Umea International School of Public Health
SOCIOCULTURAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES
OF ADAPTATION AMONG ASIAN FOREIGN STUDENTS
IN ARCHANGELSK, RUSSIA AND UMEA, SWEDEN
STUDY PROTOCOL
Veronika Markova
MASTER THESIS IN PUBLIC HEALTH, 20 POINTS
Tutor: Elisabet Sundbom, Professor in Medical Psychology
Department of Clinical Sciences Division of Psychiatry Umea University Hospital
Epidemiology and Public Health Sciences
Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine
Umea University
Sweden
2006
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………….……….…….. 3
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………..
4
1. BACKGROUND…….……………………………………………..….…………………
5
1.1 Previous research on sociocultural and psychological adaptation of foreign
students……………………………………………………..………………….…….……… 5
1.2 Brief description of Russia and Sweden………………………………………….……..
8
1.3 Tertiary education in Russia and Sweden…………………………….…………………
9
1.4 Cultural orientations of the countries……………………………………….…………... 11
2. AIMS……………………………….……………...……...……………………………… 12
2.1 Overall aim of the study……………………………….……………………………...… 12
2.2 Specific aims of the study……………………………...………………………………..
12
3. SUBJECTS AND METHODS……………….……………...…………………………… 13
3.1 Study settings……………………………………………………………………………
13
3.2 Study design……………………………………………………………………………..
14
3.3 Participants of the study………………………………………………………………… 14
3.4 Procedure…………………………………………………………………………….….
16
3.5 Methods of data collection…………………………….………………………………... 17
3.6 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………….....
19
3.7 Ethical considerations…………………………………………………………………...
20
3.8 Time schedule of the study.………………………………………………………….….
20
4. DISCUSSION……………………….……………………………………………………
21
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………...………………………………...
23
REFERENCES……………………..……………………………………………………….. 24
APPENDICES………………..……………………………………………………………..
30
Appendix I: Questionnaire…………………………..………………………………………
30
Appendix II: Items of the Intercultural Adjustment Potential Scale (ICAPS55)…………………………………………………………………………………………...
31
Appendix III: Items of the Sociocultural Adaptation scale (SCAS)…..……………..……..
33
Appendix IV: Interview guide…………………...…………………………...….………….
35
2
ABSTRACT
There are many people who study abroad nowadays and the number of such kind of
students is increasing. The sociocultural and psychological difficulties of adaptation among
international students can lead to academic issues and deprave mental health of young people.
Russia and Sweden are multicultural societies with a long tradition of welcoming students from
abroad. Foreign student population of these countries is one of the world’s fastest growing.
The present study is designed to investigate the sociocultural and psychological features
of adaptation among Asian foreign tertiary students in Archangelsk, Russia and Umea, Sweden
and to analyze differences and similarities of it in both countries.
The first part of the thesis provides previous research on sociocultural and psychological
adaptation of foreign students, brief description of the countries and tertiary education in Russia
and Sweden as well as cultural orientations of the countries. Overall and specific aims of the
study are presented in the second part of the thesis. The third part, subjects and methods
describes the methodology of conducting this cross-national comparative study of Asian
international students on the basis of quantitative and qualitative approaches. The forth part is
devoted the discussion about outcomes, problems, advantages and disadvantages and of the
study.
Keywords: sociocultural adaptation, psychological adaptation, foreign students,
collectivism, individualism, Russia, Sweden.
3
INTRODUCTION
Higher education increasingly reaches beyond national boundaries. In many parts of the
world, tertiary-level students are enrolled in programmes in countries where they are not
permanent residents. The number of such kind of students is increasing. In 1980, there were
920,000 such students world-wide. Today, there are over two million of them. Such an increase
is explained by globalization and by a great number of initiatives (Delwasse, 2004).
The latest statistical data is shown that half of all foreign students study in Europe and
almost one-third in the United States and out of every ten tertiary students studying abroad, four
are Asians, three are Europeans and one is African. Women form 46% of all foreign students and
only eight countries host more foreign female students than male. In spite of the fact that three
countries host half of the world’s foreign students (United States, United Kingdom, and
Germany) 110 countries are involved in this process (UNESKO, 2006).
Representing over 180 countries and many more cultural groups, foreign or international
students compose a heterogeneous group of individuals, students encounter many challenges in
the process of their adjustment to their host country (Barker, Child, Gallois et.al., 1991; Leong
and Chou, 1996; Westwood and Barker, 1990). During their school years, college students deal
with stress from academic life and issues stemming from normal development, such as
psychological autonomy, economic independence, and identity formation. Compared to host
national counterparts, however, international students experience added difficulty in that they
must cope with other forms of stress. This difficulty includes culture shock, language difficulties,
adjustment to unfamiliar social norms, eating habits, customs and values, differences in
education systems, isolation and loneliness, homesickness, and a loss of established social
networks (Furnham and Tresize, 1983; Jensen and Jensen, 1983; Leong and Chou, 1996). On the
other hand, willingness to learn about another culture, establishing relationships, opportunities to
learn foreign language, and sharing common interests are viewed as stimulators (Heikinheimo
and Shute, 1986).
The present study is designed to investigate the sociocultural and psychological features
of adaptation among Asian foreign tertiary students in Archangelsk, Russia and Umea, Sweden
to describe and analyze differences and similarities of it in both countries among similar group of
students, to understand in what extent differences in leaving conditions as well as systems of
education influence the psychological health of students. The results may give suggestion to
propose programmes to decrease problems related with adaptation.
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1. BACKGROUND
1.1 Previous research on sociocultural and psychological adaptation of foreign students
Although substantial research has been amassed over the past decades on the experience
of cross-cultural adaptation, considerable controversy remains about the process of adapting to a
new culture and the patterns of adjustment over time.
