Paper presented in the International Seminar on the "First Farmers in Global Perspective', Lucknow, India, 18-20 January, 2006
The Early Farming Culture of the Middle Ganga Plain with
Special Reference to the Excavations at Jhusi and Hetapatti
J.N. Pal
ABSTRACT
The archaeological investigations in the middle Gangetic plain have revealed a long cultural sequence right from
late Upper Palaeolihic to the historical period. The first colonizers of the Gangetic plain were the Epipalaeolithic
and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of the Vindhyas. The excavations conducted during last two to three decades have
brought to light a distinct Neolithic culture in the region. The Mesolithic people had started exploiting the edible
wild grains for their consumption is evident not only from a good number of grinding stones from the excavated
Mesolithic sites of the Ganga plain and the Vindhyas but also from the evidence of wild rice from Chopani Mando
in the Vindhyas. Recent discoveries of the early farming culture of the region have proved that it was one of
the early centers of agriculture in the world.
The Indo-Gangetic plain has a significant position in
the history and archaeology of India. Entire Ganga
Plain, divisible into three main units: (i) Upper Ganga
Plain, (ii) Middle Ganga Plain, and (iii) Lower Ganga
Plain has been an important geographical feature in
Indian sub-continent. It looks a flat alluvial land,
marked by rivers originating from the Himalayas,
horse-shoe-lakes and rivulets emerging from these
lakes and has a slope from north-west to southeast. The middle Gangetic plain measuring about
144, 409 sq. km, is bounded by the Himalayan
tarai in the north, Vindhyan plateau in the south,
Ganga-Yamuna confluence in the west and BiharBengal border in the east. It includes modern eastern
Uttar Pradesh and plain of Bihar. On the basis of the
river system, the middle Ganga plain is sub-divided
Received: 27 July 2007; Revised : 26 March 2008.
into the Ganga plain North and Ganga Plain South,
the former further sub-divisible into (i) the GangaGhaghara doab, (ii) the Ghaghara-Gandak interfluve,
(iii) Gandak-Kosi interfluve and (iv) Kosi-Mahananda
inferfluve and the latter, i.e. the Ganga Plain South
into (i) West of Karmanasa, (ii) Karmanasa east
interfluve, (iii) Lower Son Valley, and finally (iv) the
Magadha-Anga Plain.1 Needless to say the Ganga
constitutes the lifeline of the area under discussion.
It has been the cradle of Indian civilization right from
the terminal Pleistocene period. Geologists believe
that the Ganga plain, a peripheral foreland basin
came into existence in Early Miocene, expanded in
the Middle Miocene and attained its present form in
the Late Quaternary. It has a surface cover of
Holocene sediments of variable thickness throughout.2
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
The Ganga plain was initially very rich in wild flora
and fauna due to favourable climate, but has now
to some extent been changed because of
deforestation and excessive hunting and cutting of
forest primarily due to pressure of human population.
The changing climatic conditions during early and
middle phases of Holocene in the area played a
significant role in the evolution of cultures. The
excavations and explorations conducted during the
last four decades by University of Allahabad, Banaras
Hindu University, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya University
Gorakhpur, University of Patna, U.P. State Archaeology
Department, Bihar State Archaeology Department and
Patna Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India,
have furnished a complete cultural sequence of the
region - Epipalaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic,
Chalcolithic, Early Iron Age and historical periods
(Fig.1). The Gangetic plain was far the first time
colonized by the Stone Age culture of the Vindhyas.
Right from the earliest phase, i.e. Epiplaeolithic and
Mesolithic, both the regions, Vindhyas and the Ganga
plain, have been in close cultural contacts. Recent
excavations have thrown new light on the early
Fig. 1. Archaeological sites in the Ganga plain.
264
Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18
Fig. 3. General View of Samudrakup Mound, Jhusi
Fig. 2. Location of Jhusi and Hetapatti.
farming culture of the area. Present paper proposes
to reconstruct the life of the first farming culture
(Neolithic) of the Gangetic plain in the light of recent
excavations at Jhusi and Hetapatti (Fig. 2).
Excavations at Jhusi
Jhusi (Lat. 250 26' 10'' N., Long. 810 54' 30'' E.),
the ancient Pratisthanpur, is located on the left bank
of the Ganga within a marked meander very close
to the Ganga-Yamuna confluence at a distance of
about 7 km to the east of Allahabad city. The
Department of Ancient History, Culture and
Archaeology, University of Allahabad has conducted
excavations at the site on Samudrakup mound (Fig. 3)
for five seasons, 1995,3 1998,4 1999,5 20026
and 20037 in four different areas.8 It is a multiculture site having occupational deposit from the
Neolithic to Early Medieval Period cultures.
