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Art and Architecture of the Synagogue
in Late Antique Palestine
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Ancient Judaism
and
Early Christianity
Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken
Judentums und des Urchristentums
Editorial Board
Martin Hengel (Tübingen),
Pieter W. van der Horst (Utrecht),
Martin Goodman (Oxford),
Daniel R. Schwartz (Jerusalem),
Cilliers Breytenbach (Berlin),
Friedrich Avemarie (Marburg),
Seth Schwartz (New York)
VOLUME 65
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Art and Architecture
of the Synagogue in
Late Antique Palestine
In the Shadow of the Church
by
David Milson
LEIDEN BOSTON
2007
•
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Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity has previously been published as Arbeiten zur Geschichte
des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums (ISSN 0169-734X)
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Milson, David.
Art and architecture of the synagoge in late antique Palestine : in the shadow of the
church / by David Milson.
p. cm. — (Ancient Judaism and early Christianity, ISSN 1871-6636 ; v. 65)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN-13: 978-90-04-15186-4
ISBN-10: 90-04-15186-9 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Synagogue architecture—Palestine. 2. Synagogues—Palestine—History. 3. Church
architecture—Palestine. 4. Church architecture—Influence. 5. Judaism—Relations—
Christianity. 6. Christianity and other religions—Judaism. I. Title. II. Series: Arbeiten
zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums ; Bd. 65.
NA5977.M55 2006
726’.30933—dc 22
2006043942
ISSN
1871–6636
ISBN-13: 978-90-04-15186-4
ISBN-10: 90-04-15186-9
© Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill,
Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission from the publisher.
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use is granted by Brill provided that
the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright
Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910
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Fees are subject to change.
printed in the netherlands
contents
v
In memoriam
Stuart Earl Milson
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abbreviations of Often-Used Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiii
xxii
xxiii
xxiv
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Chapter One
Evolution and ancient synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Re-assessing past scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. ‘Normative Judaism’ and the forbidden image . . . . . . . . . .
1.3. Synagogue scholarship in the early nineteenth century . . .
1.4. Beginnings of the evolutionary theory of synagogue plans
1.4.1. ‘Galilean’ synagogues—the ‘early’ type . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2. Synagogues with apses—the ‘late’ type . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3. Broadhouse synagogues—the ‘transitional’ type . . .
1.4.4. How the theory has effected synagogue studies . . .
1.5. Galilean regionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6. Recent publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
18
19
20
22
23
24
26
28
29
30
Chapter Two
Excavated synagogues dating to the Byzantine period . . . . . . . .
Introduction: Evidence for identification and dating of ancient
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Archaeological evidence for unequivocal synagogues by
century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1. Dated to the Fourth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2. Dated to the Fifth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3. Dated to the Sixth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Archaeological evidence for undated synagogues or those
having equivocal building chronologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1. #En Gedi—Southern Hebron Hills, Palaestina
Prima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2. Susiya—Southern Hebron Hills,
Palaestina Prima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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50
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2.2.3. Beth She’arim, “Synagogue I and II”—Lower
Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4. Ma’oz Hayyim, “Building A”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5. Ma’oz Hayyim, “Building B”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6. Ma’oz Hayyim, “Building C”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.7. Rehob, “Phase 3”—Beth She’an Valley,
Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.8. Hammat Tiberias, “Synagogue IIA Severos”—
Eastern Lower Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . .
2.2.9. Hammat Tiberias, “Synagogue IB”—Eastern
Lower Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.10. Arbel, “Synagogue I and II”—Eastern
Lower Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.11. Beth Yerach, “Synagogue”—Eastern Lower
Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.12. Hammat Gader, “Synagogue”—Golan, Palaestina
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.13. Nabratein, “Synagogue 2a and 2b”—Upper
Galilee, Palaestina Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.14. Meiron, “Synagogue”—Upper Galilee, Palaestina
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.15. Bar’am, “Synagogue”—Upper Galilee, Palaestina
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.16. Meroth, “Stages A and B”—Upper Galilee,
Phoenicia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.17. Meroth, “Stage C”—Upper Galilee, Phoenicia . . .
