IMPACT OF CONVERSION OF NATURAL FORESTS TO
AGRICULTURE AND PLANTATION CROPS ON LOCAL
ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT : KERALA
GOVINDARU V
Thesis Submined to the Bangalore University for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE,
BANGALORE, INDIA
1994
DECLARATION
I declare
work
and
that
e i th e r w h o l l y
for
any
wherever
it
or
degree.
any
that
thie
has
not
in part,
Due
th i n g
Thteals
beefi
is the r e s u l t
submitted
has
pi-eviously»
to this or any o t h e r
acknowledgements
been
borrowed
of my own
university
have
been
from
any
sour c e .
iGovindaru
V)
made
other
C E R T IF IC A T E
We
ceftify
preparation
Impact
and
we
writing
of' C o n v e r s i o n
Plantation
Kerala'*,
the
atid
that
Cr o p s
of
on
ha ve
of
for Social
the
Nat ur al
Local
by Mr G o v i n d a r u V,
Institute
guided
and
present
super vised
theele
Forests
Economy
who w o r k e d
and E c o n o m i c
and
the
entitled
to A g r i c u l t u r e
Environment
on this s u b j e c t
Ch an g e,
:
in
B an g a l o r e ,
India.
Dr M V N a d k a r ITi
P r o f e s s o r and Head
E c o l o g y - E c o n o m i c s Unit
I n s t i t u t e for Social and
Economic Change
B a n ga l o r e - S6 0 072
Dr D a k s h a C B a r a i (Co-Guide)
Professor
D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y
J n a n a b h a ra th 1
Bangalore University
B a n g a l o r e ^ S G O 056
C O N T E N T S
Acknouledgements
Lists
of
F ig u r e s
CHAPTER
Tables,
Maps
and
1n t r o d u c t i o n
CHAPTER
iI
CHAPTER
iV - v I 1
1 -
30
S o c i o -ECOnomic
and
Pol icy
Environment
of
Conversion
of
F o r e s t s to A g r i c u l t u r a l La n d s in
Kerala
31
-
69
11I
Profiles
of the St u d y
Samp le Households
Area
a nd
70
-
99
CHAPTER
IV
Detection
and
Measurement
Land D eg radat io n
of
100
-
128
CHAPTER
V
Valuatiori
of
Forests'
Contri­
bution
to
Local
Economy
and
Env i r o n m e n t
129
- 169
CHAPTER
VI
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Impact
of P e p p e r C u l t i v a t i o n
170
- 192
CHAPThR
Vil
Synthesis
193
- 210
211
- 224
ariij P o li c y
Bibl l og r a p h y
Assessment
Issues
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
i p l a c e on
supervisors.
record
Prof.
my J e e p
c e nse ot
M ^ N a d k a r n l and
gratitude
Prof.
D a k s h a C Baral
for their m e t i c u l o u s and p a t i e n t s u p e r v i s i o n ,
interest,
and
ttie c o u r s e
he iped
of
me
G e o g r ap h y.
of
all
regarding
to
I am
Institute,
their
support
of
Economics
me
a
obi iged
environmental
with
them
understanding
the
and
lot
in a p r a g m a t i c
to
especially
a) t o t her
in
sharpening
problems
way.
my
associated
I am
facui ty
to c o m p l e t e
very
the h e l p
C o i l e c t r a t e of
I sincerely
volunteers
acknowledge
of
members
much
rendered
Kerala
to
V 0 of K a l k o o n t h a l
me
by
Kerala
Painauv;
V i l l a g e Office.
the he lp e x t e n d e d
N e d u m k a n d o m B l o c k ( p a r t i c u l a r l y to
the
work.
Idukki D i s t r i c t ,
Sastra
of
Dr C 3 Nagaraj,
this
N ed um ka nd om Taluk Office; and Kalkoonthal
Damodaran,
Environmental
to Dr K N Ni n a n and
er'icouragement
Land Use B o a r d ;
the
throughout
them.
I ac k now ledge
Also,
stimulating
association
deal
Ecological
helped
moral
A close
great
deforestation
indeb t ed
their
work.
a
It
perception
for
this
gain
dlscipl iiies
with
above
to my
Sahitya
to me by
Pari s h a d ,
my f r i e n d s R a j a g o p a l a
V i l la g e;
Manikuttan
A V;
and
my
Shaji
stay
in my
K R)
at
study
area
to
equally
my
their
material
Social
ki nd
for
extended
the
to me
Bangalore
leading
to Ph
out
I owe
and
brothers
inspiration.
have
who
also made
a memorable
event
been
this
Tord
f r i e n d M i ss
for
University
enc ou r a g e m e n t
Institute's
L i b r a r y S t af f
in
all
making
thesis
are due
r eq u i r e d
work .
to
the I n s t i t u t e
Bangalore
for
for
granting
for
the f a c i l i t i e s
the
fellowship
the Ph D p r o g r a m m e ,
for
K
their
Foundation
to p u r s u e
Anitha
work,
the
Change,
the
and also
to
registration
D d e gr e e.
I am g r a t e f u l
typing
this
thanksi
and Sc o n p m i c
and
of
co — o p e r a t i o n
grateful
provided
for
and
to my
R)
to all
accessible
My
<Lini
period
I am g r a t e f u l
the
comfortable
thankful
Anujathi
th r o u g h o u t the
for
collection
life.
I am
and
in p r i m a r y da ta
this
a de bt
wh o
to Mr T A m a r n a t h
Mr
5 Arunkumar
thesis.
of
gratitude
have
Without
possible
and
been
t heir
for me
a
to my
parents,
source
of
in-laws
love
and
e n r o u r a g e m e n t , it wot^ld not
to do
ii
this
Ph
D programme.
L as t 1 / ,
without
result
thi ank'
expecting
of
unfailing
for
I
he r
anything
lvi f e
in
in m a n y
ho
has
return.
encouragement,
support
anything
my
wa ys.
given
This
personal
I could
me
much
thesis
is a
sacrifices
and
not
more.
Go vindaru V
have
asked
LIST
OF
TABLES,
Table
Mo .
1, 1
MAPS
AND
FIGURES
Title
Forest
Forest
La n d s
Lises
Page
NQ .
in India D i v e r t e d
D u r i n g 1350 - 1 9 80
to N o n -
9
Various
Welfare
12
1 .2
Extent
of F o r e s t C l e a r e d for
Development
Projects
and
S c h e m e s in K e r a l a (1956-84)
2. 1
Area
Under Cash
( 1910- 1946 )
in
Travancore
39
2. 2
La nd
Granted
by
the
G o v e r n m e n t for P l a n t a t i o n s
P e r i o d 1908 - 1931
Travancore
During
the
43
2. 3
D e c e n n i a l P o p u l a t i o n G r o w t h in
and Idukki D i s t r i c t (19 01 - 19 8 1)
Kerala
52
2. 4
L a nd
use
C h a n g e 1964-65
to
1964-65
( P e r c e n t a g e to total G e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a
: R e g i o n wise)
64
2. 5
Estimated
A r e a U nder F o r e s t C o v e r
K e r a l a 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 to 1984-85 ( h e c t ar e )
in
67
2. 6
Forest
Kerala
in
67
3. i
Area
U n d e r Natural F o r e s t
(Acre) (base Year 1975)
Kerala
72
3, 2
Characteristics
of P o p u l a t i o n
S t u d y V i l l a g e ( k al k oonthal)
3. 3
Livestock
3. 4
Cropping
Pattern
in the
Study
Area
( P e r c e n t a g e to total net a r e a sown)
81
3.5
D i s t r i b u t i o n of Individual
H o l d i n g s in the Study A r e a
83
3, 6
Land use P a t t e r n ( P e r c e n t a g e
G e o g r a p h i c a l Area)
Cr ops
Los t
Between
(sq.km).
1940-1970
in
in
the
79
Population
IV
77
Operatior'ial
to
total
85
Table
No .
Title
Page
No.