Stratigraphy and the Cultural Sequence
The archaeological occupational deposits at Jhusi
and Hetapatti are resting on the geological formations
belonging to the terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene
period. The section of old alluvium of the Ganga,
Bhagar, pertaining to the terminal Pleistocene and
early Holocene formations exposed at a number of
places, has a thickness of more than 10 m. The
habitational deposit at Jhusi is resting on a geological
formation having thickness of more than 10 m. The
formation is exposed also near Phaphamau to the
left bank of the Ganga. This exposure is divisible
into four units. At the bottom there is concretionary
horizon, which is hard and full of calcium carbonates
and may be equated with unit 7 (Gravel III) of the
Belan section in the Vindhyas. The overlying deposit
is blackish in colour and clayey in character having
small shells and is coeval to palaeo-sol of the Belan.
Plastic clay constitutes the third unit and the artifacts
of the first settlers of the Gangetic plain
(Epipalaeolithic) are found on the top of this
formation,9 while the fourth and the last unit is
characterized by fine sand and silt, which has yielded
the Mesolithic microliths. The deposit is coeval to the
topmost horizon of the Belan section.10
The formations coeval to the upper formations of the
early Holocene in the Vindhyas, as revealed from
the Belan and Son sections, were formed under less
humid condition (moisture condition) and were
succeeded by a return to a more equable climate in
the period of Mesolithic and Neolithic.11
265
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
The total thickness of cultural deposit at Samudrakup
mound of Jhusi is about 16.5 m. Though the earliest
artifacts at the site belong to the Mesolithic period,
the first habitational deposits at the site belong to
the Neolithic culture. It has a thickness of 1.5 m at
Jhusi and about 60 cm at Hetapatti. As revealed
from the excavations at Jhusi following cultural
sequence has been obtained:
1. Mesolithic
2. Neolithic
3. Chalcolithic
4. Early Iron Age (Pre-NBPW with Iron)
5. Northern Black Polished Ware culture
6. Sunga and Kushana Period
7. Gupta Period, and
8. Early Medieval Period
There is sratigraphic break after the Neolithic and
Gupta period deposits.
During the end of the Pleistocene and beginning of
Holocene period the Mesolithic man colonized the
Ganga Plain. This evidence has been revealed from
the Mesolithic sites of the Ganga Plain.12 Possibly
the first settlers at Jhusi also were the Mesolithic
people, whose evidence has been found in the
form of microlithic tools like blades, points and
triangles.
It may be mentioned that the lowest level at Jhusi
has revealed geometric microliths. Such artifacts also
have been found from the neighbouring sites of Nibi
Kalan and Jamunipur Kotwa. It may be presumed
that on the top of geological formation below the
archaeological deposit the Mesolithic man was on
266
the scene and that is why we are getting the
microliths. Layer 57 of square SF-7 is yellow brown
silt and belongs to the Mesoithic culture. The
subsequent cultural deposits are resting on this
formation.
Neolithic at Jhusi
The evidences of Neolithic culture were found in
2002 and 2003.13 The earlier excavations in
northern, central and eastern areas of the site had
revealed the evidence right from Chalcolithic period
upto early medieval period. To confirm whether the
Pre-NBPW Chalcolithic culture is extended to the
southern part of Samudrakup mound, two trenches
SF-8 and SG-8 in 2002 and two SF-7 and SG-7
in 2003 each measuring 5 X 5 m were laid out for
the excavation. Square SF-7 has revealed interesting
evidence of the Neolithic culture. Layers 45 to 56
measuring 1.50 m belong to this phase. The
occupational layers of this phase yielded hand made
pottery, consisting of cord impressed ware, rusticated
ware, burnished red ware, burnished black ware
and crude black-and-red ware; microliths; pieces of
grinding stone and animal bones. There is evidence
of rice husk in this pottery used as temper. It seems
that the habitation during the Neolithic phase was in
limited area, whose evidence is coming in the
southern fringe of Samudrakup mound of Jhusi. The
overlying layer 44, which is the sealing layer of the
Neolithic deposit is marked by gritty and sandy
material. Evidently it was the result of erosional
activity yielding rolled pieces of potsherds and animal
bones. Its bottom line is zigzag. It seems that there
was a time gap between the end of the Neolithic
and the beginning of the Chalcolithic and the area
remained unoccupied for a considerable time after
the Neolithic period.
Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18
Fig. 4. Hut Floor, Jhusi
The settlements of the Neolithic people have left
behind the evidence of circular huts known through
the patterns of post-holes that have come to light
(Fig. 4). The walls of the huts appear to have been
constituted by bamboo and reeds smeared with
mud plaster, as is evident by the burnt clay lumps
with wattle and daub impressions on them. The
evidence of structures have been obtained in the
form of hut floor, hearth and oven. On the top of
layer 53 parts of three hut floors - A, B and C were
located. Hand made potsherds, charred and semi
charred animal bones and charred grains were found
from these hut floors. A sand stone quern fragment
and a potsherd having both the ends rubbed, a
trapeze made on chalcedony and steatite beads
were recorded from floor A. Three circular hut floors
littered with potsherds were also found 13.80 m
below datum associated with layer 55. Of the other
structures mention may be made of a few pits
containing animal bones. A note worthy structure
consists of a plastered burnt floor enclosed by two
parallel burnt mud walls, which was possibly used
as community hearth or kiln for baking the pottery
(Fig. 5).