One of the most popular and well-known stage theory of cross-cultural adaptation, the Ucurve theory, was originally advanced by Lysgaard (1955) in his study of Norwegian Fulbright
scholars in the United States, noting that the greatest adjustment difficulties were encountered by
those sojourners who had resided abroad 6–12 months compared to either those who had been
overseas less than 6 months or more than 18 months. This theory has good descriptive value
(Thomas and Harrell, 1994), and has guided researchers in their studies on adjustment process of
international sojourners and students. Nevertheless, the validity of the theory is criticized mainly
because the theory neither provides much information on the mechanisms of adjustment nor
explains why each of the different stages of adjustment starts and ends (Furnham and Bochner,
1982; Thomas and Harrell, 1994) and that the theory is overgeneralized to explain diverse
experiences among sojourners regarding how they adjust to the host country (Black and
Mendenhall, 1990; Thomas and Harrell, 1994).
A similar account of cross-cultural adaptation was provided by Oberg (1960) in his
anthropological description and elaboration of «culture shock». Oberg portrayed culture shock as
an occupational disease of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad. Culture shock
has three basic causal explanations: 1) the loss of familiar cues, 2) the breakdown of
interpersonal communications, and 3) an identity crisis (Weaver, 1994). Although culture shock
is commonly associated with negative psychological symptoms such as fear, anxiety, anger and
feelings of helplessness, Oberg identified four stages of this reaction, which has been seen as a
normal part of a routine process of adaptation to cultural differences and the manifestation of a
longing for a more predictable and understandable environment. The stages, according to Oberg
are: initial euphoria, irritability and hostility - gradually, gradual adjustment, adaptation or
biculturalism. Oberg’s stages of cross-cultural adaptation, like Lysgaard’s, can also be
graphically represented by the U-curve. However, there is not enough research yet to explain for
whom the shock will be more or less intense; what determines which reaction a person is likely
to experience; how long will they remain in a period of shock and so forth.
Researchers who maintain that culture shock is often positive consider the process as a
learning experience that leads to greater intercultural understanding (Adler, 1975; Bennett, 1993;
5
Furnham and Bochner, 1986; Kim, 2001; Pederson, 1995). Adler (1975) argued that culture
shock can be seen as a transitional experience that leads an individual to gain new experiential
knowledge by coming to understand the roots of his or her own ethnocentrism and by gaining
new perspectives and outlooks on the nature of culture. These gained understandings often entail
«psychic growth» and a higher level of intercultural competence, which Kim (2001) termed
«intercultural personhood», an emerging state of a person's changed outlook and behavior
accompanying a substantial amount of cross-cultural adaptation experience.
Previous studies identified a number of variables to predict how successfully international
students adjust to a foreign environment. These predictors include demographic variables, such
as age, sex, marital status and country of origin; individual factors such as language proficiency
(Poyrazli, Arbona, Bullington, et.al., 2001; Surdam and Collins, 1984); level of preparedness
(e.g., previous experience living in foreign cultures, knowledge of the host culture); contextual
factors such as the availability of resources (e.g., counseling services, social network) (Hayes
and Lin, 1994), size of community (Sellitz, Hopson and Cook, 1956), and racial and ethnic
diversity on campus and discrimination (Heikinheimo and Shute, 1986; Leong and Chou, 1996).
Bochner, McLeod, and Lin (1977) studied the friendship patterns of foreign students and
found that foreign students belong to three social networks in descending order of salience: 1) a
co-national network, 2) a network with host nationals and 3) a multinational network. The
authors termed this pattern of social networks the functional model of academic sojourn.
Furnham and Alibhai (1985) replicated and extended the study of Bochner et al. (1977). The
findings of this study closely matched the study by Bochner et al. (1977), and they also
demonstrated the existence of the salience hierarchy of three social networks. The data from
friendship choice confirmed a strong preference not only for co-nationals but for those coming
from similar or neighbouring countries which share similar religion, language and climate etc.
English proficiency has also been found to be an important factor in social interaction
and adjustment (Pedersen, 1991; Schram and Lauver, 1988). Research has shown that language
restrictions and other affective and situational factors are detrimental to academic performance
and to the overall educational experience. Although studies suggest the need for social contact
with host nationals, such contact among international students seems limited by their language
proficiency level which, in turn deters communication with peers, teachers, and counselors
(Bochner, Hutnik, and Furnham, 1985). Many studies support the finding that the inability to
speak the host language fluently is a primary inhibitor to becoming socially involved in the host
society (Furnham and Alibhai, 1985; Heikinheimo and Shute, 1986).
Klineberg and Hull (1979) studied strategies related to dealing with culture shock with
2,536 international students from 139 nations; they found that the two most important factors in
6
the coping process were social contact with local people and prior foreign experience. The
findings of Klien research (1991) suggested that: a) culture is important in defining role conflict
and identifying elements of stress, but adaptive coping responses are similar across cultures; b)
environmental factors are more powerful than personality in determining adaptation; and c) selfesteem and self-confidence with positive reinforcement of social skills and the learning of new
skills, can facilitate a successful adaptation.
In an attempt to bring conceptual integration to a fractionated area of research, Ward and
colleagues (Searle and Ward, 1990; Ward and Searle, 1991) have proposed that cross-cultural
adaptation may be meaningfully divided into two domains: psychological (emotional/affective)
and sociocultural (behavioral). Psychological adjustment refers to psychological well-being or
satisfaction in new cultural environments, while sociocultural adjustment refers to sojourners’
abilities to «fit in» or effectively interact with members of host cultures.
Searle and Ward (1990) argue that psychologically adjusted sojourners are those who
have psychological well-being or satisfaction with living in their host cultures. Lack of mood
disturbances or depression have been used as indicators of psychological adjustment (Searle and
Ward, 1990). Psychological adjustment has been associated with personal flexibility, internal
locus of control, relationship satisfaction, approach-oriented coping styles, and use of humor,
while psychological difficulties in sojourners have been linked to a higher incidence of life
changes, loneliness, stress, and avoidant coping styles. A recent extension of the «cultural fit»
model (Ward and Chang, 1997) suggests that psychological adjustment is facilitated when there
is a fit between individuals’ psychological personality traits and the host culture's prototypical
personality traits. That is, there is no universal personality that adjusts cross-culturally. Rather, it
is a match of sojourners’ personalities to the host cultures that facilitate adjustment.
