passionate about sharing
their techniques with others.
Per Roxanne, having pigs improved the health of the soil under
the apple trees (and elsewhere), which helped to eliminate an
apple scab problem, while also increasing the quality and yield
of the fruit. In addition, free range chickens follow the pigs,
accessing their nutritious waste to provide rich, healthy eggs.
The chickens eat insects from around the barnyard, keeping
them from eating the garden plants.
Another repurposed facility on the White Deer Ranch is
the year-round greenhouse. This is where the Dunns grow
microgreens. Not to be confused with sprouts, microgreens
are very young plants grown from vegetable or herb seeds and
| big sky small acres
Another feature of White Deer Ranch is the bee house, also
created from a repurposed outbuilding. Keeping with their
philosophy, “take care of the earthworms and the honeybees
with proper earth stewardship and everything else will thrive,”
the Dunns planted a pollinator field near a year-round creek.
The bee house protects the bees from harsh winters and
predators who might steal honey. The ranch has six hives,
including two wild swarms. They prefer wild bees as they are
The pigs have a mobile shelter that was constructed from an
old two-horse trailer. It is moved from pasture to pasture with
them, providing a safe, consistent home, as they are rotated
around the ranch. The chickens also have a mobile home.
Fixed on top of an old hay truck bed from their equipment bone
yard, the “traveling chicken hotel” is roofed with tin from an
old, fallen shed and pulled from field to field by a 1941 Farmall
tractor. Both the chickens and the pigs provide disturbance and
manure on the soil, improving its quality.
The healthy soil provides a bounty of wild plants, in addition
to those that are planted. These include dandelions, burdock,
lambsquarters, mallow, wild mint, nettle and mushrooms,
all of which can be utilized as food or made into teas and
tinctures. Roxanne notes, “One of the most wonderful things
about learning the plants that grow wild is trying them for
their nutritional and medicinal aspects.”
12
The greenhouse was repurposed from an old grain storage
building by replacing the tin roof with poly-carbonate sheets,
taking advantage of the southern exposure. The building is
cooled with fans in the summer and other low-cost solutions
are utilized for heat if needed. This has allowed the Dunns
to grow large quantities of microgreens most of the year for
income, as well as to start their own garden plants and bare
root trees. The Dunns advise small landowners, apartment
dwellers, and patio gardeners that they can grow microgreens
wherever they are, even in a window sill. The important thing,
they say, is to “keep it simple, affordable, and sensible to
match your needs and your time.”
As an example, the Dunns desired organic, pastured pork
and lard, so they acquired pigs. The pigs forage within an
area enclosed by a simple electric strand that is easily
and strategically moved around the ranch to allow them to
cultivate where needed. The pigs are supplemented with nonGMO barley.
The honey is often given as a surprise gift for visitors who stay
at one of the ranch’s two vacation homes. The Cobblestone
is a repurposed homesteader house that sleeps four and the
log cabin is a newer property that sleeps 12. In addition to
providing income, the rentals allow the Dunns to share their
lifestyle philosophy with others. They encourage guests to
join them for chores and to interact with the animals while
enjoying the property, including an 11-acre private lake for
trout fishing, swimming, ice-skating, and paddling. “When
people visit the farm they are reconnected by the use of all
their senses,” says Roxanne. “After they smell it, touch it, see
it, and taste it, they can better understand the value of how
food is grown.”
The White Deer Ranch is a microcosm of sustainability that
offers something for everyone. The diversification keeps
the Dunns busy, but they constantly assess what is a time
drain, what is working, and what isn’t. “It forces us to keep it
real,” says Roxanne. “We cut things that don’t make sense.”
Nevertheless, things can become hectic. In those moments,
they focus on their mission and their core, which is food.
“When we are in full swing in the summer and we are eating
many of our own farm products, I feel especially lucky. The
rewarding feeling is what keeps us going.”
For more information about the White Deer Ranch, visit www.
whitedeerranch.com. 