The ceramic industries characterizing this phase are
thick to medium in fabric and ill fired. The core of
the pots is blackish, greyish and occasionally reddish.
Clay used for manufacturing the pots is not levigated.
The surfaces of pots or uneven indicating thereby
that these are hand made. Tempering material like
rice husk, millet husk and chaffs have been found
in the pottery. The pottery, on the basis of surface
treatment, is divisible into four wares: (i) cord
impressed ware, (ii) rusticated ware, (iii) burnished
red ware, (iv) burnished black ware and (v) crude
black-and-red ware. The first three wares may be
considered as sub-groups of red ware. As some
times the surface treatment of cording, rustication
and burnishing was not provided to whole body of
the pot, there are ample number of pots without
such surface treatment, which may belong to any
one of these wares. Some of the pots may be of
ordinary red ware. There are also instances where
the same pot has rustication on the corded or
burnished red surface. Though the shapes available
Fig. 5. Burnt Floor enclosed by mud wall
267
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
are limited but mention may be made of jars (Fig.
6), basins (Fig. 7), spouted vessels (Fig. 8), bowls
and platters (Fig. 9). Jars vary from big size to
medium size with concave or carinated neck having
featureless rim. On the outer surface on some of the
jars there are impression of cording and rustication
analogous to those of the Neolithic sites of the
Vindhyas.14 The basins with applique decoration on
the shoulder have red burnishing on inner surface
and just above the appliqu˜ on outer surface and
also rustication below the appliqu˜, on outer surface
some times with soot mark. Evidently these were the
cooking vessels. The evidence of appliqu˜ decoration
on the base of the spout, where it is luted with the
body of basins is noteworthy on one of the basins.
The excavation of the Neolithic level revealed a
good number of beads, mostly micro beads made of
paste material like steatite, which include disc shaped
micro beads and grain shaped micro beads. Some
cylindrical beads of paste material also have been
found. Unperforated and unfinished specimens
indicate that the beads were manufactured at the
settlement itself. The segmented pieces indicate that
after giving it a shape and perforation these were
cut in small pieces to get the shape of micro beads.
Fig. 6. Pottery Types, Jars, Jhusi
268
Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18
Fig. 7. Pottery types, Basins, Jhusi
Disc beads made of terracotta; small cylindrical bead
of banded agate and flat truncated bead of banded
chalcedony are also present. The stone beads have
hourglass perforation.
Tanged and simple bone arrowheads made of shaft
or antler portions of animal have also been obtained
(Fig. 10). Side scrapers and end scrapers made of
bone are also included in the bone tools.
The Neolithic layers have also revealed a good
number of microlithic tools, which include retouched
and/or utilized blades, backed blades, truncated and
retouched blades, scrapers, triangle, trapeze, point,
drill, lunate, etc. Among the waste material mention
may be made of flakes, blades, chips, core
rejuvenating flakes and exhausted core. The lithic
artifacts are generally broken. The raw material of
the lithic industry includes chert, chalcedony, carnelian
and quartz, which are also found in the form of
nodules.
Flat quern fragments with lustrous smooth or pitted
surface, mullers with smooth or pitted surface and
anvils made of sand stone and quartzite are the
food processing equipments. Some basin shaped
quern fragments also have been obtained. A stone
ball possibly was used as hammer stone and/or
sling ball (Fig. 11).
Potsherds and burnt clay lumps with seed, husk and
chaff impressions including those of rice, sesame, etc.
have been recovered from excavation. Dr. K.S. Saraswat
269
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
Fig. 8. Pottery Types, Spouted bains and Spots
Fig. 9. Pottery Types, Bowls and Platters, Jhusi.
270
Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18
Fig. 12. Cord impressed potsherds, Jhusi.
Fig. 10. Bone arrowhead, Jhusi.
Fig. 11. Food producing stone artefacts, Jhusi.
mullers and sling balls. As an evidence of cooking
vessel, mention may be made of a large sized
spouted basin with soot marks at the bottom, which
was found on one of the floors along with other
artifacts (Fig. 13). This is further substantiated by
the burnt plastered structure, enclosed by two parallel
mud walls, as mentioned earlier, which might have
been used as community hearth-cum-pottery kiln.
The environment of Neolithic people at Jhusi appears
to have been characterized by grassy land, frequented
by occasional trees, which probably did not constitute
a thick forest, though bamboo groves appear to
have predominated. Marshy land and lakes also
seem to have marked the landscape. The companions
of the Neolithic man of Jhusi were cattle, sheepgoat, boar, barasingha, etc. Fish, turtle and birds
and Dr. A.K. Pokharia of the Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany, Lucknow are collaborating in the field
of archaeo-botany. Some very significant archaeobotanical discoveries have been brought to light by
these diggings, which are listed in Table 1.