Ward and Searle (1991) argue that socioculturally adjusted sojourners are able to meet
social demands in their host cultures. Sojourners’ perceptions of their behavioral competence and
acquisition of social skills that are effective and appropriate in host cultures have been used as
indices of sociocultural adjustment. What is common in the variables predicting sociocultural
adjustment is that they facilitate and promote sojourners’ behavioral competence, culture
learning, and acquisition of social skills. Any variables that help increase opportunities for
cultural learning, the acquisition of cultural resources, or expand sojourners’ networks with host
nationals are helpful in promoting sojourners’ sociocultural adjustment. Sojourners’
communication styles should be related to their acquisition of cultural resources, developing
networks, and learning social skills that promote their adjustment to host cultures.
Ward and Searle (Ward and Searle, 1991) make three points about the relationships
between psychological and sociocultural adjustment: 1) psychological adjustment and
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sociocultural adjustment are interrelated, but are predicted by distinctive sets of variables; 2) the
two domains of adjustment develop in different patterns over time and the magnitude of the
relationship between psychological and sociocultural adjustment differs depending on specific
groups and contexts; and 3) some variables are significant predictors of adjustment regardless of
motivation for the move, origin of the sojourners, and destinations, but some predictors are
situation and culture specific.
Research has also revealed that the two adjustive outcomes display different patterns of
fluctuation over time. The sociocultural adaptation of sojourners predictably follows a learning
curve with rapid improvement demonstrated over the first few months of cross-cultural transition
and then a gradual «leveling off» of newly acquired culture-specific skills. Psychological
adjustment is more variable over time although studies have confirmed that the greatest
difficulties are experienced at the earliest stages of cross-cultural transition.
1.2 Brief description of Russia and Sweden
1.2.1 Russia
The Russian Federation is a country that stretches over a vast expanse of Europe and
Asia. With an area of 17,075,200 square kilometres, it is the largest country in the world (by land
mass). The Russian Federation consists of a great number of different federal subjects, making a
total of 88 constituent components (Wikipedia, 2006).
The total country population was estimated 144,600,000 (2003). Adult literacy rate was
97,4% in 2004 (Human Development Report, 2005). The Russian Federation is home to as many
as 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples. The Russian language is the only official
state language, but the individual republics have often made their native language co-official
next to Russian.
More than a decade after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia is now trying
to further develop a market economy and achieve more consistent economic growth. During
1999-2005 the GDP is growing by an average of 6,7% annually. The GDP per capita in
international dollars was 9,230 in 2003. Public expenditure on education (as a % of GDP) was
3,8 in 2003 (Human Development Report, 2005).
Russia remains heavily dependent on exports of commodities, particularly oil, natural
gas, metals, and timber, which account for about 80% of exports, leaving the country vulnerable
to swings in world prices (The World Factbook, 2005).
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1.2.2 Sweden
Sweden is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by
Norway in the west, Finland in the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait in the
southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia in the east. Its territory covers an area of
449,964 sq km (Wikipedia, 2006). The total population of Sweden was 8,977,418 in 2004. Adult
literacy rate was 98,7% in 2004 (Statistics Sweden, 2005). Sweden has a low population density
except in its metropolitan areas.
The economy features are a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external
communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the
resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. Privately owned firms
account for about 90% of industrial output, of which the engineering sector accounts for 50% of
output and exports (The World Factbook, 2005). GDP per capita annual growth rate in Sweden
was 1,8% in 1990-2005. In 2003 GDP per capita in international dollars was 26,700. The public
sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Public expenditure on education (as a % of GDP) was 7,7
in 2003 (Statistics Sweden, 2005).
Today, the country is defined by liberal tendencies and a strong national quest for
equality, and usually ranks among the top nations in the UN Human Development Index
(Wikipedia, 2006).
1.3 Tertiary education in Russia and Sweden
1.3.1 Tertiary education in Russia
Reforms implemented in 1991 (diversification of higher education; humanization;
decentralization of management, university autonomy; creation of a non-public (private) sector
of higher education) allowed for changes in higher education in Russia. Higher Education in
Russia is provided by public and private higher education institutions. Nowadays, the country
has 685 governmental higher education institutions and 619 non-governmental higher education
(Shirobokov, 2005).
Presently, about 100,000 international students are enrolled at Russian higher education
institutions. Over the last decade their number has more than doubled. Their expanding numbers
are considered one of the most important trends in Russian tertiary education. Today,
international education is oriented toward economic benefit, which means that all of international
students pay tuition. The cost of university education depends on the educational programme and
varies from 2,000 to 8,000 USD per year.
9
Foreign students from post-Soviet Union countries constitute about one-third of the total
number of foreigners studying in Russia. Approximately the same number of students is from
Asian countries, mostly China. Other places of origin include the Near East and North Africa
(12,8%), Europe (7,5%), South Africa (5%), and Latin America (3%) (Smolentseva, 2004).
The main educational programmes are provided in Russian. Part of the courses at some
universities and higher education institutions is delivered in English.
A federal policy in support of educating foreign nationals in Russian educational
institutions was approved in October 2002 by the president of the Russian Federation and
launched by the Ministry of Education.
The most important challenge involves quality assurance and degree recognition. In fact,
Russian degrees are not recognized in the developed world or in a number of developing
countries. Nevertheless, joining the Bologna process, which occurred in 2003, should foster the
convertibility of Russian degrees and strengthen the position of Russia in the international
educational market (Wikipedia, 2006).
1.3.2 Tertiary education in Sweden
The Swedish higher education system was decentralized in the early 1990s. As a result
the government now sets degree frameworks and conducts quality controls but leaves decisions
regarding course content to the institutions themselves.
In Sweden academic programmes are offered by 61 universities, university colleges and
independent programme providers. The main tasks of the universities and university colleges are
to provide undergraduate and postgraduate programmes and to interact with the surrounding
community (The Education System in Sweden, 2004).