2.3. Metrological evidence corroborates material evidence for
Byzantine dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter Three
On the ‘Orientation’ of Ancient Synagogues and Churches . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Where was the Divine Presence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1. Jewish influence on Christian practice?. . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2. Christian influence on Jewish practice . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. “Orientation” of synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1. Jewish prayer toward Jerusalem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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62
63
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67
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3.3. Christian prayer toward East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1. Written sources for prayer toward the East . . . . . .
3.4. Archaeological evidence for Christian direction of prayer
3.4.1. Churches in Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2. Several churches founded by Constantine have
apses in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3. Syrian churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. Direction of influence: Jewish-Christian, Christian-Jewish,
or separate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6. Written sources from the Jewish realm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1. Location of the Divine Presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2. Direction of prayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7. Archaeological evidence in synagogues for direction of
prayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1. Criteria used by archeologists for describing
direction of prayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8. An obstacle: view and access to some platforms
interrupted by columns and entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9. An enhanced axis in synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.1. Synagogues at Ma’oz Hayyim and at Rehob near
Scythopolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10. Bema and chancel screens in churches and synagogues
3.11. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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87
88
89
91
93
95
95
96
97
99
99
100
101
102
102
103
Chapter Four
The ‘façade motif’ in ancient synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1. Introduction: the Torah Scrolls, the Torah Shrine and
the ‘façade motif’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1.1. A ‘generic’ motif? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.1.2. The façade motif on synagogue pavements . . . . . . 111
4.2. Inscriptions referring to the Torah Shrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3. Archaeological evidence for the Torah Shrine . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.4. Torah Shrine or Torah Ark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.5. Scrolls in late antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.6. Iconography of the façade motif from funerary contexts
124
4.7. A closer look at synagogue pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.8. Depictions of the Torah Shrine on glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.9. The façade motif in pagan and Christian contexts . . . . . . . 133
4.10. From iconography to object: the Torah Shrine . . . . . . . . . 135
4.11. An enlarged façade with columns motif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.12. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
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Chapter Five
Dated Churches in Galilee and the Chancel Screen . . . . . . . . .
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. Historical sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. Churches Dated by Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1. ‘Evron 415, 443, and 490 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2. Shavei Tzion 486 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3. Horvat Esh-Shubeika 513 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.4. Horvat Hesheq 519 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.5. Philoteria (Beth Yerach) 528/9 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.6. Horvat Bata (Carmiel) 543 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.7. Suhmata 555 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.8. Beth She’an, Monastery of Kyra Maria c. 567 CE
5.3.9. Gerasa Church of Bishop Marianos 570 CE . . . . .
5.3.10. Kursi 582-587 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.11. Hippos-Sussita Cathedral and Baptistery 591 CE
5.4. Dating the Chancel Screen in Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter Six
Ecclesiastical Furnishings in Synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1. Introduction: apses and ecclesiastical furnishings in fourth
to sixth century synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. Written sources for platforms in synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1. The platform in rabbinic liturgical discussion . . . . .
6.3. Archaeological evidence for the raised platforms in
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1. Platforms in a range of sizes (Table 6.1) . . . . . . . . .
6.4. Another type of small, stepped platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1. Written evidence for an ambo in the synagogue . . .
6.4.2. The Seat of the Elder at Dura-Europos . . . . . . . . .
6.4.3. Was there a wooden platform in the synagogue at
Dura-Europos? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5. Archaeological evidence from Palestine for an ambo in
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6. The place where the Word is read aloud: sources on the
ambo in early churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7. Chancel screens: marking the ‘sacred space’ in churches
6.7.1. Evidence for chancel screens in the churches of
Hagia Sophia and St. Polyeuktos in Constantinople . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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141
143
145
145
147
148
149
151
152
154
154
156
157
159
160
162
162
165
167
170
172
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188
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6.8. Chancel screens in synagogues in late Antique Palestine
6.8.1. Archaeological evidence for chancel screens in
synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8.2. Synagogues with chancel screens generally located
near cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8.3. Motives for the introduction of chancel screens
into the synagogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9. The ‘Chair of Moses’ or Kathedra in synagogues . . . . . . . .