PHOTOS COURTESY OF WHITE DEER RANCH
What do pastured pigs, repurposed buildings, microgreens and
wild honey bee swarms have in common? At the White Deer
Ranch, all are part of the holistic, sustainably-focused family
lifestyle and management philosophy of Lee and Roxanne Dunn.
Located in the Stillwater Valley, with the majestic Absaroka
Beartooth Mountains as a backdrop, the 450-acre ranch has
fertile soil, phenomenal fishing, and abundant wildlife.
adapted to the Montana climate and are more likely to winter
here. Their pollinator field allows them to change the flavor of
the honey produced and create special honey vintages.
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
13
Her bs: The Lost A rt of
Ga r dening
Herbs can be harvested throughout the growing season by
snipping sprigs and leaves. Many will contain the best flavor if
harvested just before flowering. Mid-morning is the best time
to pick herbs as the oil content is the highest at this time. For
the mint family and most annual herbs, cut a few inches down
the stem and just above a set of leaves. This will promote
new growth from buds and a bushier plant will result. Do not
remove too much of the foliage or the plants may not be able
to recover. If cutting herbs from the carrot family, cut each leaf
stalk at the base of the plant rather than just trimming off the
tender leaf blades. Flowering, a signal that the plant is near
the end of its life, may result in changes in the flavor of the
foliage, which may not be as pleasant.
Herbs can be a very rewarding, year-around project that can provide several
uses for your culinary palate and beyond.
by Jodi Pauley
Powell County Extension Agent, Montana State University
Herbs offer great versatility for the garden enthusiast, with
uses ranging from seasoning foods to providing medicinal
value. Some herbs are used for their oils and fragrances while
others are sought after for their flowers and beauty in dried
floral arrangements.
Herbs can be grown in containers or in a garden and can be
enjoyed throughout the year in fresh, dried, or frozen forms.
Because Montana has a diverse climate, some herbs that may
do well in one part of the state may struggle in other areas.
Knowing your growing season, hardiness zone, and what
does well in your area are always important before starting
an herb garden.
Many culinary herbs belong in one of two plant families, the
mint family (Lamiaceae) and the carrot family (Apiaceae). The
mint family includes all the mints, basil, oregano, marjoram,
catnip, rosemary, thyme, lavender, and sage; and are grown
for their aromatic leaves. Some of these are very hardy and
can, in some instances, become invasive, especially the mints.
The carrot family includes dill, parsley, chervil, cilantro, fennel,
and lovage. These are grown for foliage and seeds. Another
popular herb that grows well in Montana is chives, which is in
the onion family (Amaryllidaceae).
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| big sky small acres
Once picked, keep herbs out of bright light and wash them
gently to remove dirt and debris. There are several ways to
dry herbs. Air drying preserves the flavors of herbs better
than faster drying alternatives. To air dry, gather four or five
stems, tie the ends together with clean string or heavy thread,
and hang them upside down in a dark, warm, dry, and well
ventilated room. Make sure to label them to avoid mixing
up the harvested herbs. Foliage should dry within seven to
14 days. You can also dry herbs on racks, making sure they
Seeds may be started indoors under fluorescent lights during
the late winter months. Lights should be on for 14 to 16 hours
daily and placed 4-6 inches above the seedlings. Lights should
be raised to maintain this distance as plants grow. When
planting outside, transplant herbs once frost danger has
passed and the soil is warm. Some herbs, such as chives and
mint, may be propagated by division.
Once herbs are dry, strip the leaves from the stems, as stems
tend to retain moisture and can cause mold issues in storage.
Store leaves in airtight containers, whole if possible, for better
flavor retention. Most herbs will last up to a year if stored
properly. Herbs that have been dried can also be frozen. Herbs
chopped and packed into ice cube tray compartments with a
little water and frozen should last at least a year in the freezer.