Institutions are free to structure courses and programmes according to their own needs,
but using a common credit system. This provides students a greater measure of control over their
own education. Programmes are structured and grants allocated in response to student demand.
Sweden is an open, multicultural society with a long tradition of welcoming students
from abroad. Sweden’s foreign student population continues to be one of the world’s fastest
growing, according to a new report published by the Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development. The 2004 Education at a Glance report shows that 7,5% of all university
students in Sweden – some 28,664 students – had a foreign background in 2002, up from 4,5% in
1998. Fifty-six percent of foreign students in Sweden are women. Of Sweden’s foreign-origin
students enrolled in 2002, 17,211 came from Europe, 2,558 came from Asia, 1,472 from North
America, 661 from Africa, 605 from South America and 234 from Oceania (Geens, 2005).
10
Different options are open to foreign students depending on the degree level they would
like to study at: undergraduate (as an exchange student or free mover); as a master's candidate, or
at the doctoral level. Swedish universities offer around 300 master’s programmes in English.
There are now PhD candidates from some 80 countries working towards their degrees in Sweden
(The Education System in Sweden, 2004). The Swedish Institute and other organizations grant
hundreds of scholarships every year to help foreign students make their stay in Sweden more
affordable.
1.4 Cultural orientations of the countries
Researchers have recognized the strong influence one's cultural orientation towards
individualism–collectivism has on an individual communication style, value system and
behaviors. These directly affect one's norms and rules, which guide everyday behaviors in ones
primary cultural orientation (Gudykunst et al., 1996; Markus and Kitayama 1991; Schwartz and
Bilsky, 1987).
Individualism is a characteristic of cultures in which everyone is expected to look after
himself or herself and his or her immediate family. In these societies, people are emotionally
independent from groups, perhaps belonging to many groups, but where the groups do not exert
strong influence on the individuals’ behavior. Four psychological qualities of individualism can
be identified: sense of personal identity; striving to be one's true self; internal locus of control reflects one's willingness to accept personal responsibility for life's happiness and sorrows, and
principled (post-conventional) moral reasoning - an individualist tends to hold moral principles
that are universal and behave in accordance with what she or he perceives is right (Waterman,
1984).
In contrast collectivism has been defined as a set of feelings, beliefs, behavioral
intentions, and behaviors related to solidarity, concern for others, cooperation among members
of in-group and the desire to develop a feeling of groupness with other members (Hui, 1988).
Although cultures are viewed primarily as individualistic (United States, Western
European countries) or collectivistic (Asian countries, South America and Southern Europe),
researchers and theorists that examine the complex interaction of individualism–collectivism
acknowledge that both orientations exist in all cultures (Gudykunst et al., 1996).
Sweden is one of the individualistic among 68 countries studied and had 7,55 on a 10point scale (1=most collectivist, 10=most individualist). Russia is one of the individualistic
countries too, but this cultural orientation is weaker there, its score was 6,00 (Suh, Diener, Oishi
and Triandis, 1998).
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2. AIMS
2.1. Overall aim of the study
The overall aim of this study is to investigate features of sociocultural and psychological
adaptation among foreign Asian students in Archangelsk, Russia and Umea, Sweden in order to
propose interventional programmes aimed on improving psychological health of students and
decreasing problems related with adaptation.
2.2. Specific aims of the study
1. To investigate separately the sociocultural and psychological adaptation of Asian students in
Archangelsk and Umea with regards to social contexts.
2. To analyze differences and similarities in sociocultural and psychological adaptation among
Asian students in both countries.
3.
To define and analyze factors which facilitate and complicate adaptation of Asian students
in Archangelsk and Umea.
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3. SUBJECTS AND METHODS
3.1 Study settings
Study settings will include one metropolitan area in the north-west part of Russia
(Archangelsk, Archangelsk Region,) and one metropolitan area in the north part of Sweden
(Umea, Vasterbotten country).
3.1.1 Archangelsk
Archangelsk Region has a territory of 587,400 sq. km, and includes 20 districts, 14 cities,
38 settlements of urban type, and about 4 thousand village settlements (Wikipedia, 2006). Total
population of Archangelsk Region was 1,330,070 in 2004. There is a negative population growth
rate in the region. General density of population is 2,5 people/km (Administration of
Archangelsk Region, 2006). Wood and woodworking, pulp and paper production, fishing, and
shipbuilding are the most important industries in the region. Timber industry complex makes
more than 40% of total industrial output in Archangelsk Region (Kommersant, 2006).
Archangelsk is the administrative, industrial and cultural center of the Archangelsk
Region. It is one of the leading ports of the north-west of Russia (Wikipedia, 2006). Its
population was estimated 359,400 in 2004 (Administration of Archangelsk, 2006). Archangelsk
is a major center of education and science in the North of Russia and has three universities. The
Pomor State University (15200 students); Archangelsk State Technical University (10500
students); and the Northern State Medical University (5500 students) are there (Administration
of Archangelsk, 2006).
3.1.2 Umea
Vasterbotten County has a territory of 55,190 sq. km and includes 15 municipalities. Its
total population was 256,700 in 2004. Density of population was 4,6 people/km. Business in the
county is based largely on solid basic industries such as gold, wood and hydropower. New
technologies are growing and prospering here and include optoelectronics, computer technology
and hyperpressure technology (Wikipedia, 2006).
Umea the biggest city in the Vasterbotten County is situated on an inlet of the Gulf of
Bothnia at the mouth of the Ume River, in the south of Westerbothnia. Umea is about 600 km
north of Stockholm at and about 500 km south of the Arctic Circle. It is the largest city north of
the Stockholm-Uppsala region, and is sometimes referred to as the regional centre of northern
Sweden (Wikipedia, 2006). The population of Umea was 109,390 in 2004. It is one of Sweden's
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fastest growing cities. Umea is a multi-cultural city with over a 100 different nationalites (Umeå
kommun, 2006). It is a dynamic city with an industrial sector consisting of major industries as
well as many smaller firms representing information technology, biotechnology, and other
industrial products. The city is a centre of research, art and culture. Umea is a city with two
universities: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (branch; the main campus in Ultuna,
Uppsala (6,200 students)) and Umea University which has about 27,000 students and 3,900 staff,
with seven Campus schools (Umea kommun, 2006).