6.10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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196
198
199
201
202
Chapter Seven
The Niche and the Apse in Synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.1. Introduction: Where were the Holy Scrolls kept in the
ancient synagogue? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.2. Semicircular niches in synagogues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.2.1. Dura-Europos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.2.2. Eshtemo’a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.2.3. Susiya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.2.4. Arbel in Galilee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.2.5. Nawa in Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.3. Rectangular niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.3.1. Horvat Rimmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.3.2. Blocked Doorways at Beth She’arim and ‘En
Gedi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4. Rectangular chambers as the synagogue’s focal point . . . . 218
7.4.1. Chambers at Hammat Tiberias, and Horvat
Sumaqa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4.2. Rectangular recesses at Gerasa and Horvat Ma’on .220
7.5. Apses in churches and synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.5.1. Assumptions concerning apses in synagogues . . . . . 223
7.5.2. Some explanations for the appearance of the apse
in synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.6. The appearance of the apse as an architectural feature in
synagogues in relation to Byzantine liturgical practice . . . . 228
7.6.1. The First Entrance of the Gospel and Hetoimasia 229
7.7. Artistic Representations of The First Entrance and The
Gospel Enthroned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.7.1. Imagery of the imperial throne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.7.2. The Word of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
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7.8. Competition with Christianity and adaptation in the
synagogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Appendix A
On Vitruvius, a synagogue, and five churches in the Provinces
of Syria and Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1. Introduction: Vitruvius and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1.1. Names of builders and their titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1.2. Inscriptions from Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3. Churches with identical dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3.1. Churches at Nawa and Sugane in Syria . . . . . . . . .
A.3.2. Identical plans at Mampsis in Palestina Tertia
and et-Tuba, in Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3.3. The southern church at Burdaqli in Syria . . . . . . .
A.3.4. The synagogue at Ma’oz Hayyim, Palestine
Secunda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table A:1. Metrology of Churches and Synagogues . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Archaeological Evidence for Ancient Synagogues:
The Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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246
246
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251
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256
257
259
273
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. I:1. Theodotos inscription, found in Jerusalem;
now in Istanbul (first century); (Weil, 1920) . . . . . . . 479
Fig. 1:1. Synagogue plans; Capernaum, Eshtemoa, and Beth
Alpha as typical of each of the “three types”
(second to sixth centuries (sic)); (drawings by author) 480
Fig. 2:1. Horvat Shema’; photo of meeting between ‘stylobate
wall’ and the northern wall of the building (not
integrally bound together) (fourth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Fig. 2:2. Horvat Shema’; fragments of a small capital found
underneath stone bench next to S. wall (fourth
century); (Meyers, 1976, photo 3.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 2:3. Gush Halav; N–S section through the synagogue
showing a thin plaster floor level, with later plaster
repair (fourth century); (Meyers, 1990, Fig. 5,
pg. 28–29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 2:4. Gush Halav; photo of cyma recta mouldings found
in the synagogue (fourth century); (Meyers, 1990,
photo 18, pg. 50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fig. 2:5. Nabratein; photo of lintel bearing Hebrew inscription: “In the year 494 since the destruction of the
temple, Hanina son of Lizar and Luliana son of
Yudan built this.” (564 CE); (author’s photo) . . . . . . 483
Fig. 2:6. Beth Alpha; photo of the nave mosaic (sixth
century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Fig. 2:7. Susiya; photograph of the platform and north wall
within the synagogue (fourth–eighth centuries);