The Neolithic culture at Jhusi is characterized by
hand-made pottery, which is commonly recognized
as ill-fired cord impressed (Fig. 12), rusticated and
burnished ware. Bone tools, bone arrowheads, fish
and animals bones and stone tools including querns,
Fig. 13. Spouted basin, in situ, Jhusi.
271
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
Table 1 : Archaeobotanical Records from Neolithic, Jhusi
Locus
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
272
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 55
Depth below datum: 13.88m - 14.02 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 53 (Floor A)
Depth below datum: 13.70m - 13.80 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 53 (Floor B)
Depth below datum: 13.70m - 13.80 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 53 (Floor C)
Depth below datum: 13.70m - 13.80 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 52
Depth below datum: 13.57 m - 13.70 m
JHS
Trench: SF-6
Stratum: 51
Depth below datum: 13.47m - 13.57 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 50
Depth below datum: 13.37m - 13.47 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 49
Depth below datum: 13.28m - 13.37 m
JHS
Trench: SG-8
Stratum: 49
Depth below datum: 12.77m - 12.92 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 48
Depth below datum: 13.14m - 13.26 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 47
Depth below datum: 12.99m - 13.14 m
JHS
Trench: SF-7
Stratum: 46
Depth below datum: 12.87m - 12.99 m
Species
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Triticum aestivum
(Bread wheat), Oryza sativa (Rice),
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Triticum sphaerococcum (Dwarf wheat),
Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens culinaris
(Lentil), Pisum arvense (Pea), Lathyrus sativus (Grass pea),
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Horse gram), Vitis vinifera (Grape),
Ziziphus nummularia (Ber)
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Triticum sphaerococcum
(Dwarf wheat), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens culinaris
(Lentil), Vicia sativa (vetch), Setaria cf. glauca,
Chenopodium album
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Triticum aestivum (Bread
wheat), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens culinaris (Lentil),
Pisum arvense (Pea), Coix lachryma-jobi (Coix),
Vicia sativa (Vetch), Ziziphus nummularia (Ber)
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens culinaris
(Lentil), Vigna radiata (Black gram), Lathyrus sativus (Grass pea),
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Horse gram), Vicia sativa (vetch),
Setaria cf. glauca, Chenopodium album
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens
culinaris (Lentil), Vigna radiata (Black gram)),
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Horse gram), Vicia
sativa, Setaria cf. glauca, Polygonum sp.
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Triticum sphaerococcum
(Dwarf wheat), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens culinaris
(Lentil), Pisum arvense (Pea), Vicia sativa,
Emblica officinalis (Anwala)
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens
culinaris (Lentil), Pisum arvense (Pea), Lathyrus
sativus (Grass pea), Vigna radiata (Black gram),
Sesamum indicum (Sesame, Til), Vicia sativa, Setaria sp.
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Triticum sphaerococcum (Dwarf wheat),
Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens culinaris (Lentil), Pisum arvense (Pea),
Lathyrus sativus (Grass pea), Vigna radiata (Black gram), Coix
lachryma-jobi (Coix), Vicia sativa (Vetch)
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Oryza sativa (Rice),
Lens culinaris (Lentil), Vigna radiata (Blackgram),
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Horse gram), Vicia sativa,
Setaria sp., Echinochloa sp.
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Triticum aestivum (Bread
wheat), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens culinaris (Lentil),
Pisum arvense (Pea), Vicia sativa, Emblica
officinalis (Anwala)
Hordeum vulgare (Barley), Oryza sativa (Rice), Lens
culinaris (Lentil), Pisum arvense (Pea), Vigna radiata
(Blackgram), Vicia sativa, Chenopodium album,
Setaria sp.
Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18
definitely constituted important item of their diet.15
The food grain produced by them comprised of rice,
millet, barley, wheat, lentil, pea, grasspea, blackgram,
horsegram, vetch, sesame, etc. Other botanical
remains include anwla, coix, grape, ber and bamboo.
Excavations at Hetapatti
A new site of the Neolithic culture at Hetapatti (Lat.
25o 29' 0'' N., Long. 81o 55' 31'' E.) is located on
the left bank of the Ganga. It is at a distance of
about 20 km from Allahabad in north-east direction.
The site is divided mainly in three mounds. The
main mound named HPT-II is about 10 m high from
the surrounding areas and it contains archaeological
deposit upto early medieval period. The other two
mounds, named HPT-I and HPT-III, are about 6 m
high and contain archaeological deposit only upto
NBPW and Kushana periods respectively. There is
extensive exposure of geological formation measuring
more than 7m in thickness on which the
archaeological deposit is resting. In this way on the
left bank of the Ganga a platform was already
created on which the man subsequently started
playing his role.