3.1.3 Summary
Study areas are included into the Barents Euro-Arctic Region established in to support
and promote regional co-operation in the northernmost parts of Sweden, Norway, Finland and
north-west Russia (BEAC, 2006). Both countries have similar climate conditions and are situated
in the northern part of Eurasia continent. Russia and Sweden belong to individualistic countries
having similar culture scores (Russia 6,00; Sweden 7,55) (Suh, Diener, Oishi and Triandis,
1998). At the same time there are many differences between the countries. The most importance
differences for our study are economical and educational ones. In Russian educational system
comparing to Swedish one the majority of subjects are compulsory for attendance and students
have a small ability to choose courses, as well as they learn under more strong control from the
teachers and do not have a lot of time for independent work.
3.2. Study design
The planning study will be a cross-national study including qualitative and quantitative
approaches seeking to examine and compare the sociocultural and psychological features of
adaptation among Asian students (quantitative part) and investigate and analyze factors which
facilitate and complicate it in two countries (qualitative part).
Cross-national comparative study using quantitative and qualitative approaches in
analogue groups of foreign students will provide an opportunity to estimate the level of student’s
adaptation in both countries and shed light on those factors of two cultural and social contexts
that influence on it.
3.3 Participants of the study
Two groups of foreign students (students from Asian countries) will be explored in the
study, one group in Archangelsk and another one in Umea. Both group of students will include
14
approximately equal number of students from different Asian countries as well as both sexes will
be presented equally too. Homogeneity of study groups by residence and gender will allow doing
a cross-national comparison.
The term «Asian», as used in this study, is based on its geographical reference to the
continent of Asia. All countries which will be included in the planning study are collectivistic
countries according their cultural orientation (China – 2,00; India – 4,40) (Suh, Diener, Oishi and
Triandis, 1998).
It is recognized that the term «Asian» is inadequate to capture the differences in culture,
history and contemporary realities of the countries in the continent. «Asian» is a catch-all term
that not only subsumes cultural, historical, linguistic and national differences but also disregards
the complex heterogeneity of contemporary circumstances of being or becoming «Asian» in
terms of local and global continuities and fractures (Matthews, 2000). Thus the «lumping
together of all of «Asia» as if it were a monolithic entity (Ang, Chalmers, Law, and Thomas,
2000), while predominant, is open to criticism. Therefore, the use of the term «Asian» in this
study is limited to its usefulness in identifying the source country or cultural affinity of the
groups of participants.
3.3.1 The inclusion criteria:
The inclusion criteria will be use to achieve maximum homogeneity of the samples and to
avoid the influence of those factors which are not in the focus of the study. Using these criteria
will provide the comparability of the samples: 1) participants must be tertiary-level students at
the age from 20 to 30 years old; 2) participants must be inhabitants in one of Asian country; 3)
students have to study in Russia/Sweden not less or more than 6-12 months, at this period of
time the process of adaptation has the most graphic evidence; 4) participants must not have
previous experience of study abroad, according the literature such kind of experience facilitates
the process of adaptation.
3.3.2 Sampling procedures
For the quantitative part of the study we are going to take all Asian students which study
in Archangelsk and Umea satisfying the inclusion criteria of the study.
Maximum variation sampling strategies will be used to identify the cases of interest for
the qualitative part of the study. This technique of purposive sampling is used when all subjects
are chosen to be as different from each other as possible and the aim being to evaluate whether
patterns exist among different groups (Dahlgren, Emmelin and Winkwist, 2003).
15
3.3.3 Sample sizes
Students from which we are going to take samples for the quantitative part of the study
will be all Asian students 20-30 years old doing studies in higher educational institutions of the
study areas. According to the data for the spring 2006, the estimated numbers of Asian students
studying in Archangelsk (International departments of the universities, 2006) and Umea
(International office, 2006; Web-site of Umea university, 2006) satisfying the inclusion criteria
of the study are approximately 100 students and approximately 200 students correspondingly.
Students from which we are going to take samples for the qualitative part of the study
will be Asian students 20-30 years old from Russian and Swedish study areas. For better subgroup comparability the sample will include approximately equal numbers of students from
different Asian countries as well as both sexes will be presented equally too. The purposive
criterion, maximum variation sampling techniques are going to be used in the sampling
procedure. The final number of study participants will be defined by reaching the point of
redundancy in data collection, when new important for the study information is no longer
discovered.
3.4 Procedure
In order to try to cover all Asian students studying in both countries and satisfying
inclusion criteria it is necessary to use some recruitment strategies for obtaining sufficient
sample. The main strategies of recruitment will be the following: posters and flyers with short
description of research, calling for volunteers, and contact telephone number will be placed at
public places of the universities; help of the administration of the faculties, departments and
universities as well as primary recruited informants in identification and recruitment of more
cases of interest will be used.
The procedure of data collection methods will include two meetings with participants.
During the first meeting the students will receive all information concerning aims of the study,
procedure, conditions and guaranteed anonymity. Then she or he will have a choice: to sign an
informed consent or to refuse in further participation in the study. Those who sign the consent
will get the identification number and fulfill the questionnaire to be guaranteed that they satisfy
inclusion criteria of the study and than be tested using ICAPS-55 and SCAS tests. It will take
approximately one hour. After analyzing the results of the tests students with the maximum
various results will be invited for the second meeting. During the second meeting semistructured interview will be conducted. It will take approximately from one to two hours.
16
Filled forms with answers on the tests will contain only identification numbers of the
participants. Interviews are going to be tape-recorded with the permission of each interviewee
and consequently transcribed into a written text.
3.5 Methods of data collection
3.5.1 Quantitative methods of data collection
Socio demographic characteristics (Questionnaire)
We designed a questionnaire to get information about some background data. The
questionnaire contains eight questions. There are six questions related to our inclusion criteria:
sex, age, country of origin, duration of study abroad and previous experience of study abroad,
and three additional questions: level of education, basic source of income and average total
income monthly (Appendix I).