(Yeivin, 1989, Fig. 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Fig. 2:8. Hammath Tiberias; photo of apse floor of the
phase III synagogue, showing traces of an earlier
wall (fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Fig. 2:9. Hammath Tiberias; photo of small platform
relating to earlier phase of the synagogue (without
apse) (fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xiii
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xiv
list of figures
Fig. 2:10. Nabratein; stone lintel with conch and pediment
flanked by lions found embedded in the platform
of Synagogue 2b (third century); (author’s photo)
Fig. 2:11. Meiron; photo of the east foundation wall, with
bond to southern annex (fourth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 2:12. Meiron; section through E. wall of synagogue
looking south, showing location of Antonine
(Probus and Aurelian) coins (found below L1004)
(270–282 CE); (Meyers, 1977, Fig 2.9, pg. 123)
Fig. 2:13. Bar’am; photo of the spiral consolae flanking the
lintel of the main doorway (fifth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 2:14. Bar’am; photo of the W. wall showing possible
earlier wall below present wall (fifth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:1. Dura–Europos; photo of the western wall of the
reconstructed synagogue (third century);
(Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 25:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:2. Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem; plan of the martyrium
(fourth century); (Couasnon, 1972, Pl. 8) . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:3. Tabgha; plan of the church of the Multiplication
of the Loaves and Fishes (fifth century);
(Schneider, 1937, Pl. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:4. Fafirtin, Syria; plan, section and details of the
church (372 CE); (Butler, 1920, Ill. 370, pg. 328)
Fig. 3:5. Harab Sems; photo of the church (fifth century);
(Butler, 1920, Ill. 363) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:6. Baalbek; plan of the church built on the remains
of the temple of Jupiter (fourth century);
(Wiegand, 1921, Pl. 17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:7. Horvat Shema’; photo of the platform abutting
the southern wall of the synagogue (fourth
century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:8. Rehob; plan of the synagogue showing platform
against south wall (fourth–sixth centuries); (Vitto,
1981, pg. 90) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 3:9. Ma’oz Hayyim; orthogonal plan of the phase I
synagogue showing platform against southern wall
of the hall (fourth century); (Tsaferis, 1982, Fig. 3,
pg. 218) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xiv
486
487
488
488
489
490
491
491
492
493
493
494
494
495
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list of figures
Hammath Tiberias; façade motif as a Torah
Shrine flanked by menorot and other objects
(fourth century); (Dothan, 1981, Pl. 10) . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:2. Ben Ezra Synagogue, Cairo; reconstructed
wooden Torah Shrine from medieval synagogue
(eleventh (?) century); (Lambert, 1994, Fig. 7.4,
pg. 220) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:3. Pompeii; Lares altar with fresco framed by
columns and pediment from the House of the
Vettii (first century); (Eschebach, 1978, Fig. 147)
Fig. 4:4. Seleucia, near Antioch; motif as a frame for a
floor mosaic showing the inebriated Dionysus and
Heracles in the triclinium of the House of the
Drinking Contest (mid-third century); (Levi, ii,
1947, Pl. 30:b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:5. Sion tresure; silver book cover decorated with
façade motif and gilded cross (H: 37.5 x 27.6 cm.)
(sixth century); (Boyd and Mango, 1992,
Fig. S.22:5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:6. Victoria and Albert Museum; consular diptych
showing archangel Michael framed by the façade
motif (sixth century); (Rodley, 1994, Fig. 66) . . . . .
Fig. 4:7. Esquiline Treasure; Projecta Casket depiciting a
façade motif (mid–fourth century); (Rodley, 1994,
Fig. 30, pg. 47) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:8. Dura–Europos; façade motif used as a depiction
of the Temple door between double columns
(set above niche) (third century); (Kraeling, 1956,
Pl. 51) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:9. Beth She’arim; menorah framed by façade motif
in relief on lead sarcophagus found in the
necropolis (third century); (Avigad, 1976, Pl. 65:1)
Fig. 4:10. Beth Alpha; façade motif on the mosaic floor of
the synagogue (sixth century); (Sukenik, 1932,
Pl. 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:11. El-Khirbe; drawing of synagogue mosaic with
Torah Shrine (?) or Temple façade (fifth century);
(Magen, 1993, ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 4:12. Khirbet Samara; mosaic depiction of Torah
Shrine with curtain wrapped around innermost
xv
Fig. 4:1.