For a list of herbs that do well in Montana, refer to the
MontGuide titled “Herbs for Montana Gardens.” This guide
will give several ideas of what a particular herb can be used
for, its required growing conditions, its uses in the kitchen,
and even its historical value. The free MontGuide can be
found at your local Extension or Reservation office or can be
downloaded at the MSU Extension website at http://store.
msuextension.org/Products/Herbs-for-Montana-Gardens__
MT200003AG.aspx. 
When watering herbs, make sure to soak the soil at least eight
inches deep about once a week. However, if herbs are growing
in a container or days are hot and sunny, more frequent watering
may be required. If plants are growing indoors, water thoroughly
when the soil feels dry. The most common problem of herbs
grown indoors is overwatering, which promotes root rot.
Perennial herbs that are not winter hardy can be cultivated
with a mixed indoor-outdoor regime. Plant herbs in unglazed
clay pots filled with potting mix and in the spring, plant the
entire pot in the garden. The porous clay may allow water
and nutrients to pass from the soil into the pot, but plants
should still be irrigated directly. When the days start to cool
off toward fall and the danger of frost looms, dig up the
pots, clean them off, and inspect them for insects before
bringing them indoors. Do not fertilize them, water only when
necessary, and make sure they receive plenty of light. To
condition the plants for outdoor conditions in the spring, move
them outside for a few hours a day before planting the pot in
the garden for the summer.
PHOTO COURTESY OF CLIPART.COM
Most herbs require well-drained soil and at least six hours of
direct sunlight daily to grow well. In fact, more intense light is
better, as more oils will develop within the glands of foliage
and stems, creating stronger fragrances and seasonings. If
growing herbs indoors, make sure to provide the best light
available. Twelve hours of artificial light daily is adequate for
most indoor herbs. Avoid soils with high nutrient content as
it can promote rapid, lush growth that will contain only small
amounts of the volatile oils that give herbs their characteristic
aromas and flavors.
have plenty of ventilation. There are other methods for drying
herbs such as oven drying and microwaving, however, it takes
practice to ensure that you are drying and not cooking the
herbs with these methods.
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
15
M a ster Ga r dener Q& A
A sk Stewa r d
Cultivating Your Yard and Garden Knowledge
Dear Steward,
Do you have Master Gardener questions?
Send them to [email protected],
subject: Master Gardener.
by Toby Day
I am new to Montana and am shocked at the variety of plants on my property. I need
a resource to help me identify which ones are weeds and which ones are good. What
resources are available for plant identification? – Weeding the Bad Ones
Extension Horticulture Specialist, Montana State University
Q
I recently saw on Montana Ag Live where someone
recommended digging up gladiolus bulbs in the fall
and storing them for winter. Can you elaborate on how
and when this is done?
- Choteau County
A
Gladiolus are a beautiful addition to any garden, but their
marginal winter hardiness often requires digging and
storing the corms (i.e., the proper name for gladiolus bulbs)
during winter, and replanting in spring. I recommend digging
the corms after the first frost, allowing corms to mature as
much as possible before removal. Dig the corms with a hardtined fork, taking care to not damage them. Any damage from
digging or handling will decrease storage success and may
cause rot. Clean soil off the corms, inspect them, and throw
away any that are damaged or discolored. This also is a great
time to divide the corms, which can be done by removing
small cormlets from the bottom. Cut the tops of the foliage
to about 2 inches above the corm and set the bulbs in the
sun on a screen for 1-2 days to allow the outside of the bulbs
to suberize (i.e., convert to tissue with a corky consistency).
During this time, don’t let bulbs get wet, as this will decrease
storage life. After they are completely dry (which may require
bringing them indoors for another 2-3 weeks), store corms
in boxes lined with newsprint. If you have many bulbs, layer
them in newsprint to allow air movement. Cutting holes in
boxes will increase air movement. Finally, store the bulbs
at 35-40˚F with low humidity in a dark location, such as an
attached garage or basement, making sure not to let the
corms freeze. The following spring, once soil is workable,
you can plant them back in the garden.
Q
After a long gardening season, the wood handles of
my tools look terrible. I have read a lot of conflicting
ideas of how to maintain the handles. What are your
recommendations?