3. 7
Religion
^
Caste-wise
Occupational
Classification
of
Sampie
Households
Before
and
A f t e r the
Conversion
of
F o r e s t s into F a r m Lands ( a c c o r d i n g
to
main occupation )
90-9
3. 8
The
number
Holdings among
92
3. 9
L a nd
Tenures
H o u s e h o 1ds
Sample
93
3. 10
Number
of L i v e - S t o c k D o m e s t i c a t e d
by
the S a m p l e H o u s e h o l d s u nder
different
T y p e s of G r a z i n g S y s t e m
95
3.11
Source
Sample
and
the
on them
97
4. 1
Extent
of
Waste
Land
in
the
Six
D i s t r i c t s of K e r a l a ( p r e p a r e d by u si n g
Satellite
imagery, 1985-86) (Area
in
h ec t a r e s )
105
4. 2
Area
and P e r c e n t a g e to Total of
each
Category
of
Wasteland
in
Idukki
D i s t r i c t ( Area in h e c t a r e s )
106
4. 3
T a l u k - w i s e D i s t r i b u t i o n of E r o d e d
in Idukki D i s t r i c t
(in h e c t a r e s )
110
4. 4
Examples
of
4. 5
Costs
La n d
4. 6
Percentage
of Soil
to
Total
L a n d and
Costs
of
Pepper
G a rden s
4. 7
Present
Value
of
Total
Cost
of
C u l t i v a t i o n and Income ( s u m m e d up
for
f lows up to 26 years) (Per a c r e
198990 p r i c e level)
127
5. 1
G o o d s and S e r v i c e s
in the S t u d y Area
Forests
148
5. 2
Value
under
price
of r o d d e r A v a i l a b l e to L i v e s t o c k
Free
Grazing
System
(19SQ-90
level)
151
of
Operational
Land
ttie S a m p l e H o u s e h o l d s
Among
the
of
Various Biomass
H o u s e h o l d ’s D e p e n d e n c y
of
La nd
Degradation
Land
Criteria
Degradation
116
Conservation
Co s t
Crop
Haintenance
and
Mixed
Crop
Provided
112
by
123
Table
No.
Title
Page
Uo.
5. 3
Average
Income E a r n e d by Eacri
Sample
Houeeholc
f ro m
Collection
of
Wild
F o r e s t G r a s s e s ( 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 pr i c e level)
153
5. 4
A v e r a g e Income E a r n e d from
Collection
of
U i l d n u t s and S e e d s by E a c h
Sample
Household
(1909- 90 pr i c e level)
154
5.5
Average
income E a r n e d by E ac h
Sample
Household
Through
Col lection
of
M e d i c i n a l P l a n t s and Herbs. (198990
price l e v e l )
156
5. 6
Average
Income
Earned
Through
C o l l e c t i o n of E d i b l e P r o d u c t s by
Each
S a m p l e H o u s e h o l d ( 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 p r i c e level)
157
5. 7
Average
Income E a r n e d by Ea ch
Sample
Household
through
Collection
of
Ba mboos,
Reeds
and
Canes
(1 9 S 9 - 9 0
price l e v e l )
159
5. e
Total S t ock of T i m b e r and F i r e w o o d
in
the F o r e s t of S t u d y v i l l a g e
( 19 8 9 - 9 0
p r ice l e v e l )
16 1
5. 9
Average
Cost
of
D e g r a d a t i o n in S a m p l e
land at 1 9 6 9 - 9 0 p r i c e
Environmental
F a r m s (per
acre
level)
164
5. 10
Total
C os t
of
Degradation
in
the
( 1 9 8 9- 9 0 pr i c e level)
Environmental
Study
Village
165
5.11
Relative Change
D a m a g e Cost and
the
St u d y A r e a
to 1989
in Total E n v i r o n m e n t a l
Area Under Forests
in
D u r i n g the Year
1971
166
5. 12
Total
Va l u e
of G o o d s
and
Services
Provided
by F o r e s t s to the P e o p l e
of
S t u d y Ar e a
( 1 8 8 9 - 9 0 P r i c e level)
168
6. 1
Present
V a l ue s
of Income
and
Total
Cost
of
Pepper C ul ti v a t i o n
and
its
Benefit
Cost
R a t i o s (summed
up
for
flows
up
to 26 y e a r s ) (per
acre
at
1S8-9-90 price level )
135
V.
Table
No.
Title
Page
Mo .
5. 3
Average
Income E a r n e d by Eachi
Sample
Household
fro m
Collection
of
Wild
F o r e s t G r a s s e s ( 1 9 6 9 - 9 0 p r ice level 1
153
5. 4
A v e r a g e Income E a r n e d f ro m
Collection
of
W i l d n u t s and S e e d s by Ea ch
Sample
Household
(1909- 90 p r i c e level)
154
5. 5
Average
Income E a r n e d by Ea ch
Sample
Household
Through
Collection
of
M e d i c i n a l P l a n t s a n d Herbs. (198990
pr ice level )
156
5. 6
Average
Income
Earned
Through
C o l l e c t i o n of E d i b l e P r o d u c t s by
Each
S a m p l e H o u s e h o l d ( 1 9 0 9 - 9 0 p r i c e level)
157
5. 7
Average
Income E a r n e d by E a c h
Sample
Household
through
Collection
of
Bamboos,
Reeds
and
Canes
(1 9 8 9 - 9 0
p rice level)
159
5. 8
Total Stock of T i m b e r and F i r e w o o d
in
the F o r e s t of S t u d y v i l l a g e
(1 9 0 9 - 9 0
p rice level )
16 1
5. 9
Average
Cost
of
D e g r a d a t i o n in S a m p l e
land at 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 p r i c e
Environmental
Fa r m s (per
ac r e
level)
164
5. 10
Total
Cos t
of
Degradation
in
the
( 1 9 89 -9 0 price level)
Environmental
Study
Village
165
5.11
R e l a t i v e Char’
ige in Total E n v i r o n m e n t a l
D a m a g e C o st and A r e a U n d e r F o r e s t s
in
the
St udy A r e a D u r i n g the Year
1971
to 1909
166
5. 12
Total
V alue
of G o o d s
and
Services
Provided
by F o r e s t s to the P e o p l e
of
S t u d y Are a
( 1 8 8 9 - 9 0 P r i c e level)
168
6. 1
Present
V a lu e s
of Income
and
Total
Cost
of
Pepper C u l ti v a t i o n
and
its
Benefit
Cost
R a t i o s (summed
up
for
flows
up
to 26 y e a r s ) (per
acre
at
1 96 9 - 9 0 price level )
185
Vi
Map
No .
Title
3. 1
Location
Area )
6 .1
Geomorphological
V i 1 1age
of
Figure
No.
Page
No.
Kalkoonthal
Village
Features
of
the
(S t u d y
75
Study
163
Title
Page
No .
2. 1
Estimated
K e r a l a and
A r e a Un d e r F o r e s t
Sub-Regions
3. 1
Area Under
Natu r al
4. 1
Occurrence
Garden
of G u l l i e s
4. 2
Topographical
cr oss
Sections
S a m p l e U n i t in tht^ Study A r e a
Forest
vii
Cover
in
in K e r a l a
in a Y o u n g
73
Pepper
of
66
a
109
122
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
From
Fores t
to
Agriculture
: Land
use
Change
and
the
[33 ues
La nd has m a n y uses but its a v a i l a b i l i t y
It me ans
types
that by
ut
an ever
land
i n c r e a s i n g a r e a u nder o n e use,
uses
are
deptlved
more
var io u s
infrastructural
food,
campetltlon among
tropical
these
raw
that
land.
countries
on a
the F i r s t U o r l d Uar,
increasing
accelerated
timber
and
the
m an y
accompanied
of
the
land.
large
land
However,
for
developing
It
generates
utlii^iation.
is
scale,
clearly
and
This
whatever
has
commex-'cial
its
soil
after
in r e s p o n s e
also
projects
purpose.
erosion
to
been
harvesting
resettlement programmes,
of
In
visible
particularly
development
effects
land for
Forests are being cleared
pressure^ .
other
forest s ,
by
oi
competition
indu s tr i al
river v a l l e y p r o j e c t s ,
clearance
and
to p r o d u c e more f o o d
population
by
types
this
and f a r m
materials
f a c il i ti e s.
various
coutT tries,
between forests
of
of
a l 1 other
increasing population demands additional
producing
in
Is limited.
such
etc.
will
lea d in g
as
The
be
to
R e p e t t o &c Gil l is , (eds), 1986, P u b l i c P o l i c i e s and
the M i s u s e of F o r e s t R e s o u r c e s . (Full d e t a i l s of
r e f e r e n c e s are g i ven in the B i b l i o g r a p h y ).