The site is being excavated by the Department of
Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, University
of Allahabad.16
pottery types include jars, shallow and deep bowls
and basins some times luted with spouts, etc. Some
of the spouted basins have applique decoration on
the shoulder. Besides, the ceramic assemblage the
Neolithic horizon has also yielded a good number of
animal bones, flake and blade fragments of
semiprecious stones and a few other stone objects.
A good number of burnt clay lumps with bamboo
and reed impression have been recovered suggesting
thereby the hut structure. Some hut floors marked
by Neolithic artifacts like handmade pottery including
corded and rusticated wares, burnt clay lumps with
reed marks, animal bones, quern and muller
fragments, microliths, etc. (Figs. 14, 15) were also
exposed. Soil samples from this trench particularly
Fig. 14. Artefacts on hut-floor, Hetapatti.
Neolithic at Hetapatti
Trench I-1 located on highest point of the site HPTI is the western most trench selected for excavation.
The Neolithic horizon, which is disturbed by the later
pits, is light yellowish in colour and compact in
texture. The hand made Neolithic pottery,
characterized by cord impressed ware, rusticated
ware, ordinary red ware and occasionally burnished
red ware, is found from this horizon. The functional
Fig. 15. Hut-floor, Hetapatti.
273
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
from the Neolithic horizon have been collected for
pollen analysis. It is hoped that when analysis is
complete it may throw light not only on the range of
crops but also the contemporary vegetational world.
This could also help us in reconstructing environment
during the Neolithic period. The Neolithic deposit in
this trench is 60 cm, divisible into four layers.
The identification of Neolithic level at Jhusi and
Hetapatti in Allahabad on the Ganga presents for the
first time Neolithic culture on the western margin of
the middle Ganga plain. There may be hidden
Neolithic settlements in between the eastern and
western margins of the area.
Neolithic in the Middle Ganga Plain
Trench C-8, lying to the south east of the I series
of the trenches also measuring 5 x 5 m was put to
excavation. Being situated on the margin of the
mound, part of the trench particularly on the north
eastern side is sloping and therefore step digging
was conducted in this trench. Excavation in this
trench was conducted up to a depth of 80 cm
divisible into seven layers. Of these, layers 2 to 6
with a thickness of 70 cm belong to Neolithic.
These layers have yielded typical Neolithic pottery
(Fig. 16), animal bones and burnt clay lumps. Some
of these burnt clay lumps suggest wattle and daub
structure. Two pits were also located in the trench
but significantly enough these pits have also yielded
Neolithic materials. Other significant feature is calcium
carbonate in different layers, some times covering
the Neolithic pottery and animal bones, suggesting
thereby that the formation of calcium is post Neolithic.
As mentioned earlier the archaeological investigations
carried out in the middle Ganga plain have revealed
evidence of the Stone Age relating to the
Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures. In the western
part of the middle Ganga valley, where a good
number of preceding Mesolithic sites are located,
the succeeding Neolithic culture was not present
before the discovery of Neolithic settlement at Jhusi17
and Hetapatti18 in Allahabad district.
The explorations conducted in the eastern part of
the mid Ganga valley during the last four decades
have resulted in identification of several Neolithic
settlements. The important excavated sites in Uttar
Pradesh, other than Jhusi and Hetapatti of Allahabad,
include Bhunadih19 and Waina20 in Ballia, Sohgaura21
and Imlidih Khurd22 in Gorakhpur and Lahuradewa23
in Sant Kabirnagar district, while Chirand24 in Saran,
Chechar Kutubpur25 in Vaisali, Taradih26 in Gaya
and Senuwar27 in Rohtas district in Bihar. Most of
these excavated sites are multi-culture sites having
yielded archaeological relics ranging from Neolithic
to early historical periods.
Settlement Pattern: All the excavated sites are located
on the banks of rivers, generally on the confluence
of two rivers, near meander above the flood plain or
on horse-shoe lakes as in the case of Lahuradeva.
Fig. 16. Cord impressed potsherds, Hetapatti.
274
Structures: The excavations, though conducted on a
limited scale, have brought to light evidence of
Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18
circular or oval huts known through the patterns of
post-holes that have come to light from almost all
excavated sites of the area. Wattle and daub structure
is attested by good number of burnt clay lumps with
bamboo and reed impression. At Chirand, the
evidence of pit dwelling has also been reported. Of
the other structural remains mention may be made
of hearths, pits and silo probably for storing the
grains.
Subsistence: The Neolithic people of the Ganga valley
as those of the Vindhyas were farming and pastoral
communities is attested by the cultivated variety of
rice, barley, wheat, field pea, lentil, green gram, etc.
recovered from the excavated sites. However, the
botanical evidence obtained from Senuwar and Jhusi
in mid Ganga valley read with its counter part of
Tokwa in the Vindhays suggests that in the early
phase only rice and some primitive millets were
being cultivated.28 With the passage of time other
cereals were also added. The Neolithic deposit at
Senuwar29 is divided into two subgroups 1A and
1B. From the lowest part of the middle of period IA
only grains of cultivated rice, (Oryza sativa) were
found along with wild plants like jobs tear, fox tail/
bandra, wild rice, jharberi, chaulai and wild palaka.