- Broadwater County
A
Wooden handles of garden tools can be worn, cracked,
and weathered after a summer of gardening. However,
tool handle maintenance does not have to be difficult. The
16
| big sky small acres
handles first need to be sanded with 120-grit sandpaper until
clean and smooth. If the tools have not been refinished for a
while and are in pretty bad condition, you may want to use a
vibrating or orbital sander, but often just hand sanding works
fine. When the handle is sanded and clean, liberally rub a
coat of boiled linseed oil on the handle. Linseed oil is very
common and can be found at any hardware store. Be sure the
oil penetrates into the handle before removing the remaining
oil with a rag or paper towel. For complete oil penetration,
consider oiling the handles twice. To keep handles in top
condition, consider oiling them once during the gardening
season, as well, to keep them from drying out
Q
Boxelder bugs are invading my home. They are inside
and out and they crawl on everything! Is there any way
to get rid of them?
- Park County
A
Boxelder bugs are not harmful, but they certainly can be
a nuisance! The insects feed primarily on the seeds of
female boxelder trees, but can feed on maple and ash seeds,
as well. A drastic measure to get rid of them would be to
remove the host tree(s). However, there are ways to reduce
the numbers without cutting down a tree. First, sanitation
around the outside of the home is paramount. Boxelder
bugs overwinter in fallen leaves, usually on the south and
west sides of the home, and feed on fallen seeds. Rake and
clean up material to reduce overwintering. To keep them
out of the home, caulk around windows and doors and keep
weather stripping in good repair. If they are in the home,
vacuum them up. Finally, use a pesticide as a barrier, several
products will keep boxelder bugs at bay. Spray around the
perimeter of the house, concentrating on south and west
sides of the house. Also spray around doors and windows,
depending on the product. Be sure to read the label and
keep in mind that it is not advised to use indoor sprays
because they aren’t very effective and new pests often
invade shortly after spraying.
Dear Weeding,
There are numerous resources available to help identify plants on your property and to
determine which ones are weeds. Montana State University Extension offers several,
including:
• Montana State University Extension MontGuides, published by Montana State
University (MSU) Extension; available at http://store.msuextension.org/, using
keyword “weeds.”
A'S
MONTANUS
NOXIO
WEEDS
orny
Monica Pok ld
ngo
& Jane Ma
Yellow Starthistle:
Identification, Biology and
Integrated Management
EB0159
ch 2016
revised Mar
by Hilary Parkinson, MSU Research Associate, and Jane Mangold, MSU Extension
Invasive Plant Specialist; Dept. of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences
MontGuide
Yellow starthistle invades rangelands, grasslands, agricultural areas and wild
lands reducing forage, yield, and degrading habitat. It is a priority 1A species
in Montana, meaning the management objectives are prevention, early
detection and eradication.
MT201101AG Reviewed 5/12
leaves are up to three inches long and deeply lobed. Upper
leaves are short and narrow with fewer lobes. Stems appear
Yellow starthistle is native to Eurasia (Asia Minor, the Midflattened, or winged, due to leaves that grow vertically
dle East and south central Europe). Seed was introduced to
California in the mid 1850s as a contaminant in alfalfa seed. along the stem (Figure 3). Foliage is grayish green due to
Initially a weed of agricultural systems and roadsides, yellow tiny hairs. Bright yellow flowers grow singly at the ends of
starthistle began to spread to rangelands across northwestern branches. When in bud, and during or after flowering, this
plant is easy to recognize due to the long sharp spines (¾ to
states during the 1870s and 1880s. In the 1960s there was
1 inch long, Figure 4) on the flower bracts. After flowering
a rapid expansion of yellow starthistle throughout the West,
and seed dispersal, a cottony white tuft remains on the
attributed to extensive road building, expansion of ranchreceptacle, resembling a cotton swab (Figure 5).
ing and disturbances associated
with suburban development. The
Lifecycle
Prevention and early detection are top priorities
weed was estimated to be spreadYellow starthistle is a facultative
for managing yellow starthistle. If you think
ing at 7,000-20,000 acres per
winter annual, meaning it
you've found this plant, please call the Mont.
year in 1989, but reevaluation in
germinates in the fall, but may
Dept. of Agriculture, 406-444-3140, or your
1994 doubled these estimates to
germinate in the spring. Following
county weed coordinator or Extension agent.