The measurement of psychological adaptation (The Intercultural Adjustment Potential Scale)
The Intercultural Adjustment Potential Scale (ICAPS-55) was developed to measure
individual differences in four constructs which considered necessary for intercultural adjustment
(Matsumoto et al, 2001): 1) emotion regulation (ER) – the ability to monitor and manage one’s
emotional experiences and expressions, and to channel their energies in constructive ways; 2)
openness (OP) - the ability to encounter new experiences, emotions, and thoughts; 3) flexibility
(FL) - the ability to assimilate new experiences, schemas, and ways of thinking into one’s own;
4) critical thinking (CT) - the ability to think outside the box in creative and autonomous ways.
The ICAPS-55 consists of 55 items asking about various aspects of individuals with a
scale of 0 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). The items of the ICAPS-55 are
presented in Appendix II.
In a result five scores are generated, a total score and four scores corresponding to the
four psychological skills necessary for adjustment. The test generally takes 10-15 minutes to
administer.
The ICAPS-55 was developed over a six-year period involving 19 studies that have
established its scientific reliability and validity, involving well over a total of 2,500 participants.
Research on the ICAPS-55 has shown that it can predict intercultural adjustment for immigrants
and sojourners from a variety of different cultural groups (Matsumoto et al, 2001). Research has
also demonstrated convincingly that the ICAPS-55 can also reliably predict adjustment within
one’s own culture to everyday life. To date, research has amply demonstrated the following
psychometric properties of the ICAPS-55: temporal, internal, and parallel forms reliability
17
(Japanese, English, and Spanish), content, convergent, divergent, incremental, concurrent
predictive and external validity. Alphas for each constructs were: 0,82 (ER); 0,52 (OP); 0,72
(FL); 0,48 (CO); and 0,69 (ICAPS Total) (Matsumoto et al, 2001).
The ICAPS-55 is unique in that it does not focus on culture-specific knowledge or
information. Instead it focuses on the psychological skills that are theoretically considered to be
important in managing intercultural conflict and stress that are inevitable during a sojourn.
The measurement of sociocultural adaptation (The Sociocultural Adjustment Scale)
The Sociocultural Adjustment Scale (SCAS) is concerned with the skills that are required
to manage everyday social situations in a new cultural context. The development of the SCAS
was based on Furnham and Bochner’s (Furnham and Bochner, 1982) work.
The instrument was originally developed as an assessment of intercultural competence
with emphasis on behavioral domains. The most recent version of the SCAS (with 29 items) has
explored the addition of more cognitive domains (e.g., items 35–41).
The scale includes items that ask sojourners about difficulties they experienced in
meeting the needs and demands of daily life, having meaningful interactions with hosts,
understanding host cultures’ values, and communicative behavior. The SCAS requires
respondents to indicate the amount of difficulty experienced in a number of areas by using a
five-point scale (from no difficulty to extreme difficulty).
The SCAS is a flexible instrument and can be easily modified according to the
characteristics of the sojourning sample and has consistently proven reliable and valid (Searle
and Ward, 1990; Ward and Kennedy, 1993). Appendix III lists items that have been used with
the various samples. Most versions contain 20–23 items.
Ward and Kennedy (1999) score the sociocultural adjustment scale so that the higher the
scores, the greater the social difficulties and the less the sociocultural adjustment.
Various versions of SCAS have been used in at least 16 studies of sojourner adaptation,
which have proved this scale is one of the most common measures of sojourner cultural
adaptation. Those previous studies have proved that the scale is reliable with alpha scores (0,75 –
0,91 M = 0,85) for various versions of the instrument (Ward and Kennedy, 1999).
3.5.2 Qualitative method of data collection
Semi-structured interviews
Students with the maximum various results of ICAPS-55 and SCAS tests in both
countries will be asked to participate in semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions
which encourage informants to speak with their own words and unscheduled probes to add depth
18
and context to the findings. The interview will be designed to elicit participants’ perception
about the process of adaptation and factors, conditions affecting on it. Student gender and
nationality will be also considered in selecting the interviewees in order to achieve a balanced
sample.
Characteristic of qualitative interviews is that they entail a high level of participation on
behalf of informants. Questions asked are open-ended in contrast to the closed questions in
quantitative surveys.
Interview guide used as a basis for semi-structured interview is a written list of questions
or topics that need to be covered during the interview. The exact order or wording of the
questions may vary from respondent to respondent. Interviewer may still follow leads and new
topics that arise in the course of the interview, but the interview guide provides a set of clear
instructions concerning the main questions to be asked or topics to be probed. Interview guide
has to be used to ensure that the core concepts of research question are covered in each interview
and to provide structure that is necessary for the next stages of research that are to be focused on
comparing and contrasting certain issues among groups of informants (Dahlgren, Emmelin and
Winkwist, 2003).
Four main categories of questions will be asked in each interview: 1) information about
sociocultural and psychological adaptation of participants; 2) ways participants used to manage
their life changes since coming to Russia/Sweden 3) factors which facilitate and complicate their
adaptation to foreign country 4) means which could be helpful in cross-cultural adaptation
according their opinion. Each interview will begin with an explanation of the purpose of the
interview, and guaranties of anonymity of the participants and will finished with summery and
questions and additions of the interviewee. Interview guide is presented in Appendix IV.
The different types of questions described by Kvale are included to promote better
interview interaction (Kvale, 1996). Some of the included questions were adopted from the
questionnaires and structured interviews that were used in the referent studies. Other questions
were developed on the basis of the author’s experience of being an international student in
Sweden.
Data collection will be terminated after interview, when the categories derived from the
empirical observations will reach saturation, i.e., when data will start to repeat itself.
3.6 Data analysis
The results of the ICAPS-55 and SCAS tests will be analyzed with the help of standard
key, after that data will be analyzed using SPSS programme (descriptive statistics, stratified
analysis, chi-square test, and correlation analysis).