But in the later phase of IA new cereals like barley,
wheat, jowar millet, lentil, field pea, finger millet
(ragi) and khesari were introduced. The available
evidence is demonstrative of the fact that by the late
phase of Neolithic culture in the mid Ganga valley,
double crop pattern had become an accomplished
fact.
Domesticated animals include cattle, buffalo, sheep,
goat and pigs. Besides these, the bones of elephants,
rhinoceros, stag, deer, etc. have also been found
from some of the sites. Of aquatic fauna whose
bones have been found, mention may be made of
fish and turtle. Bones of birds have also been found.
The available evidence, thus, indicates that besides
agriculture and domestication the Neolithic people of
the mid Ganga plain also practiced hunting, catching
and fishing.
Material Culture: The ceramic industry of the Neolithic
Gangetic plain is rich and varied. The available
evidence indicates that in the early stage of the
culture, as indicated at Chirand, Lahuradeva, Jhusi
and Hetapatti, people were using hand made pottery
but subsequently the slow wheel appears to have
been used for the purpose. The ceramic assemblage
includes ordinary red ware, lustrous red ware,
burnished ware (red, black and grey), rusticated
ware, black-and-red ware and corded ware. The
clay used for manufacturing the pots is not well
levigated. It contains grits, husks and chaff as
degraissant. Pots are generally ill-fired and have
blackish grey core. Pottery types exhibit variety
suggesting thereby that these were put to different
uses. Pottery types include bowls with varying profile,
vases, vessels, basins, miniature jars, handis, etc.
Bowls, basins and vases also have some times
spouts. The cording exhibits dozen of patterns. Some
of the pots, generally vases, were made in two parts
separately - the lower portion and the rim portion
and subsequently these were luted together.
Occurrence of painted sherds has been reported
from Imlidih Khurd, Lahuradeva, Chirand and Senuwar.
The post firing paintings of Chirand and Senuwar
are confined to the rim and have been executed in
red ochre. At Chirand the painting motifs consist of
linear designs of criss-cross lines and concentric
circles. At Imlidih Khurd painting executed in white
red pigment over a bright slip has been reported.
Post firing scratching by sharp instrument is another
275
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
feature of decorating the pots. Often the scratching
results in geometric patterns such as opposed
triangles within concentric circles and floral motifs.
Pots with appliqu˜ bands have also been reported.
On these appliqu˜ are executed chain and rope
patterns or incised decorations. In this connection it
may be pointed out that appliqu˜ patterns are
confined to big pots like handis and basins. Wheelthrown pots are reported from the late Neolithic
phase of Senuwar.
As revealed from the excavated sites the culture is
associated with microlithic industry. Bladelets, flakes,
blades, scrapers, arrowheads, serrated points,
lunates, borers, etc. fashioned on chert, chalcedony,
agate, jasper, and quartz have been found from
some of the sites. However, celts of basalt and
granite have been obtained from Lahuradeva,
Chirand and Senuwar. Heavy-duty stone objects
include fragments of querns, mullers, balls, hammer
stones, etc., fashioned on sandstone or quartzite.
Beads, finished and unfinished and fashioned on
chalcedony, agate, etc. have been found at Jhusi,
Chirand and Senuwar. Chirand, Lahuradeva, Jhusi
and Hetapatti have also yielded beads of steatite
and/or faience.
Bone tools have been found at Jhusi, Senuwar and
Chirand. The last site has yielded a corpus of bone
tools and weapons including celts, scrapers, chisels,
hammers, needles, points, borers, awls, arrowheads,
etc. Other bone objects comprise ornaments like
pendants, earrings, bangles, discs, combs, etc.
Terracotta objects including edge ground potsherds
(triangular or rectangular in shape), spherical beads
with central perforation were obtained from Senuwar.
Chirand has yielded terracotta wheels, beads, bangles,
cakes, birds, snakes, etc.
276
Origin
The first farming and pastoral culture of the Vindhyas
is the Neolithic culture. As revealed from the Mesolithic
culture of the area, food processing equipments,
microliths, bone tools and wild animals and wild
grains, which were domesticated/cultivated
subsequently in the Neolithic period, it can be inferred
that the base for the Neolithic culture was being
prepared in the Mesolithic period.30
Neolithic culture of the Vindhyas is also credited
with developing the Neolithic culture in the Gangetic
plain as indicated by comparative study of the culture
of both the regions. The excavated sites of the
Vindhyas and Ganga plain present ample evidence
of cultural contact of both the regions. The preceding
Mesolithic culture of the Ganga valley contains foodprocessing equipments made on sand stone/quartzite
but no pottery, where as in the Vindhyas it is
associated with hutments and hand made pottery
also. Among the ceramic industries, the cordimpressed ware has much archaeological importance
as it denotes the cultural contact of Vindhyas with
that of the Ganga plain. The cord-impressed ware
has been found in Neolithic context at Chirand,
Chechar Kutubpur, Taradih, Sohagaura, Lahuradewa,
Jhusi and Hetapatti in the middle Gangetic plain that
has techno-typological similarity with that of the
Vindhyas. The evidence suggests that the Neolithic
pottery of the middle Gangetic plain has a considerable
influence of the Vindhyan Neolithic pottery. It is
suggested that the Neolithic culture of the Ganga
plain owes to the Vindhyan Neolithic for its origin.