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xv
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
503
504
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xvi
Fig. 4:13.
Fig. 4:14.
Fig. 4:15.
Fig. 4:16.
Fig. 4:17.
Fig. 4:18.
Fig. 4:19.
Fig. 4:20.
Fig. 4:21.
Fig. 4:22.
Fig. 4:23.
Fig. 4:24.
Fig. 4:25.
Fig. 4:26.
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xvi
list of figures
left-hand column (late fourth–early fifth centuries);
(Magen, 1993, Pl. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beth She’an North; double façade motif depicting
a curtain hung on a pole set between columns
(fifth century); (Zori, 1967, Pl. 29:5) . . . . . . . . . . .
Dalton; chancel post with partial inscription
(undated); (Naveh, 1978, Pl. 145) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ostia; plan of the synagogue (fourth century);
(Runesson, 2001, Fig. 88, pg. 68) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ostia; photo of the aedicula of the phase II
synagogue (fifth century); (Runesson, 2001,
Fig. 54, pg. 57) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sardis; plans of the three phases of the synagogue
(third–fifth centuries); (Seager, 1983, Fig. 271) . . .
Sardis; photo of the reconstructed aedicule on the
eastern wall (late fourth century); (Seager, 1983,
Fig. 274) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chorazin; stone conch found loose in the synagogue (fourth–fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . .
Dura-Europos; fresco of the battle of Eben Ezer
showing a jewelled chest (third century);
(Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 54) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dura-Europos; fresco depicted on wing panel III
next to the aedicule, showing Ezra (or Moses)
reading a scroll, with a yellow chest (scroll case?)
with rounded top covered by a red cloth at his
right foot (third century); (Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 77)
Beth She’arim; relief decoration in front of tomb,
showing a façade motifs with menorah (third
century); (Mazar, 1973, Pl. 32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sepphoris; restored façade motif on mosaic
pavement from the synagogue (fifth century);
(Weiss, 2005, Fig. 11, pg. 66) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Susiya; mosaic depiction of façade motif with
Torah Shrine flanked by menorot in front of
small platform (damaged by later chancel screen)
(fifth century); (Gutman et alii, 1981, pg. 125). . . .
Na’aran; façade motif on mosaic floor (sixth
century); (Benoit, 1961, Pl. 7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pompeii, House of the Vettii; fresco of large open
armarium, with gods and perfume bottles set on
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
511
512
513
513
514
515
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list of figures
Fig. 4:27.
Fig. 4:28.
Fig. 4:29.
Fig. 4:30.
Fig. 4:31.
Fig. 4:32.
Fig. 5:1.
Fig. 5:2.
Fig. 6:1.
Fig. 6:2.
Fig. 6:3.
Fig. 6:4.
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xvii
three shelves, and putti making perfume in the
foreground (first century); (Budde, 1939) . . . . . . .
Herculaneum; wooden armarium from the
House of Sacello de legno (first century); (Mols,
1993, Fig 112, pg. 497) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna; wall
mosaic showing open cabinet with Gospels on
shelves (450 CE); (Deichmann, 1958, Fig. 6) . . . . .
Ostia; shoemaker in relief on stone sarcophagus
(first century); (Revel-Neher, 1984, Fig. 97) . . . . . .