19
For analysis of the interview data the techniques of grounded theory described in works
by Glaser (Glaser, 1978), Strauss and Corbin (Strauss and Corbin, 1990), and Starrin et al.
(Starrin et al., 1996) will be used. It offers a systematic process of transforming collected data
into a more abstract form of information (Dahlgren, Emmelin and Winkwist, 2003).
3.7 Ethical considerations
Two ethical principles are considered to be the main for the planning study.
First of all the principle of autonomy which implies that all persons have a right to decide
about their actions and resources and that society has a moral duty to respect this right. This
principle directs us to respect the choice of person to participate or not in the study, to guarantee
confidentiality, and to get the informed consent from the participants.
The second principle is beneficence which states that the researcher have a moral
obligation to do as much good as possible to maximize any benefits and minimize any risks for
the general population and for the individual. Following this principle we tried to make the
research design appropriate and sound, and prepared ourselves to be competent both to conduct
the research and to safeguard the welfare of the research subjects.
To obtain the permission for conducting our research project the study protocol will be
submitted to the research Ethics Committee at Umea University, Sweden.
3.8 Time schedule of the study
The practical organization of the planning study will need careful planning.
Planning the calendar plan of the research we have to consider the time expanses to get
familiar with the fields, to identify and contact potential key-persons who could provide us with
advice of how to reach the studied groups most effectively.
Time schedule
Planned activity
Time (months)
1. Recruiting the participants
1 month
2. Data collection
3 months
3. Data analysis
3 months
4. Report writing
2 months
The preparation of a detailed budget of the study including the salaries, transportation
expenses, rents for living and working accommodations, costs of equipment, used up services
and materials has to be done thoroughly.
20
4. DISCUSSION
The planning study will focus on international students from Asian countries. Previous
research have suggested that difficulties during adaptation processes appear to be one of the most
acute among this group of international students (Abe, Talbot, and Geelhoed, 1998; Heikinheimo
and Shute, 1986). In spite of the fact that students from Asian countries compose a large group of
international students in Russia and Sweden, it was found that few researchers have been
devoted to this scope of inquiry.
An important purpose of present planning study is to examine sociocultural and
psychological features of adaptation among Asian international students and explore factors
contributing to their effective adaptation in both countries. Undoubtedly, all factors will not be
found out because of the complicated nature of adaptation but we hope to reveal the main
psychological, social, cultural and economical ones. By analyzing differences and similarities of
the phenomena studied in both countries we hope that the results may give suggestions to
propose programmes to decrease problems related with adaptation among this group of students
by using the most adaptive foreign experiences stated by these students. The fact that different
regions of the countries might have different culture, social, climate characteristics etc., could
limit the generalizability of the results to other regions of the countries. In the future we hope to
extend our research to include different groups of foreign students studying in different
countries, and by using the same instruments, if possible, we have a possibility to make
additional cross-national comparisons.
In the planning study the strength of using a cross-national design is that the level of
sociocultural and psychological adaptation could be measured and the factors affecting it could
be determined. For reaching these aims both quantitative and qualitative approaches are used:
firstly, to evaluate the level of adaptation, and secondly, to obtain the qualitative data about
factors influencing adaptation in the social and situational context. The instruments for obtaining
quantitative data (ICAPS-55 and SCAS) have shown to have sufficient reliability and validity in
measurement of cross-cultural adaptation of people from a variety of different cultural groups in
several studies (Matsumoto et al, 2001; Searle and Ward, 1990; Ward and Kennedy, 1993; Ward
and Kennedy, 1999). Both of these instruments measure different characteristics of sociocultural
and psychological adaptation which can be evaluated by complex separate psychological
instruments. The reasons for using these instruments are saving time and obtain informative and
valid data for the purpose of the study. The choice of a semi-structured interview as a source of
qualitative data can be explained by the necessity of personal opinion and information from
students, both successful and unsuccessful, in their cross-cultural adaptation.
21
To avoid the influence of factors which are not in the focus of the present study we will
use some inclusion criteria. We will include tertiary-level students only at the age from 20 to 30
years. The main reason for that is to avoid the problems associated with the adolescent period
and additionally students older than 30 years old may be influenced by problems related to
family and own children. The selection of study period, not less or more than 6-12 months, was
done as findings have shown that this period of time adaptation has the most graphic evidence
(Lysgaard, 1955; Thomas and Harrell, 1994; Oberg, 1960). We aware that the inclusion criteria
will decrease the generalisability of results. However, they seem reasonable for us in achieving
the aims of this planning study. In the focus of the study is also the influence of socioeconomic
level on adaptation of the students. Therefore we will try to estimate this level using the
information about the source and average personal income, and we realize the imperfection of
this evaluation but nowadays there are no any reliable instruments of measuring it based on
characteristics of the planning study. This variable as well as level of education will be analyzed
by stratified analysis later.
Both in Archangelsk and Umea the number of Asian international students is different. In
Archangelsk we can find approximately 100 Asian students fulfilling our including criteria, in
Umea this number is approximately 200 Asian international students. As the number of students
in both countries are not so large we will include all Asian students fulfilling the inclusion
criteria in both study areas to guarantee a representative sample size in both groups.
As the design of our study demands for more than one meeting with the participants,
there may be drop outs. If the drop outs will be great we will try to find out the reasons for that.
In a given situation we have to rely on personal abilities of the researchers to build a good and
trustful relationship with the informants. It is crucial to find an individual approach for each
informant in order to sustain the interest for the participation of the study and to get reliable
information.
22
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my thanks to persons and organizations that have contributed to
my training in Umea International School of Public Health in so many different and valuable
ways.
In particular, thanks to Swedish Eastern European Committee for financial supporting
and giving me opportunity to study at the Master’s Programme in Public Health, Umea
University.
To all the staff at Division for Epidemiology and Public Health Sciences, Department of
Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umea University, thanks for the for their academic,
administrative and personal support during the study period.
I would like to express the deepest thanks to my supervisor, Elisabet Sundbom for her
valuable advice, helpful instructions, patient corrections and her encouragement.