loss
oi
its
sources
in
fertility
and
the region.
depletion
Also,
it
forest based
local
variousminor
pr oducts,
evident
Increasing demand
and
tha t
forests
of
agricultural
s tudy
the p r e s e n t
a
forested
relationship
and
those
order
would
sound,
of
converted
man
to
be
taking
therefore,
preserving
to a g r i c u l t u r a l
w i t h the
particularly
the
manner
one
land
land m a n a g e m e n t
in
of
man-land
certain
land
as
forests
use
well
ail
as
as
costs
against
lands.
in
loc at e d
to
to
consideration
natural
products
f o re st
environmentally
into
is
necessary
framework
devise
it
r e s or t
the
Traditional geographical analysis
dealing
So
to
converting
the
on
like c o l l e c t i o n of
for a g r i c u l t u r a l
Is,
water
impact
w e a v i n g etc.
forced
It
within
which
benefits
and
perennial
adverse
land use p a t t e r n and
in
economically
has
land.
area
po l i c i e s ,
basket
for es t s
into
has
economic activities
products
destruction
of
is h a n d i c a p p e d in
vjhich
in
a
rural
forested
society,
hilly
area,
allocates
lands for v a r i o u s uses
in o r d e r
returns.
It a l s o
out the c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y
between
local
Traditionally,
falls
land
use
to br i n g
pattern
and
to m a x i m i s e
na t u r a l
geographical analysis
of
the
environment.
man-land
r e l a t i o n s h i p and its spat ia l v a r i a t i o n c o n f i n e s itself
to
either
deterministic
thought.
These
limitations
broadens
man,
in
and
the
a
nature
got
sub-system's
or
also
of
capable
rejuvenation
science.
the
possibility
man-land
it
m eans
concern,
once
up
the
of
natural
requires
a
of
when
relationship
it
to
if
Moreover
sub-system
due
modern
to
Human
natural
when
either
beings
process
technology
are
of
end
is t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d ,
pr o c e s s
the s o c i e t y
hu g e
literature
rejuvenation
deteriorates
help
Even
ir’iv e s t m e n t s .
oi
certain
especially
interventions.
the
of
have
in the e c o - s c i e n c e
speeding
altiiost nil-
process,
labour
from
However once a sub-system
becomes
the
human
with
thought
s t udy
its owns
function
catastrophies
schools
i nt e r a c t i o n s - .
discussed
has
of
present
natural
It is well
possibiIistic*
schools
i t ’s p e r s p e c t i v e
land
that
or
amounts
of
resurrection
wants
of
of
to rev i ve
capital
in
terms
is
destroyed
and
enuironmenitai
the
en e r g y
^
The d e t e r m i n i s t i c school of thought p o s t u l a t e s that man and
his a c t i o n s ar e s o l e l y the p r o d u c t s of his e n v i r o n m e n t .
Gri
the o t h e r hand, the p o s s i b i l i s t i c school of t h o u g h t
e n u n c i a t e s that man is c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t from tils
physi c al s u r r o u n d i n g s and that with the a d v a n c e m e n t of
s c i e n c e and t e ch n ol o gy , man is no mo r e d e p e n d on n a tu r e or
his p h y s i c a l s u r r o u n d i n g s .
For more d e t a i l s * see Roger
M i n s h u l l , 1972, C h a p t e r 9 and H a r t s h o r n e , 19S9.
^
For m o r e d e t a i l s refer R J B e n n e t and C h o r l e y , 1980,
E n v i r o n m e n t a l S y s t e m s : P hi l o s o p h y , A n a l y s i s and C o n t r o l ;
U a y n e K D D a v i e e s , 1972, The C o n c e p t u a l R e v o l u t i o n in
G e o g r a p h y ; and S R Eyre, 19S4, D e t e r m i n i s m and E c o l o g i c a l
A p p r o a c h to G e o g r a p h y , G e o g r a p h y Vol. 49, p . 369-76.
c o n s u m e d by tfiat s y s t e m h a p p e n s
to t r a v e r s e t o w a r d s other
sub-systems.
time,
changes
the
area
sub-system
happens
namely
changes
in
to
land
of
energy
of
to
ot h e r
atmosphere.
(i.e.
nat u re )
and
and man,
land and n a t u r e
level)
by
an
evaluate
using
not
various
biotic
only
man-land
examp le ,
and
of
the
in q u a l i t y
soil
erosion
in the case
as
revealed
helps
sub-systems
area)
as
(living)
a
and
to
but
well
as
if the study
in
the p r e s e n t
(at
interactions
ap p r o a c h .
Identify
also
functional
abiotic
is m a d e
relationship
eco-system
T h e te r m e c o - s y s t e m
as 3 n y
sub-systems
sub-systems
T h e r e f o r e an a t t e m p t
level)
an
trees
T h e s e t ypes of r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the
to
(or
by
land and t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n
siuily
of
in d i s t u r b i n g
It r e s u l t s
(for
quality
itself to d e t e r m i n i s t i c or p o s s i b i I i s t i c s c ho o ls
thought.
approach
results
consumed
am o n g the s u b - s y s t e m s are not f u l l y
confines
it
For e xa mple,
sub-systems
of a t m o s p h e r e ) .
system
the
traverse
and
th ese
in the c a s e of
m ajor
a period
in ot h e r s u b - s y s t e m s .
forest
p l an t s
Over
the
Th e
(non
that
living)
is d e f i n e d
o f n a t u r e thsit i n c l u d & s
lower
(at a higher
oco-systom
interdependence
considers
unit
a
an
eco-system
includes
both
e l e m e nt s .
in the p r e s e n t study
l i v i n g orgsnisins a n d
n o n - I i V i n g s u b ^ t ^ n c o s i n t e r a c t i n g to p r o d u c e a n e x c h a n g e
o/ mati^rJaJs
b^twaen
The f o l l o w i n g
characteristics
to
sample
select
a
integrate
pattern
the
and
tha
unit
the
a few h o u s e h o l d s
r e c i p r o c i t y or
- both
At
the w o r l d
realise
at
this
a
environment.
scale
level
between
They
(i.e.
and
local
are:
(i)
a village
and
about
(ii)
the
and
due
the
use
and
it
resource
to
enhanced
biotic
it
or
subsequently
it e m p h a s i s e s
becomes
even
of
the
essential
*
of
to
an
in ot he r
the d e s t r u c t i o n of
the
of e c o - s y s t e m a f f e c t s
region
by
eroding
its
base.
to e v a l u a t e
the mein-land
i n t e r d i s c i p 1 inary a p p r o a c h
geography
analysis
a l 1 over
members
re 1int xo n s h ip and
i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n m a n , land a n d nature,
from
be
h a b i t a t e d by
awareness
abiotic
the d e s t r u c t i o n
capacity
In o r d e r
an
can
abiotic.
environment
of
Also,
carrying
also
l a n d us e
e c o - s y s t e m as a r e s o u r c e may b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e s
eco-system.
h e l p us
i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of the
present,
sub-systems
pa/'ts4 .
definition
micro
to e n t i r e pla ne t )
biotic
that
of
complementarity
a p p l i e d at an y s pa tial
system
iSving a n d n o n - I i v J n ^
and
bringsout
I G Simmons,
1982,
that has b e e n d r a w n m a i n l y
e co n om i c s .
economic
The
the s t u d y uses
Ecology
Uhile
the
implication
of
Natural
economic
of
the
Resources,
p.6
relationship
its
between
associated
resource
out
utilisation,
environment
of
with
Its
s pa tial
of
if at
transaction
utilisation
on
of
equal,
reducing
the r e s o u r c e
that
are
of labour
with
that
met
uses
and
p a rty
to
in all
It f o l l o w s
increase
from
without
the
other.
markets
technology,
skills^.
this
for
the v a l u e of
s t a t e of
hold
If
all
that no a l t e r n a t i v e
the
to
It
away
and
of
(i.e.
from
produced
mix
of
gains
movement
benefits
are
its
need
no
resource
thu s
endowment,
natural
etc,. ).
co s t s
one
resource could
services
the
th e n
the
goods and f a c t o r se rv i ce s ,
of
brings
in t e r m s
various
ranching
margifi
conditions
a l l o c a t i o n of
between
can b e n e f i t
simultaneously
marginal
land
the
are
condition
conditions
fo r m a
is i n c a p a b l e of f i n d i n g a s o l u t i o n
demonstrates,
poo!
oir v a r i o u s
e conomic analysis
agriculture,livestock
and
terms
analysis
and
variations.
forest,
such
land
resource
allocation
this
(Including
geographical
optimum
any
nature
in
the
conventional
allocation
and
resources)
repercussion
A
man
consumed
goods
given
and
However,
situation*
the
not
^
K r u t i l l a & Bowes, 1909, E c o n o m i c s and
M a n a g e m e n t , Natu r al R e s o u r c e Journ al ,
7^9.