Khirbet el-Mekhayyat, Jordan; mosaic depiction
of a façade motif, with inscription flanked by two
lamps (sixth century); (Piccorillo, 1998, Fig. 210,
pg. 354) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syria-Palestine; glass chalice with a ciborium
motif with curtains, similar to the façade motif,
framing a cross (sixth century); (Israeli and
Mevorah, 2000, pg. 91) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nabratein; ceramic sherd with incised depiction
of a shrine (eighth century); (Meyers and Meyers,
1982, Fig. 3, pg. 179*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gerasa, Church of SS Peter and Paul; reconstruction of the chancel (mid-sixth century); (Crowfoot,
1941, frontispiece) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hippos-Sussita; restored and re-installed marble
chancel screens of the south aisle of the Northwest church (sixth century); (Segal, 2004,
Fig. 100) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meroth; photo of the western raised platform
adjacent to the S wall, next to the main doorway
(sixth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hammat Tiberias; marble chancel post with
incised menorah (sixth century); (Hachlili, 1996,
Pl. 28, pg. 108) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chorazin; photo of the basalt stone chair found
within the synagogue (fourth century); (Yeivin,
2000, Fig. 130) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beth She’arim; photo of the platform adjacent
to the S. wall of the civic basilica (third century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xvii
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
524
525
526
526
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xviii
Fig. 6:5.
Fig. 6:6.
Fig. 6:7.
Fig. 6:8.
Fig. 6:9.
Fig. 6:10.
Fig. 6:11.
Fig. 6:12.
Fig. 6:13.
Fig. 6:14.
Fig. 6:15.
Fig. 6:16.
Fig. 6:17.
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xviii
list of figures
Meiron; photo of the window in the S wall of the
synagogue (view to South) (third century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Gush Halav; photo of remains of platform (phase
I) in the nave, adjacent to central doorway (fifth to
eighth centuries); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Gush Halav; photo of platform (phase II) built in
the western aisle, adjacent to western stylobate
(fifth to eighth centuries); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . 528
Chorazin; photo of the decorated basalt pilaster
from the synagogue (sixth to seventh centuries (?));
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Hammath Tiberias; photo showing building seam
between earlier wall (to left) and later apse wall
(to right) (sixth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . 530
Hammath Tiberias; photo of stone door socket in
the platform in the west aisle (sixth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Nabratein; reconstruction of the interior S. wall
with two platforms (note how the right column
has been erased, and the left platform supports a
table with menorah) (fourth century); (Meyers,
1996, Fig. 1.10b, pg. 14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Capernaum; photo of the remains of the western
platform found in the southern section of the
nave, next to the main entrance (fifth century);
(Corbo, 1975, Fig. 52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Charts of Platform Sizes; (third–fourth centuries); (DM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Chart of Platform Sizes; (fifth–sixth centuries);
(DM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Qasrin; photo of the platform (view to South)
(fifth century); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Horvat #Anim; photo of the platform at the
northern end of the nave (fourth–seventh
centuries); (Ilan, 1991, Fig. 1, pg. 304) . . . . . . . . . . 533
Horvat #Anim; reconstruction of the platform
(fourth–seventh centuries); (Amit, 2004, Fig. 4,
pg. 153) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
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list of figures
Fig. 6:18. Dura-Europos; photo of the niche and adjacent
“Seat of the Elder” (second–third century);
(Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 24) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6:19. Dura-Europos; plan of the synagogue indicating
the locations of the holes in the plaster floor and
platform in the southwestern corner of the prayer
hall (second–third century); (Kraeling, 1956,
Plan 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6:20. Beth She’an North; photo of the stepped platform
in the northern aisle (the later bench partially
covers the lowest step) (mid-sixth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6:21. Beth Alpha; photo of the platform adjacent to the
SE pier of the nave (sixth century); (Sukenik,
1932, Pl. V:2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6:22. Gerasa; ambo in the church of the Bishop Isaiah
(seventh century); (Clark, 1986, Pl. 4, pg. 326) . . .