23
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APPENDICES
Appendix I: Questionnaire
Code:_________
1. Sex:
•
Male___________________________________________________________________
•
Female__________________________________________________________________
2. Age:________________________________________________________________________
3. Country of origin:_____________________________________________________________
4. Education:
•
Undergraduate (bachelor’s candidate)_________________________________________
•
Postgraduate (master's candidate)_____________________________________________
•
Doctoral education (PhD/Candidate of Science/Doctor of Science)__________________
5. Duration of study abroad:
•
Less than 6 months________________________________________________________
•
6-12 months_____________________________________________________________
•
More than 12 months______________________________________________________
6. Previous experience of study abroad:
•
Yes____________________________________________________________________
•
No_____________________________________________________________________
7. Basic source of income:
•
Salary__________________________________________________________________
•
Scholarship______________________________________________________________
•
Help of relatives__________________________________________________________
•
Other___________________________________________________________________
8. Average total personal income monthly (aggregate from all the sources)__________________
30
Appendix II: Items of the Intercultural Adjustment Potential Scale (ICAPS-55)
1. I enjoy letting my daydreams grow and develop.
2. I would not object to my husband or wife having friends of the opposite sex.
3. If I am sure I am right about something, I don't waste much time listening to other people's
arguments.
4. Being in tense emotional situations scares me.
5. When I see someone being treated unfairly, I sometimes don't care much.
6. I am usually good at dealing with emergencies.
7. I would describe myself as a very kind person.
8. Spanking children is the best way to teach them.
9. I do not worry very much.
10. I rarely feel anxious or fearful.
11. I often worry about things that might go wrong.
12. I don't get much pleasure from talking with people.
13. I usually feel lower than others.
14. I am uncomfortable when my boss is around.
15. If I have done something wrong I want to hide from other people.
16. I usually feel helpless and wish someone to make it better for me.
17. Some people are just no good.
18. The average citizen can influence government decisions.
19. Watching ballet or modern dance performances is boring.
20. Smoking marijuana is less harmful than drinking alcohol.
21. I like poetry.
22. Life would be boring without strong emotions.
23. Smells remind me of old memories.
24. I am set in my ways.
25. I like to do things the same way each time.
26. People should not care what other people do.
27. I like trying new foods.
28. I like to stay home.
29. Everyone should follow rules.
30. Sometimes I rearrange my room just to make it different.
31. I don't like to plan my vacations.
32. I enjoy playing with ideas.
31
33. I feel happy most of the time.
34. Getting ahead is mostly a matter of luck.
35. As a child, I sometimes played sick to avoid going to school.
36. I get angry easily.
37. I hardly ever get excited.
38. Being kind is the best thing to do.
39. I am a traditional person.
40. As a child, I felt like leaving home.
41. The trouble with children nowadays is their parents don't punish them enough.
42. Immigrants are destroying this country.
43. It is better to not trust anyone.
44. I have tried to write poetry.
45. I support the death penalty.
46. My parents were always strict with me.
47. Smart people make me feel uncomfortable.
48. I am afraid of deep water.
49. When a man is with a woman he is usually thinking about sex.
50. Only a stupid person would try to change our traditional way of life.
51. People who want to get rid of sexy publications are mentally ill.
52. I am happy with my body.
53. I like to wonder about the origins of the universe.
54. Sex education is a good thing.
55. I think women should have as much sexual freedom as men.
32
Appendix III: Items of the Sociocultural Adaptation scale (SCAS)
1. Making friends.
2. Using the transport system.
3. Making yourself understood.
4. Getting used to the pace of life.
5. Going shopping.
6. Going to social events/gatherings/functions.
7. Worshipping in your usual way.
8. Talking about yourself with others.
9. Understanding jokes and humor.
10. Dealing with someone who is unpleasant/cross/aggressive.
11. Getting used to the local food/finding food you enjoy.
12. Following rules and regulations.
13. Dealing with people in authority.
14. Dealing with the bureaucracy.
15. Making yourself understood.
16. Adapting to local accommodation.
17. Communicating with people of a different ethnic group.
18. Relating to members of the opposite sex.
19. Dealing with unsatisfactory service.
20. Finding your way around.
21. Dealing with the climate.
22. Dealing with people staring at you.
23. Going to coffee shops/ food stalls/restaurants/fast food outlets.
24. Understanding the local accent/ language.
25. Living away from family members overseas/independently from your parents.
26. Adapting to local etiquette.
27. Getting used to the population density.
28. Relating to older people.
29. Dealing with people of higher status.
30. Understanding what is required of you at university.
31. Coping with academic work.
32. Dealing with foreign staff at the university.
33. Expressing your ideas in class.
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34. Living with your host family.
35. Accepting/understanding the local political system.
36. Understanding the locals' world view.
37. Taking a local perspective on the culture.
38. Understanding the local value system.
39. Seeing things from the locals' point of view.
40. Understanding cultural differences.
41. Being able to see two sides of an intercultural issue.
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Appendix IV: Interview guide
1) Sociocultural and psychological adaptation:
-Are you making new friends here?
-How well have you adapted to life in Russia/Sweden?
-Did you ever regret having come here for your studies?
-Are you satisfied with your academic results?
-Have you experienced any difficulty communicating in English?
-Are you satisfied with your living conditions?
-Do you have trouble getting around when it is snowing?
2) Ways to manage life changes:
-What is your major source of motivation?
-If you have experienced a great deal of stress, what are the strategies you use to cope with your
stress?
-Do you talk to your friends often?
-What do you usually do when you feel unhappy, lonely, or homesick?
-What do you usually do in your free time?
-Tell me one thing you do that would make you feel really good about yourself?
3) Factors which facilitate and complicate cross-cultural adaptation:
-In your opinion what contribute to your adaptation here?
-Do you take part in any activities for international students?
-If you have any problems who will help you to solve them?
-In your opinion what do not contribute to your adaptation here?
-What did you find the most difficult thing during you living in this country?
4) Means which could be helpful in adaptation:
-In your opinion what could help you to adapt more quickly?
-What will you improve in your study program?
-What kind of activity during free time is more interesting for you?
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