*
(i) All the v a l u e of a f a c t o r s e r v i c e (input) and all of
its c o s t m u s t be fu lly an d e x c l u s i v e l y r e f l e c t e d in its
m a r k e t price; (ii) T h e r e c a n be no d i r e c t i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e
among production functions,
(ili) All the u t i l i t y a
c o n s u m e r o b t a i n s fr o m a c o n s u m e r good or s e r v i c e p u r c h a s e d
6
Public
V o l . 29
are
the
F o r e s t Land
(3), p 737-
applicable
In
general
to f o r e s t s
and
forests,
the
local
case
of
on
resource
and farms
economy
interdependent
land
each
and
in p a r t i c u l a r .
environment
other.
It
means
u nder f o r e s t s g e n e r a t e s e x t e r n a l i t i e s .
fails
to
reflect
associated
type
of
with
land
internalising
a
cori v e r s i o n
along
of
the
with
of
the
outlook
gets
the
eco-system
in area
be
production
benefits
other
overcome
social
the
and
impact
of
support
that
by
functions^.
from
environment
production.
approach
mar k et
an y
including
considers
of
change
and
can
towards
factors
hig hl y
into
theoretical
which
are
costs
this
in
Because
Therefore,
forests
externalities,
ecotogy-economica
strengthens
of
the
kind
one
of
However,
deforestation
also
range
uses.
environmental,
Such
full
allocation
It
proposed
for
is
f u r t he r
use
in
the p r e s e n t s t u d y by I n t e g r a t i n g v a r i o u s h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s
to p r o d u c e
goods,
commercial
purposes,
envlronmetAt
of
the
not onl y for
and
subsistence
its
i m pa ct
but
on
also
the
for
natural
region.
in a c o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t is e n j o y e d o n l y by the one who
c o n s u m e s It. T h e r e is no i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n u t i l i t y
f u n c t i o n s ; and (iv) T h e r e is no i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n
p r o d u c t i o n and u t i l i t y f u n c t i o n s .
7
Partha
Dasgupta,
1982,
The
7
Control
of
Resources.
Landuse
Ke r a 1a
Change
From
Forests
to
Farm
Lands
in
India
and
:
Ind la
Ov er
the
considerable
o ther
of
10.47
per
ce n t
that
of
per cent
country
of
under
period**.
forests
The
is
deforestation
in
total
been
6,42,041
last
four
a
I ndia
like
in
forest occupies
an
almost
It
of
area)
to
1981-83
1907
constant
reduction
attributed
in
the
to
of
It
the
22.8
shows
(i.e 3 . 3 3
cover
(1981-83
government
about
(i.e
sq.km.
forest
is
area
area)'*^.
years
accordir^g
generally
been
in
geographical
a reduction
sharp
has
geog raph ical
geographical
the
is
In India,
total
around
However,
forest
there
sq.kms. (1985-87).
the
was
total
during
period.
of
the
t h e r e has
of
decades,
6,40,134
cent
It
few
countries®.
nearly
country’ .
per
amount
tropical
area
last
to
in our
1905-87)
records
area
during
the
sa m e
total
area
under
the
high
man-land
®
In the last few years, especially after 1980, several
authors have w r i t t e n about the d e f o r e s t a t i o n and causes and
c o n s e q u e n c e s of de forestation.
See for e>(ampie, F A 0
1981, Ka l l i o et.al,(eds), 1987, R e p e t t o and Gillis, 1989
etc,,
®
NRSA R eport 1989 in W as teland
1989 - J a n u a r y 1990, p,37.
‘
ibid.
‘‘
G o v e r n m e n t of India,
1986 and 1988.
News,
Statistical
8
Vol.
V N o , 2,
Abstract,
1981,
No vember
1983,
ratio*
increasing
Inducement
timber
fodder.
development
In
programmes
transmission
projects
also
to
caused
a
Among
purpose
accounts
r i ch
such
as
and
these,
and
the
projects,
and
This
is
For
of
have
in
also
the
true
e x a m pl e ,
our
total
in
many
in
to N o n - F o r e s t
% to the
Total A r e a
of F o r e s t
Diverted
2623
Agriculture
o th er
for a g r i c u l t u r a l
A r e a of
Forest,
Diverted
(in *0 0 0 ha )
Pur poa e
various
deforestation
F o r e s t L a n d s in In d i a D i v e r t e d
uses During 1950 -1980
T a b 1e 1
the
government
fifth
countries.
t u e i wo o d,
val ley
the
of
three
1).
land,
this,
forests converted
(Table
consequot'it
industrial
by
extent
about
t r op i ca l
to
river
initiated
great
c ou ntry.
d e f o r es t a t i o n ‘ ^
addition
lines,
development
forest
growth
Ln the d e m a n d t'or a g r i c u l t u r a l
and
roads,
population
60, 6 1
502
1 1. 6 0
134
3. 10
61
1 . 40
Others
lOOB
23. 29
Total
4328
100,00
River
valley
Industries
and
Transmission
and roads
ource
projects
townships
line
: J B Lai (1989),
Re ality, p . 12,
J B Lai,
IQd'j,
India's
Indi a' s
Forests:
Forests
9
r Myth
Myth
and
arid R e a l i t y ,
p. 12
Indoneaia,
Malaysia
to a r a b l e
75
per
land
cetit
and
Gliana
accounts
of
total
the
coriversion
for 50 per cerit,
deforested
area
SO
in
of
per
the
forests
cent
and
respective
couiT tries* ^ .
KeraI a
:
In v i e w
sq.km.
in
of
1981)
i n d u s tr i al
the
low
h i g h d e n s i t y of
percer^tage
activities
population
of
suitability
throughout
(12.8a
1981
for
of
per
census)
carrying
the year,
the
population
wo r k
out
to
total
the
higher
environmental
agricultural
p e o p l e of K e r a l a
encroachment
arable
under
2 8. 9
more
whole
Kerala
( 10 4 0 2
to 2 6 . 1
per
during
Repetto
**
in
cent
than
the
the
an d
on
fertile
subsequently
According
forests
1981-83
is
and
land.
per
pressure
to
operations
tend
to e n g a g e
has
sq.kms)
cent
ra te
same
Gillis,
of
the
fr o m
1989,
an
total
sq.k ms )
Various
induces
the
ar^ea
area
19S5-S7.
in
to
estimated
land
in
This
forests
1969,
deforestation
p e r i o d ’'*.
it
of
Report
dec 1 ined
(10149
of
land.
conversion
N RS A
In
working
m or e in c u l t i v a t i o n and a l l i e d e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s .
generates
per
participation
ce nt
and
(655
India
other
in
tt
as
a
studies
op.cit-
In India, the rate of d e f o r e s t a t i o n d u r i n g the period
1 9 8 1 - 8 3 to 1 9 8 5 - 8 7 was a b o u t 0.2 9 per c e n t w h i l e in K e r a l a
it was e s t i m a t e d at 2 . 4 3 W a s t e l a n d Newf], V o l . 5(2),
N o v e m b e r 1989 - J a n u a r y 1990, p. 37.
10
al so
confirm
records,
during
forest
this
‘forest s *
as
state
Though
forest
the
or
of f a c t o r s
c en t
the
total
p r o je ct s .
un der
is
unauthorised
c r o p s s u c h as teak,
D e p a r t m e n t are not
rate
of
it do e s
not
of
possess
the a r e a
in
the
deforestation.
to the
large
them,
forest
accounts
about
53
2).