Fig. 6:23. Rehob; fragments of a chancel screen found in
the synagogue with a wreath motif surrounding a
menorah (sixth century); (Hachlili, 1996, Fig 5.9a)
Fig. 6:24. Massout Yitzhak; fragments of a chancel screen
found in the church with a wreath motif surrounding a cross (sixth century); (Hachlili, 1996,
Fig 5.9b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6:25. Gaza; fragments of carved marble chancel found
in the nave of the synagogue (sixth century);
(Ovadiah, 1995, Pl. 18a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6:26. Susiya; reconstruction drawing of the chancel
arrangement on the platform, based on mosaic
depiction (cf. Fig. 5:31) (fifth century); (Yeivin,
1989, Pl. 52, Fig. 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6:27. Hammat Gader; marble chancel posts found in
the synagogue (sixth century); (Sukenik, 1935,
Pl. 13a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 7:1. Sardis; photo of apse with three tiers of benches
(synthronon) (late fifth century); (Seager, 1989,
Fig. 256) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 7:2. Sardis; photo showing both reconstructed
aediculae flanking central entrance (fifth
centuries); (Seager, 1989, Fig. 266) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xix
xix
535
536
537
537
538
538
539
539
540
541
542
542
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xx
Fig. 7:3.
Fig. 7:4.
Fig. 7:5.
Fig. 7:6.
Fig. 7:7.
Fig. 7:8.
Fig. 7:9.
Fig. 7:10.
Fig. 7:11.
Fig. 7:12.
Fig. 7:13.
Fig. 7:14.
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xx
list of figures
Eshtemo’a; platform in front of three niches
adjacent to the northern wall (fourth century);
(Yeivin, 1981, pg. 121) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arbel; photo showing niche in S. wall of the late
phase of the synagogue (sixth to mid-eighth centuries); (author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dura-Europos; photo of the square depression
found in the floor of the first phase of the synagogue (second century); (Kraeling, 1956, Pl. 5:1)
Dura-Europos; photograph of the remains of the
free-standing aedicule at the Temple of Bel (third
century); (Cumont, 1926, Pl. 27:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horvat Rimmon, Judean Hills; photo of the
remains of the north wall, with a shallow recess
(from N) (third–fourth centuries); (Kloner, 1983,
pg. 69) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#En Gedi; photograph of the blocked doorway
(exterior view from the North) (fifth century);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#En Gedi; photograph of the charred remains
found within the synagogue, thought to be a
Torah Ark, and a bronze menorah nearby (fifth
century); (Barag, 1981, pg. 117) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#En Gedi; photo of the platform adjacent to the
north wall of the synagogue (fifth to sixth centuries); (Barag and Porat, 1970, pg. 99 ) . . . . . . . . . .
Meroth; Isometric reconstruction drawing of the
late phase of the synagogue, showing positions of
the two platforms agains the S. wall (sixth century); (Ilan, 1989, pg. 34) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hammath Tiberias; photograph of the small
paved room with cavity attached to the S of the
central nave (from S) (fourth–fifth centuries);
(author’s photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beth Alpha; photograph of the cavity found in the
apse (sixth century); (Sukenik, 1932, Pl. V.2) . . . . .
Orthodox Baptistery, Ravenna; mosaic depicting
the gospel, opened, placed on the altar (mid fifth
century); (Deichmann, 1958, Fig. 65) . . . . . . . . . . .