15,000 to 50,000 acres per year.
germination a long taproot grows
The first report of yellow
rapidly, allowing plants to survive
starthistle in Montana was in 1958 in Ravalli County.
summer drought. Plants bolt in the spring or early summer.
The next report was in Gallatin County in 1982. Since
Flowering may occur from early summer to early fall until
then, eight additional counties have reported the presence
buds are killed by frost.
of yellow starthistle (Figure 1). The most recent reports
Spread
are from the following counties: Beaverhead (2009, two
plants), Stillwater (2009, plants scattered over 10 acres), and Seed production and spread can be prolific; a single
plant may produce more than 150,000 seeds under ideal
Gallatin (2010, one plant). At the time of this publication,
conditions. There are two types of seed, plumed and
all known patches in Montana have been small enough to
eradicate within one to two years (shaded counties in Figure plumeless (Figure 6). Plumes are fluffy appendages that
may facilitate dispersal by wind, exemplified by those
1 represent historical records only and do not imply the
weed is still present). Compared to infestations in California on dandelion. By creating two seed types that differ in
how and when they disperse, or their ideal conditions for
(17 million acres), Washington (1 million acres), Oregon
germination, plants may increase their chances for new
(950,000 acres) and Idaho (800,000 acres), Montana is in a
populations to establish.
very good position to prevent the widespread establishment
of yellow starthistle.
Origin and Distribution
Identification and Biology
Yellow starthistle belongs to the Asteraceae family and is a
member of the genus Centaurea. It is an erect, branching
plant that may grow one to five feet tall. Rosettes resemble
dandelions with deeply lobed leaves (Figure 2). Lower
For More Online MontGuides, Visit www.msuextension.org
FIGURE 1. Counties in
Montana (shaded) where
yellow starthistle has
been reported. (Rice, P.M.
INVADERS Database System,
http://invader.dbs.umt.edu)
• Weeds of the West. Published by the Western Society of Weed Science; available
for purchase at Montana State University Extension Publications (http://store.
msuextension.org/).
• Montana’s Noxious Weeds (EB0159A): Published by MSU Extension; available for
purchase at http://store.msuextension.org/.
• Range Plants of Montana (EB0122): Published by MSU Extension; available for
purchase at http://store.msuextension.org/.
• Schutter Diagnostic Laboratory. Located on campus at MSU; staff is available to
assist with plant identification; http://diagnostics.montana.edu.
• MSU Extension Invasive Weeds website: http://www.msuinvasiveplants.org.
These first four are also available through your local MSU County or Reservation
Extension office.
Additional resources that may be benefical are:
• Plants of the Rocky Mountains. Published by Lone Pine Publishing; found on Amazon
or local bookstores; a great resource with pictures for identifying grasses, forbs,
trees, shrubs, etc.
• Montana Grasses App: Published by High Country Apps; includes over 100 grass
and grass-like plants found in Montana and nearby states; available for purchase at
Amazon, Apple, and Google app stores.
• Montana Weed Control Association website: http://mtweed.org/weeds/.
Local personnel exist for assistance with plant identification and developing weed
management strategies. A list of local County Weed Coordinators can be found at http://
mtweed.org/find-weed-coordinator/ and county and reservation MSU Extension office
information can be found at www.msuextension.org/localoffices.cfm. 
Have a question for Ask Steward? Please send it to [email protected] or
[email protected].
W i n t e r 2 0 1 6 |
17
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FALL 2014 • VOLUME 8, NUMBER 1
SPRING-SUM
MER 2014 •
VOLUME 7, NUMB
ER 3