This
per
figure
for v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t
include
An
the
forest
important
land
aspect
is that f o r e s t s c l e a r e d for p l a n t a t i o n
eucalyptus,
included
c a s h e w etc.
Kerala,
by
the F o r e s t
in the s t a t i s t i c s of T a b l e 2.
for
S o m a s e k h a r a n Nair, 1983, K a n n a n
S r i k u m a r C h a t t o p a d h a y , 1985.
Government
o v er
Indian
Among
occupations^.
This kind of p l a n t a t i o n a c c o u n t s
^
of
consensus
(Table
land a s s i g n e d
under
notified
they
have con tri buted
purposes
area
ot h e r
not
wide
deforestation
However,
to be n o t i c e d h e r e
a
in the state.
agricultural
the f o r e s t
or
constant
stand
is a c o n t r o v e r s y
significant
for
is as per
whether
government
the
section
cleared
of
because
one
of
to
aimost
which
there
of d e f o r e s t a t i o n
is
Is
lands
th ere
cover,
state
those
regardless
A variety
scale
all
according
the
T h is
l a n d ’ under
Act,
about
in
period^*.
tree cover.
u n der
cover
includes
‘f o r e s t
Forest
However
1983
and
1 , 5 3 , 1 9 2 h e c t a r e s of
and
P u s h p a n g a d a n , 198B,
1936.
S u r e s h c h a n d Joshi, 1908, D e f o r e s t a t i o n
and C o n s e q u e n c e s , p . 102.
11
in K e r a l a
; Causes
lane
in
a r is e s
the
here
plantations
benefits
state
is
as
to
that
forests
environment,
oxygen
r egion as a w h o l e .
Table
whether
n at u r a l
the
C O n s e r v a t ion,
(1934-65}*^.
The
one
cari
that
consider
though
they
like
soil
g e n e r a l ion etc,,
Moreover,
question
these
provide
an d
some
water
an d e c o n o m y
of
the
they d es t r oy the c o m p l e x i t y
2
E k t e n t of F o r e s t Cl e a r e d fo r V a r i o u s
Develo pm e n t Projects and Welfare Schemes
in K e r a l a (1956 -0 4)
------------------------------------■
F o res t land
% to total
Project/Scheme
converted
f o r e s t landf
(in h e c t . }
c o n V e r red
Oil
Palm
State
I ndia
Farming
Ltd.
Corporation
3700
6. 24
25C0
4. 22
j
Rehabilitation
Ltd.
Plantation
■' K e r a l a
Plantation
Corporation
2250
3. 60
!
1
1
1
i
of
2600
4 . 38
Var iouc D e v e l o p m e n t
S c tlernes ! r e s e t t l e m e n t of
p e o p l e f r o m p r o j e c t sites,
r e p a t r i a t e etc. )
20380
3 ^4- . O tJ
Sub Total
31430
53.02
1
River
valley
Industrial
GRAND
1
project
purpose
TOTAL
24150
40.74
3700
6. 24
59280
l O O , 00
......... .
Sou roe
S u r e s h C h a n d J o s h i (19071, D e f o r e s t a t i o n
K e r a l a : C a u s e s and C o n s e q u e n c e s , p . 102-
G o v e r n m e n t of Kerala,
Se ct ion II, p . 60.
1987 S t a t i s t i c s
12
for
in
Planning
1986,
and
diversity
the
access
biomass
of
natural
of
local
which
they
forests
people
to
used
to
as well
the
as
they
forest
enjoy
prevent
usufruct
from
the
and
n atural
f or e st s.
Statement
The
of
the P r o b l e m
mai n
t h r us t of
the
i m p a c t of c h a n g e s
to
agricultural
agriculture,
environment
impact
:
the
in the
live-stock
and
of W e s t e r n G h a t
is m o r e
to a g r i c u l t u r e
impor t an t,
on
bio-mass
t re n ds
The
generated
poVerty
in
alleviation
changed
is a l s o
are not poor and
belong
if
th ere
see
if
are
poor,
is a need
th e r e
land
plantation
in the
will
in
crops,
local
and
region
what
in terms
g e n e r a t e d by su c h
be
distribution
in
terms
after
the h i g h
r e l e v a n t here.
to r i c h e r
the
of
new
introducing
ranges
been
Because,
section
justification
other
to a s s e s s
has
and
forest
impact
is not e v e n a social
they
-
(i.e.
Th e n a t u r e of b e n e f i c i a r i e s of
landuse
there
production
-
the d i r e c t u s e r s of
programmes
W e s t e r n G h a t Regiori).
economy
Th e
and
land
local
forests
state.
on o t h e r s
fi rst
to a n a l y s e
r e g i o n of K e r a l a
of a s s e s s m e n t of n e g a t i v e e x t e r n a l i t i e s
conversion.
is
l a n d u s e fr o m n a t u r a l
at-\d p l a n t a t i o n c r o p s
is s t u d i e d bot h on
converted
present study
the
some
13
of
for
p o or
may
be
loss
sustained
compensation
if
the
they
the s o c i e t y
this.
Even
deprived,
by
for
and
them and
them
to
ottset
thielr
etc,.
This
natural
in
loas
will
A Br ief
Review
of
consequences.
argues
(ii)
the c h a n g e
ecologically
of
justifiable
th at
studies
in
recent
studies
current
the
problems
forests
and
the
forest
forest
policy
related
the
policy
to
benefits
of
to
forest
the
large
dwellers.
scale
both
on
For
the
of
policy.
colonial
independent
On
reasoning
the
India
basis
Joshi^*'
also
and
its
example,
through
and
Guha*’
al 1
an d
and
the
of
its
national
ty p e
th at
the
rural
process
similar
argues
and
na t i o n a l
policy
of
the
on the day
environment
forest
on
use
the
deforestation
its
British
the
i m p a c t of d e f o r e s t a t i o n
of
in
years
concentrated
a r e d u e to the r e s u l t of hiistorical
continuation
GLiha,
India
the
with
efforts,
development
historical
these
(i)
(iii)
life
:
several
of
the
and
poor mass,
^
to
of
subsequent
forest
empioyment
f a c t o r s u n d e r l y i n g d e f o r e s t a t i o n an d
relation
management
economy,
been
Most
related
umbilical
day
in a s s e s s i n g w h e t h e r
Literature
have
a b o u t the c a u s a l
India;
wage,
i n t e re s t.
There
to
help
Incr ea sed
f o r e s t was s o c i a l l y a n d
larger
issues
through
of
tribals
1983, F o r e s t r y in B r i t i s h India an d P o s t B r i t i s h
: A H i s t o r i c a l A n a l y s i s , EPU, Vol. 18 (44), p. 62-9G.
G o p a Joshi, 1963, in W a l t e r F e r n a n d e s
(eds), 1983, op.clt.
14
and
Sharad
Kulkarni
who w e r e v i r t u a l
owners
of
forest
poor.
l i v in g c o n d i t i o n of the poor w h o m a i n l y d e p e n d
forests
many
for
studies,
(CSE)^^
*■
studi e s,
tribal
like
;
the
travelling
th e i r
of
to
of
night
diseases.
A l s o the
detntal
In the c a s e
materials
s u ch
increased
unemployment
earnirigs
among
Gadgil^"'
scientific
colon i al
as
the
power
of
bamboo
as
basket
pointed
forestry
not
sharply
local
well
only
anaemia
as
that
in
beedi
due
their
depleted
the
^^
1985, T h e S t a t e of
C i t i z e n ’s Re port-
India's
the
herbs,
ot h er
of
etc,,
in
raw
has
daily
makers.
to
own
the
incidence
reduction
lack
of
country,
the
large
C e n t r e for S c i e n c e and E n v i r o n m e n t ,
1983,
I n d ia n' s E n v i r o n m e n t : A C i t i z e n ’s R e p o rt .
Ibid.,
Second
in
loss
leave
and
in
t h es e
and
the
t endu
weavers
tradition
products
e co nomy,
reeds,
out
to
increased
leads to m o r e
caries,
the
Environment
loss of m e d i c i n a l
in the pas t,
blindness,
and
forest
among
illustrated
According
has
collect
India.
which were a v a i l a b l e
Science
etc,.
forests
poorest
life a r e
for
Fernandes^^
loss
of
to day
Centre
distance
areas
da y
the
advet'it
tiod d e p r i v e d
on
become
the
of B r i t i s h
The
and
latid b e f o r e
chunk
State
Environment
of
of
1985
U a 1 1 1;r F e r n a n d e s e t . a I , , 1 986 , F o r e s t s , E n v i r o n m e n t
Tribal E c o n o m y : D e f o r e s t a t i o n ,
I m p o v e r i s h m e n t and
m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n in Orissa*
M a d h a v G ad g i l , 19S3, in W a t e r
K u l k a r n l (eds), 1983, op.cit.