543
543
544
544
545
546
546
547
547
548
548
549
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list of figures
xxi
Fig. 7:15. San Vitale, Ravenna; mosaics of the N. wall of the
presbytery, depicting the First Entrance with
Justinian and attendants (534 CE); (Deichmann,
1958, Fig. 359, pg. 421) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Fig. 7:16. Orthodox Baptistery, Ravenna; mosaic (mid-fifth
century); (Deichmann, 1958, Fig. 65) . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Fig. A:1. Bethlehem; inscription prohibiting planting 15
podes from either side of the aqueduct, with a
ruler (598 CE); (Abel, 1926, Pl. V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Fig. A:2. Nawa, Syria; plan of the church (598 CE); (Bulter,
1920, Fig. 11, pg. 14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Fig. A:3. Sugane, Syria; plan of the bema church (sixth
century, CE); (Tchalenko, 1979, Fig. 114, pg. 62) 553
Fig. A:4. Nawa, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 10 podes module (598
CE); (by author) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Fig. A:5. Sugane, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 10 podes module (sixth
century); (by author) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Fig. A:6. Mampsis, Palestina Tertia; plan of the church
(fourth–sixth centuries); (Negev, 1988, Plan 13)
556
Fig. A:7. Mampsis, Palestina Tertia; geometric diagram of
the plan showing 5:4 grid based on 9 pedes
module (mid-fourth (?) century CE); (based on
Chen, 1981, Pl. 11:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Fig. A:8. et-Tuba, Syria; plan and section of the church
(583 CE); (Butler, 1920, Fig. 17, pg. 20) . . . . . . . . 558
Fig. A:9. et-Tuba, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 9 pedes module (583
CE); (by author) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Fig. A:10. Burdaqli, Syria; plan of the church (sixth–seventh
centuries); (Bulter, 1920, Fig. 235, pg. 235) . . . . . . 560
Fig. A:11. Burdaqli, Syria; geometric diagram of the plan
showing 5:4 grid based on 12 pedes module
(sixth–seventh centuries); (based on Butler, 1920,
Fig. 235, pg. 235) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. A:12. Ma’oz Haim; geometric diagram of the synagogue
plan showing 5:4 grid based on 9 pedes module
(fifth–sixth centuries); (Chen, 1980, 256) . . . . . . . . 562
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxi
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xxii
list of figures
LIST OF MAPS
Map
Map
Map
Map
milson_AJEC65_1.indd xxii
1
2
3
4a-b
Cities and major towns in Palestine . . . . . . . . .
xxv
Excavated synagogues in Palestine . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
Excavated churches in Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxii
Synagogue and church sites in Galilee (4th6th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxviii
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contents
xxiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Many people have freely given their time and energy to help complete
this Oxford dissertation and turn it into a book. First, I would like
to thank Doron Chen, who inspired me years ago to follow this long
road. Once I began studying archaeology, among my undergraduate
teachers in Jerusalem, Jan Gunneweg was especially helpful in his
encouragement in spite of many obstacles along the way.
In Oxford, there are many to thank. My gratitude is due to my
supervisor Marlia Mango, who took the responsibility for the topic,
and never showed the slightest tinge of anger on my lapses of English grammar. Her endless questioning helped me to re-think deepseated ideas. Several times in my research on ancient synagogues I
found Martin Goodman able to pick me out of a quandary, as well
as lead me along another more fruitful path. Julian Raby, ever with
fresh insight, showed me how to see things in a completely new way
when I thought the road was dark. James Coulton was most helpful
in our discussions on architects and architecture in antiquity and
Judith McKenzie was always available for serious questions and
helpful advice. Caroline Schulten is a dear soulmate, and was always
available when I needed support. My appreciation goes to Nicholas
Gendle for our long discussions, and for his help and advice on many
of the issues dealt with in the thesis. I would like to give particular
thanks to my examiners, Jodi Magness and Fergus Millar, and to
Catherine Hezser, Priscilla Lange and an anonymous reader for
their constructive comments and encouragement. My sincerest gratitude to Renee Otto and the editing staff at Brill who were ever so
diligent in making sure this work would see the light of day.
I am grateful to the Meyerstein Fund, to the Craven Committee,
to the Graduate Studies Office at Oxford University and to Merton
College for their financial help in the form of travel grants. Excursions to Israel allowed me to see and examine some of the sites dealt
with here.
Finally, thanks and appreciation to my mom for never-ending
support for what must have seemed a long and arduous task. My
parents’ steadfast love over the years, even in difficult times, were
as bedrock. In that sense, I feel lucky and privileged. I dedicate this
work to my dearest father of blessed memory, whose much-too-early
passing taught me how transient this life can be.
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