Chronology
The problem of the antiquity of the Neolithic culture
of the region is still not finally settled but now we
have some relevant C-14 dates from the excavated
Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18
Neolithic sites of the Vindhyas and Ganga plain.
Considering three of C-14 dates reading 4530 ±
185 BC (PRL 101), 5440 ± 240 BC (PRL 100)
and 6570 ± 210 BC (PRL 224) obtained from
Koldihwa as dependable, the culture was dated to
the 7th-6th millennium BC.31 But being the only site
of such antiquity doubts were raised by several
scholars. The C-14 date belonging to the transitional
phase of the Neolithic to Chalcolithic at Koldihwa is
1440 ± 120 BC (PRL 223). The absolute dates
obtained from Mahagara also indicated a late date
to the culture, though these dates have the possibility
of contamination of samples. Two TL dates reading
2265 BC and 1616 BC and four C-14 dates
reading 1440 ± 150 BC (PRL 409), 1330 ± 120
BC (PRL 408), 1440 ± 100 BC (PRL 407) and
1480 ± 110 BC (BSI) have been obtained from the
samples from Mahagara. These dates are not
consistent with the stratigraphy possibly due to
contamination of samples. In the light of calibrated
C-14 date obtained from Kunjhun, reading 35303335, the beginning of the Vindhyan Neolithic culture
was proposed to 4th millennium BC.32 Three C-14
dates have come to light from recent excavations at
Lahuradewa in the middle Gangetic plain, which
read as 5320 ± 90 BP (BS 1951) (cal BC 4220,
4196, 4161) and 6290 ± 160 BP (BS 1966)
(cal BC 5298).33 Recently three relevant C-14
dates have been obtained from Tokwa. When
calibrated these read 6591 BC (BS - 2417), 5976
BC (BS - 2369), 4797 BC (BS - 2464). An AMS
C-14 date for a carbonized domesticated rice would
push the antiquity of the Neolithic culture at
Lahuradeva in 7th millennium BC.34 From the Neolithic
horizon of Jhusi three C-14 dates have been
obtained.35 These dates when calibrated, read 7477
BC (BS - 2526), 5837 BC (BS - 2524) and 6196
BC (BS - 2525). The earliest date obtained from the
site would put the beginning of the Neolithic culture
of the site in 8th millennium BC.
The combined testimony of the available C14 dates
obtained from Koldihwa and Tokwa in the Vindhyas
and Jhusi and Lahuradeva in the middle Ganga
plain would push the antiquity of the Neolithic culture
in the northern Vindhyas and the middle Ganga
plain to a hoary past. The antiquity of the early
farming culture of the Gangetic plain on the basis of
these dates may be pushed back to the later half of
8th millennium B.C. and almost same or slightly
earlier antiquity may be proposed for the Neolithic
culture of the Vindhyas.
Conclusion
The discovery as a result of excavations at the
Mesolithic sites of Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and
Damdama in the Gangetic Plain by the Department
of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, University
of Allahabad in the sixth, seventh and eighth decade
of the last century presented a surprise because
Stone Age culture sites of the Mesolithic phase were
located in an area totally free of hills - the source
of stone supply. Indications of the Mesolithic culture
were available from more than 200 sites in the midGanga plain36 but Neolithic was conspicuous by its
absence in this area. It was, therefore, surmised that
there was a cultural break after the Mesolithic in this
region and settlers of the Chalcolithic phase at Jhusi
and other sites probably were not native to this
region. But the current excavations at Jhusi have
succeeded in discovering below the Chalcolithic phase
nearly 1.5 meter thick Neolithic deposit. This
excavation is significant because it presents the
proof of cultural continuity in an unbroken sequence
right from the Mesolithic through the Neolithic to the
Chalcolithic which again continued in an unbroken
277
izkX/kkjk] vad & 18
sequence into the historical period downs to the
time of the Buddha and, further on, up to the early
medieval period. In this way, it is an epoch-making
discovery, as it has taken the antiquity of the region
in an unbroken manner to the Mesolithic times.