15
Fernandes
and
Sharad
; The
and
f or e st
for
cover
In
India
the befiefits
contractors
colonial
and
also favouring
i nter e st s .
present
of
outcome
of
people,
government
the
the
economy
The
approach
impact
on
local
devGlopment
analysis
does
pattern
out
policies
that
policies
most
us e
into
such
the
development
N a d k a r n i et.al,
and M a n a g e m e n t .
Repetto ^ Gillis
and
1969,
(eds),
of
these
th a t
the
is
the
the
at
local
work
in
studies
is
and
its
of
the
consequences
the
Such
i m pa c t
on
a k i nd
of
of
o t he r
development,
local
land
use
land u s e in p a r t i c u l a r .
Gil 1 is^*"
other
Political
198B,
16
was
100 years.
agricultural
all
The
forces
agricultural
and
to
argue
involving
etc.,
Repotto
policy
the
and p l a n t a t i o n
policies.
and on f o r e s t
adopting
deforestation
account
as
related
of
of
development
ex a mple,
live-'Stock
in
through
land
take
in general
For
a period
forest
management
commercial
process
people
not
et.al^=
interest
adopted
the
industrial
of
by
forest
and
practices
traders,
commercial
use
the
of f o r e s t
development
rural
of
national
forest
ove r
-
Moreover
Nadkarni
and
larger
analysis
our
conflict
forestry
individuals
industrial,
However,
pa t t e r n
u s ed
f a r me rs .
policy
the
the
also
of a few
rich
forest
but
have
development,
domestic
Economy
op.cit.
pointed
policies
of
Forest
use
11'tat
are
meant
living c l o s e
the
rural
tor
to the
areas
p h y si ca l
ttie
margin
of
by
of
in
Lovettee^^
thie
households
especially
countries,
have
areas.
Another
forest
in
ot
subsistence,
tropical
destruction
conducted
development
Kerala
also
reveals
led
In
to
study
v a r i ou s
land r e v e n u e a n d al lo t m e n t rules f o r m e d d u r i n g
the period
between
to a t t r a c t
m or e
i860
and
people
int o
agriculture
conducted
in
1895
the
the
in the
were
process
state.
recent
development
Reclamation
Scheme,
the
etc,,
state,
The
nat io n a 1
share
Sc he me ,
of
tiave
programmes
Gr o w
More
of
many
in K e r a l a ,
etc,.
meant
expansion
Moreover
past
Moench^'’
various
essentially
other
studies
for e x a m p l e
also
such
Food,
commercial
Nair
pointed
as
Forest
High
out
R an ge
Development
a c c e l e r a t e d the e x p a n s i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e
especially
aspects
economy
to G r o s s
of
in h i gh
ranges.
the c o n t r i b u t i o n
and
the
National
in
pr o b 1ems
product
of
(GNP)
of
forests
to
i nc r eas i ng
have
been
the
i t 's
s t ud i ed
Cf. in P S i v a n a n d a n et.al, 1986, L a n d H u n g e r r and
D e f o r e s t a t i o n : C a s e S s t u d y of C a r d a m o m H i l l s in Kerala,
EPU, V o l . 21 (13), p. S 4 6 - 5 S 0
K N Nair
et.ai.,
Cultivation.
1989,
Ecology
Economics
of
Cardamom
M o e n c h Ma r c u s , 1991, P o l i t i c s of D e f o r e s t a t i o n : C a s e
S t u d y of C a r d a m o m H i lls in K e r a l a , EPU, Vol. XXVI (A),
J a n u a r y 26, p. 27-60.
17
by
the
government
and
many
others.
m o st
of
(about 1%) ,
potential
have
of
Th is
the
forest
beefi
criticised
economy
by
overall
generated
by
Therefore,
forests'
data,
conclusion
that
GNP
also
incre a se d .
Mohan
the
suggest
programme,
However,
Pant^^.
of
mainly
exclude
services
(both
monetary
worth.
means
of s u s t e n a n c e
local
p e o p l e and w o o d
to
the
Nirmal
as
food,
C h a n d r a Sahu,
who
1972,
1984,
1906,
live
Indian
Forests
to
and
the
and
has
to
the
income
products.
protective)
provide
fodder
to
implements,
of
and
the
the
green
in and
around
Forest
Utilisation
the
Forestry,
Economics
of F o r e s t R e s o u r c e s
Forest Economics
16
to
aspects
forests
fuel
this
information,
forest
and
and
in g o v e r n m e n t
salient
example,
farmers
1982,
M a d a n M o h a n Pant,
ma j o r
for a g r i c u l t u r a l
G o v e r n m e n t of India,
V o l . I and III.
Sagreiya,
of
sev e ra l
For
that
income
sector
the
confines
productive
such
low
According
forestry
collecting
exploitation
they
etc,,
while
agency
is very
transportation
forestry
contribution
their
K-P
of
Hadan
Because
concerned
manure
be
secondary
is by no m e a n s as b l e a k as r e p o r t e d
statistics.
the
They
scientific
can
the
3a
of the und e r - e x p Io i t a t i on of
resources.
land
thie
the c o u n t r y ' s
is b e c a u s e
of
from
the
to
to
development
implementation
him,
analyzing
come
forests
forest
through
Sagreiya"*,
After
them
contribution
of
and
Evaluation
forests.
Such
accounting
The
has
be en
benefits
dependence
of
quantified
of
the
t ogether,
24.3
per
cent
per
cent
GadgiP’
implication
droughts
ab o u t
away
of
has
of
floods
every
net
and
of
the
income
tonnes
of
of
hectares
it takes c e n t u r i e s
Another
land
^
H
our
study
that
slides
and
of
of
poor
towards
such
It
as
is
soil
the
19
fact
land
Kerala^^
resulted
Ghat
region
Economy
Fernandes
Statistcs
year
top soil.
of
has
that
a loss
every
inch of
co v e r
that
or b l o w n
this m e a n s
in W e s t e r n
1964,
ero s io n,
estimated
1989, The P o l i t i c a l
p. 165.
Ke ra l a,
labour.
environmental
by G o v e r n m e n t
forest
peasants
is w a s h e d
to f o r m even an
M a d h av G a d g i l , 1983, in W a l t e r
K u l k a r n i (eds), 1963, op.cit.
Government
to
households
less
cultivable
erosion
y Nadkarni et.al.,
use and M a n a g e m e n t ,
land
top IS cms,
of
of
all
Considering
conducted
absence
soli
bio-mass
According
of
top soil
India.
c o n s i s t s of
describes
in
forest
of
income
attention
c u l t i v a b l e soil
whe n
the
landslides.
in
on
et.aP^.
income
deforestation
y e ar
million
people
Nadkarni
drawn
6000 m ill io n
2,4
Included
p r o d u c e s from f o r e s t s c o n t r i b u t e d
cent
11.9
local
by
per
and
not
s y s te m .
him the f r e e l y o b t a i n e d
15.5
are
for
and
in
of
of F o r e s t
Sharad
Planning
1983.
Kerala;
especially
Id u k k 1 d i s t r i c t ,
introduction
the
of
migrant
problems
area
latter
crops
such
f a r m er s .
of
soil
Identified
of
land
has
been
This
is
estimated
e r o si o n,
42
per
average
of
year
studies
and
terms
a net
shifting
shifting
the
other
total
benefit
clearing
conducted
towards
the
foregone
G o v e r n m e n t of Kerala,
D i s t r i c t , p. 43.
(i.e,
is
any
land
Lai
and
$ 2,500
study
annum
for
measures
to
Chowdary
forest
on
Indonesia
primary
that
Landuse
a
in
if
going
forest
and
areas,
the
t
625
-
750
Pl a n
for
Idukki
logged
is
an
in
- 3,000
assumes
US
D a v i d P e a r c e et.al., 1990, S u s t a i n a b l e
E c o n o m i c s and D e v e l o p m e n t in the Th i r d
20
cover
Pearce^®,
in
selectively
1983,
area^^.
degradation.
to
the
been
cultivable
5,00,000 hectares)
from
per
has
e v a l u a t i o n of
of US
The
cultivable
forest
forest
value
of
priority
of
economic
terms
conservation
total
P ea r c e ,
primary
new a r e a
fr o m
the
the
by
in
the
soil
taking
by
In
slopes
district
According
present
of
first
subsequent
cultivation
half
as
without
and
of
of
hill
that
Idukki
cent
cultivations.
half of the total
for
the
s e rv ic e s.
hectare
yields
per
purposes
erosion
a
23
on
c en t
immediate
identified
d ra w our a t t e n t i o n
produces
tapioca
in
districts.
b e e ri a c c e Ie r a t e d by
is
because
Th e
W y nad
It
which
agricultural
as
requiring
measures,
and
has
cardamom)
as
soil
Id u U U 1
the
(excluding
abate
in
Development:
World.
million.
indirect
In a d d i t i o n
benefits
conservation,
life,
consider
of
of
products
and
the a n n ua l
climat e ,
were
also
The
made
of
v alue
which
of
an
I n d i a ’s
rental
is
value
about
Rs.
at
15,91,000
crores
worth
of
India’s
India
be i n g
value
per
habitat
study,
soil
for
foregone
5
however,
forests
cent
can
forest.
million
hectare
u ni t
ac re),
and
acre).
This
is
India w h e r e
of
productivity
an
of
in
wild
due
to
did
not
value
various
According
to him,
in terms
rate
interest
of
actual
be
Rs.
2,47,819
figure
cover
(or Rs.
of
in
rental
12,391
value
Rs,
present
annual
been a great
vegetation
is
the
forest
the
and
capitalised
as
capitalised
average
go o d s
the
The
the
of
c ro r e s ;
hectares,
the
of
regarded
would
estimate
terms
be
there has
vegetation,
to
services.
79,500
6-4.2
per
forests
of
per
which
attempt
i n t e r e s t ra t e w o u l d be Rs.
in
products,
to d e f o r e s t a t i o n .
environmental
services
cover
m inor
of
cover.
due
has
value
type
etc.,
forest
economic
per
various
amelioration
foregone
L a P ’
5,014,57
as
many o t h e r d i r e c t and
t h e s e b e n e f i t s for the e s t i m a t i o n of total
forest
cent
such
recreation
clearance
to t h e s e us es
(or
at
5
Rs.
per
1,00,290
entire
forest
diversity
composition
In
and
forest.
J B Lai, 1992, E c o n o m i c V a l u e of India's
Anil A g a r w a l (ed), 1992, p. 43-48*
21
Forest
Stock
in
C h a t u r v e d 1^
,
on
the
other
environmental
value
streams
provide
water
carried
out
that
assessment
he
service
(i.e.
loss of
t re e cover.
Almora
t o wn
was
very
Also,
h erbs
shrubs
the c a t c h m e n t
of
and
at
Al m o r a .
from
the
down
under
area
lost
present
is
water
is R s . 6 0
of
1,264.3
service
lakh,
y ea r
(i.e.
The
studies
*
Since
ftectares,
provided
on
the
by
The
a sir-igle
f o r e g o n e d u e to the
covered
with
to the
board-leaved
consisted
forest
of
several
had
to
foregoing
be
cover
the
several
storeys
in
review
impact
of
the
of
acre
of
of
of
is
the
The
rate
forest
to
is
is
supply
31,630
per
year).
literature
deforestation,
indicates
whatsoever
A N C h a t u r v e d l , 1992, E n v i r o n m e n t a l V a l u e of
A l m o r a In Anil A g a r w a l (ed), 1992, p. 4 9 - 5 2 ,
22
by
area.
water
Rs.
town
supply
interest
of
tree
demand
the
imposed
catchment
forest
per
to
catchment
value
i t ’s
water
water
IS per c e n t
area
of
up
is the c o s t
cap it al
per
the
pumped
ann u a 1 c o s t
which
part
to m e e t
a hectare
Rs . 1 2 , 8 0 0
the
on
f o r es t near
unable
The
forest
crores.
town.
based
a substantial
c a p i t a l i s e d v a l u e of this at
Rs. 4
Almora
a r e a ot
to him,
growth
the
eetimated
W i t h the p r e s s u r e of h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s ,
Now
destruction
and
giving
streams.
town
the
is e n t i r e l y
old
the
v e g e t a t i v e cover.
c over
to
According
has
In the c a t c h m e n t
s o u r c e of w a t e r s u p p l y )
species.
and
of a f o r e s t
hand.
that
its
a Forest
in
cause,
of
hiave a n a l y s e d
economic
they
and
have
form
of
environmental
not
generated
fu l l y
land
degradation
and
the
based
Also,
issues
the
attention
i m p o r t a n c e of
two
of
its
the
forestry
forests
changes
the
in
or
the
the
it
global
has
place.
w er e
For
large
of
people
along
and
no
t h e se
perceive
broader
with
the
study
of
context
of
the
national
rendered
by
of
the
historical
conditions
in n o n - f o r e s t
st u d y
can
capture
socio-economic,
during
which
the
vary
colonial
socio-economic
23
from
the
political
land
place
period
and
of
landuse
that h a ve s h a p e d f o r e s t
area,
in
the
i mp a ct
political
changes
(i.e.
d if f e r e r ’ices
the
and
on l y
gi v e n
exampl e ,
or
in t e r m s of on e or
protection
conditions)
a
the
land
of
meaningful
in
raw
of
l i t tl e
they
framed
economic
specificities
utilization
of
limitation
Any
the
i nd us t r i e s .
received
that
account
Th en
and g e o g r a p h i c a l
in
community.
to
in general
c o st s
cost
allocation
in i s o l a t i o n
environmental
particular.
regional
be
local
in so c ia l ,
region
fac t
functions.
should
and
Also,
the
the
household
A major
But
social
non-availability
agriculture
the f o r e s t s
uses
of
for
In
the
opt i ma l
in t h e s e s t u d i e s .
lies
interest
and
to
In terms
to g e t h e r .
especially
forest
related
forests
welfare
internalised
deforestation,
to
studies
benefits
by
materials
between
the contributioti of f o r e s t s
to
there
pol itical
conditions
to
the
of
existence
British
India
reflected
in
implemented
land
India.
These differences
of
and
the
different
Local
ty p e s
to u t i l i s e
r es ou r c e s .
mainly
determined
region
such
as
determines
use
forests
simple
in
structure
direct
benefits
fodder
e t c . , ),
policies
type
of
ma de
as
l a titude,
and
of
largely
to
society
while
the
as
non- forest
useful
the
etc.,
also
the
of
India are
for
providing
timber,
t r o p i ca l
is
of
For i ns t a n c e ,
p a rts
(like
which
features
rainf al l
temperate
an d
programmes
cover,
management.
wtiich
and
well
forest
due
(i.e.
Chieftains}
the g e o g r a p h i c a l
altitude,
forest
mono-species
by
or
ttie f o r e s t
Th e
ia r g e i y
politicalset up
Rajahs
of
were
f u el -w o od ,
evergreen
fo r e s t s /
d e c i d u o u s f o r e s t s of W e s t e r n G h a t s are c o m p a r a t i v e l y more
complex
in
strueture
indirect
benefits
and
largely
( like soil
useful
e r os i on ,
in
providing
maintaining
stream
f 1ow 1 .
Objectives
;
In the
seeks
to
forests
examine
to
environment
issues
1,
light of a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n ,
the
impact
agricultural
of
Western
What
ar e
directly
the
and
conversion
land
Ghats
w h i c h are a n a l y s e d
state
conversion
on
of
24
natural
economy
and
specific
r eg ar d are as
follows;
ha v e
to
of
The
policies
forest
local
Kerala.
in this
indirectly
of
of
the p r e s e n t study
and
led
programmes
to
l arge
agricultural
that
scale
land
in
k 0 f a 1a r'
policy
2.
Uhat
U h a t Is
th
environment
was
the
that
class
beneficiaries
landless
political,
of
has
s u c i o - e c u n u ni 1c a tid
favoured
background
such
labourers
of
this?
the
conversion?
marginal
direct
Uere
farmers
they
or
big
farmers?