The archaeological evidence shows that the Gangetic
Plain owed to the Vindhyas not only for its first
colonization in the Mesolithic period but as evident
by very close affinity in the ceramic industries,
microlithic component, food processing equipments,
bone tools, beads and settlement pattern revealed
from the excavations at Tokwa and other sites in the
Vindhyas and Jhusi and other sites in the middle
Gangetic Plain it can be concluded that both the
regions are intimately related to each other for the
origin and development of Neolithic culture. The C14 dates from recent excavations at Jhusi and
Lahuradeva in the middle Ganga plain and Tokwa in
the Vindhyas suggest that this region was one of the
early centers of agriculture in the world. The evidence
of barley (Hardeum vulgare), bread wheat (Triticum
aestivum) and other winter crops along with summer
crop like rice (Oryza sativa), etc. from early levels of
Neolithic Jhusi indicates that the area was in cultural
contact with the original home of winter crops right
from the early phase of the Neolithic culture. It may
be mentioned that in still nearer region the Himalayan
tarai still has some wild barley species. The wild
ancestor of the six rowed barley (Hardeum
hexastichum) is found in eastern Tibet.37
The discovery also highlights the fact that Jhusi has
been a cradle of human civilization right from the
Mesolithic age down to the blossoming of urban
phase of the culture of this region. The caravan of
the human succession journeyed through the huntinggathering, foraging, farming and village life before
striking upon the legendry urban theme of being the
capital city of the Pururava. It is born, bred and
developed at its own epicenter, the mid-Ganga Valley
as exemplified by the present excavations at Jhusi.
Out side influences, if any, were of an interactive
rather than originary character.
References / Notes
1.
2.
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3.
Misra, V.D., B.B. Misra, J.N. Pandey and J.N. Pal
1995-96. "A Preliminary Report on the
Excavations at Jhusi, 1995'. Pr¢gdh¢r¢ 6:
63-66.
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Misra, V.D., J.N. Pal and M.C. Gupta 2004.
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8.
The site of Jhusi due to its strategic location on the
confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna had attracted
the attention of archaeologists and the antiquities
found from the site are displayed in different important
museums of the world. The site was excavated by
the Department of Ancient History, Culture and
Archaeology, University of Allahabad in five seasons.
Prof. V.D. Misra, Dr. J.N. Pal and Dr. M.C. Gupta
participated in all the seasons, while in 1995 and
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Sharma, G.R. 1975. "Seasonal Migrations and
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Allahabad, pp.1-20. Department of Ancient
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12. Sharma, G.R., V.D. Misra, D. Mandal, B.B. Misra, and
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13. Misra et al. 2004. Op. cit.
14. Pal, J. N. 1986. Archaeology of Southern Uttar
Pradesh: Ceramic Industries of Northern
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15. The faunal remains from Jhusi and Hetapatti are
very kindly being studied by Dr. P.P. Joglekar of
Deccan College, Pune, we are thankful to him.
16. Pal, J.N. and M.C. Gupta 2005. "Excavations at
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17. Misra et al. 2004. Op. cit.
18. Pal and Gupta 2005. Op. cit.
19. Singh, P., and A.K. Singh 1997-98. "Trial Excavation
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25. Thapar, B.K. (ed.) IAR 1977-78: 17-18.
26. Tripathi, R.C. (ed.) IAR 1984-85: 9-10.
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Singh, P. 1993-94. "Further Excavations at ImlidihKhurd', Pr¢gdh¢r¢ 4: 41-48;
Singh, B.P. 1997. "Neolithic and Chalcolithic Pottery
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Senuwar', P.C. Pant and Vidula Jayaswal (eds.)
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22: 120-22.
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of the Kaimur (Excavations at Senuwar), Two
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23. Tewari, Rakesh, R.K. Srivastava and K.K. Singh
2001-2002. "Excavations at Lahuradeva,
District Sant Kabirnagar', Pur¢tattva 32: 5462;
28. Misra, V.D. 2007. "Stone Age Cultures, their
Chronology and Beginnings of Agriculture in
the North-Central India', Man and Environment
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Tewari, Rakesh, R.K. Srivastava, K.K. Singh, K.S.
Saraswat and I.B. Singh 2002-2003.
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2001-2002:
Wider
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Transformation of the Mesolithic Culture in
India', in V.D. Misra and J.N. Pal (eds.)
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32. Possehl, G.L., and P.C. Rissman (eds.) 1992. "The
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33. Tewari, et al. 2001-2002. Op. cit., 2002-2003.
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34. Tewari, Rakesh, R.K. Srivastava, K.K. Singh, Ram
Vinay, Rajiv Kumar Trivedi and G.C. Singh
2004-2005. "Recently Excavated Sites in the
Ganga Plain and North Vindhyas: Some
Observations Regarding the Pre-urban Context',
Pr¢gdh¢r¢ 15: 40.
35. We are thankful to Dr. K.S. Saraswat and Dr. A.K.
Pokharia of Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany,
Lucknow for the C-14 dates and also for the
study of botanical remains.
36. Sharma et al. 1980. Op. cit.
37. Randhawa, M.S. 1980. A History of Agriculture
in India, Volume I, p. 104. New Delhi: Indian
Council of Agricultural Research.
J.N. Pal
Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology
University of Allahabad, Allahabad (U.P.), India
281