3.
Uhat
is
the
natural
4.
Uhat
economic
forests
are
the
landuse
of
landuse
to a g r i c u l t u r e
environmental
change
livelihood
impact
and
and
the
in the
change
local
consequences
how
do
t h ey
economic
from
region?
of
such
affect
activities
the
of
the
1o c a 1 p e o p 1e?
5.
Is
it
possible
form
and
of
Data B a s e
Both
area
justify
negative
environment
received
study.
to
by
the
cost
externalities
as
compared
the m i g r a n t
the
against
in
local
the
the
people
benefits
farmers.
:
primary
and
secondary
data
The secondary data regarding
under
on
incurred
various
land
uses,
25
are
us e d
in
this
the d i s t r i b u t i o n
government
policies
of
and
1nip ia m e n 1 0 d
p I-u g r a m m e s
are collected
season
and
respectively
crop
government
during
reports,
records
and
Remote
sensing
data
spatial
distribution
the
c o 1o n ia i p e r i o d
from tfie agri c u l t u r a l
population
census,
publications.
are
of
also
land
us e d
etc,
census,
and
state
Topo-sheets
for
analyzing
u s e at d i f f e r e n t
and
the
periods
of
t 1m e .
The p r i m a r y
of a g r i c u l t u r e
environment
over
are
located
in
(Idukki)
where
data
regarding
the
forest
col lected
Kalkoonthal
very high.
the
For
land
from
impetus
of
purpose,
degraded
etc w e r e c o l l e c t e d
Painaub ased
The
on
the
to
District
selection
stratified
the
lands.
**
year
of
forest
money
of
Hea d
conversion
the L a n d u s e
Quarters
sampling
on
is
A structured questionnaire
of
and
new 1y
f<rjr
of
Board,
Idukki
fa rms
technique.
a l t i t ud inal
the
is
the n e c e s s a r y
reclamation
households
this
cultivation
f ro m
taluk
c:or> v e r t e d
for
and
households
Nedumkandam
area
spent
the
random
c r i t e r i a w h i c h has us e d for
and
of
ex pans ion
economy
sample
the s e l e c t i o n of a v i l l ag e,
agricultural
and
the
of
local
agricultural
related
Trivandrum,
i mp a ct
on
vi llage**
information
land
the
at
are
The
lo c a t i o n
opened
forest
is us ed for c o l l e c t i n g
The p r o c e d u r e s a d o p t e d to the s e l e c t i o n of s a m p l e village,
h o u s e h o l d s , and farms are d i s c u s s e d in the c h a p t e r III.
For mo r e d e t a i l s r e g a r d i n g the same, p l e a s e refer the
C h a p t e r III
26
necessary
Information related
i'eturns f r o m the far m
various
check
from
goods.
list
the
check
society
cr o s s
sample
in
selected
local
the
of
revenue
various
implementing
various
of
region
and
as
the
forest
M e t h o d o 1o g y
The
forests
retired
and
revenue
i n to
promoting
during
the
of
the
ruriil
variations
Iri d i s t r i b u t i o n
in total
25 years.
the
development
Kerala
Sastra
elderly
served
in
the
brought
out
geographical
For
this,
policies
period
and
society,
present
day
of
a r e a of
are studied
and
and
by
for
socio-economic
under
In
changing
the s t a t e over a
the
S p atial
various
the s tate has b e e n d i v i d e d
27
later
especially
their
of
programmes
K e r a l a State.
area
by a n a l y z i n g
to c o n v e r s i o n
crops
production
r e g i o n of
are
who
led
a n n u al
British
Travancore
uses
of
officers.
have
g o v e r n mer'^t
agriculture
upllftment
that
p l a n t a t i o n s and
various
Implemented
the
:
circumstances
analyzing
officials
for
government
S a h l t y a P a r is tiad (KSSP a v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n ) ,
persons
as
collected
sections
leaders,
members
for
is a l s o used
respondents
political
officials,
on f o r e s t
information
The
from
level
charge
programmes,
examine
households.
are
namely
officers
and d e p e n d e n c y
A separate q u e s tionnaire
to
lists
lands,
to the c o s t of c u l t i v a t i o n ,
land
share
p e r i o d of
into two
regions,
the
as s u c h T r a v a n c o r e -Co c h 1n and Ma ia b a r , to
problems
level
area
during
under
using
the
present
this
19 7 5
level,
has
and
agricultural
The
and
study,
33
very
on
are
the day
to day
mu c h
aware
about
the
prepared
by
the
base
unit
at
map.
It
district
for
expansion
out
in
in
the
local
together
local
the
life of
local
land
since
impact
economy
case
and
of p r e s e n t
in the a g r i c u l t u r a l
the
on
The e n v i r o n m e n t a l
people.
as
by
this,
deforestation
carried
reflected
reflected
level
to
high.
i n t e r - r e 1a t e d ,
of local
district
related
For
maps
sample
of
the
data
map.
agricultural
environment
it is well
well
the
is v er y
of
actually
livelihood
b a se
them
at
at d i s t r i c t
various
magnitude
impact
be
us e d
purpose
both of th e m a r e
would
as
superimposed
the
the
is a n a l y s e d
in i d e n t i f y i n g
where
economy
cover
change
However,
topo-sheet
study
helps
to b o u n d a r y
period.
forest
oi’g a n l s a t l o n
also
related
avoid
practices
people.
They are
degradation
due
to
d e f o r e s t a t i o n as uel 1 as a b o u t the p r e c a u t i o n a r y measvjres
against
is
s u c h a kind
studied
of
land
by a n a l y z i n g
into a g r i c u l t u r a l
rural
petDple an d
such
as
degradation.
how
the
However,
conversion
land has a f f e c t e d d i f f e r e n t
their
fuelwQod,
d e p e n d e n c e on f o r e s t s
green
manure,
fodder
this
of f o r e s t s
classes
for
of
biomass
etc,.
The
v a r i a b l e s e l e c t e d for m e a s u r i n g the m a g n i t u d e of p o s i t i v e
26
and
negative
cited
in
impact on
the
respective
The a a a e s a m e n t
to c u l t i v a b l e
of
a
the
in
the
benefits
region
the me t hods,
cited
in
Scheme
the
that
have
led
Chapter
persons
forest
following
Chapter
the
land
Three
or
the
compared
More
to
details
in this s t u d y
of
r eg ional
forest
p e r i o d and
the
Four
in
the
of
the
cultivate
Impact
conversion
Valuation
people
loss
are
;
analyses
brings
degradation
degradation
us ed
Iti terms
specificities
into
agricultural
a f t e r are
illustrated
C ha pt e r.
and
the
etc.,
fo r e s t
quantifying
cultivation.
to c o n v e r s i o n
whio p r e s e n t l y
land
are
chapters.
the B r i t i s h
the S e c o n d
by
of
tried
to d e f o r e s t a t i o n
from
circumstances
land d u r i n g
in
due
of C h a p t e r i s a t i o n
The
tias b e e n
analysis
concepts
relevant
the c o n v e r s i o n
justified
obtained
and e n v i r o n m e n t
chapters.
benefit
about
economy
of w h e t h e r
land was
social-cost
incurred
local
as
s t udy
on
of
class
on
their
ba ck
what
own
was
ground
of
previously
priv.ate
economy
forest.
out
a
wells
framework
as
the
for
costs
measuring
of
land
area.
forests'
contribution
in terms of a mi nor f o r e s t pr od u ct s ,
29
to
the
local
environmental
services
and
p r o d u c t s has
present
to
been brought
assessment
a g r i c u l t u r e at
not,
(EIA)
out
in
findings
t erms
out
the
implications
an
in
in
te r m s
ot
malor
in ttte Fiftl'i C h a p t e r
Kerala
whether
forest
of
options
state.
expansion
c o v e r can
the C h a p t e r
chapter
so u n d
the
environmental
present
and
environmentally
of
of
concluding
of
of
the c o s t of
is w o r k e d
The
ranges
region/ state
the
study.
The
Of
the
Impact
for
development
Justified
assessment
Six.
( s ev en t h)
study
be
of
as
brings
well
together
as
pol ic y
economically
programmes
for
and
high