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Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and
Perceptions of Australia
A national survey
Abe W. Ata & Nigel Rockliffe
Islam is the third largest religion in Australia after the Christian
denominations and Buddhism, and the Muslim community is one of the
fastest growing, having nearly doubled in size between 1996 to 2001. Many
are school students, and of these many are at Islamic schools.
Muslim schools in Australia are newcomers on the national scene, most
having been in existence only for the last 15 years. In Victoria alone they
employ about 400 teachers, serve 5000 students, and obtain $32 million
a year from state and federal governments. Donohoue Clyne (2001) found
that although the schools may promote a moral outlook, cultural identity,
retention of the mother tongue, and religious practice, many parents were
concerned that Muslim schools might not be the best alternative to secular
education.
The Melbourne Age (3 July 2005) reported that education departments
have little knowledge of the curriculum content in Muslim schools for junior
grades, the quality of education on offer or religious views propagated
... there are concerns among former teachers and members of
Melbourne's Islamic community about the overall quality of education
the 600-plus students receive ... Muslim extremists were posing a
problem for 'vulnerable and impressionable youth' ... [A prominent
Muslim leader says that] the proliferation oflslamic schools is causing
concern in the Muslim community ... They are accountable to nobody
but themselves.
The survey described in this chapter aims to assist policy-makers and
curriculum designers to foster inter-communal understanding and cooperation. A recent survey entitled 'The Great Divide: How Westerners and
Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and Perceptions -
143
Muslims View Each Other', by the Pew Research Centre (2006), reported
that opinions held by the two communities varied markedly by country of
origin. Muslims were more positive than the general public in their adopted
country about their future, but many worried about the future of Muslims in
their country of origin. Their greatest concern was unemployment. Islamic
extremism emerged as the number two concern. The majority did not regard
most non-Muslims as hostile towards Muslims.
Clearly, even on this preliminary comparison, there is much commonality in our respective findings, and much common ground on which to
build. We know from previous work with non-Muslim students that there is
goodwill but much ignorance towards Muslims. At the same time, we know
little about the opinions of Muslim students. For consistency, policy should be
informed by the viewpoints of both groups.
Companion study of non-Muslim students
This current study follows a previous study, which was a national survey
entitled 'How Australian Students see Islam and Muslims' -
and hereafter
referred to as the companion study in another chapter of this publication.
The aim of that previous study was to 'identify, analyse and interpret
the knowledge, perception and attitudes of Year 11 students with respect
to Islam and the Muslim communities'. The two studies are largely
complementary in the sense that both explore how one community perceives
the other.
Because the companion study drew its survey sample from nondenominational and Christian denominational schools, it included few
if any Muslims: it can therefore fairly be said to represent how the nonMuslim student community views Islam and the Muslim. Conversely, because the current study drew its survey sample from Muslim denominational
schools, it included few if any non-Muslims; it can therefore fairly be said to
represent how the overwhelmingly Muslim student community views mainstream Australian society.
It should be noted that the survey samples of the two studies differ not
according to the religion (or non-religion) of the students but according to
the denomination (or non-denomination) of the schools they attend. This was
144 - Education Integration ChaUenges
done both for sampling convenience (it would have been difficult to sample in
any other way) and because we felt it would have been invidious to select students on religious grounds within a school setting. Nevertheless, since nearly
all students at non-Muslim schools are themselves not Muslims, and since
those at Muslim schools are nearly all Muslim, in practice one can interpret
the surveys as reciprocal viewpoints.
Aside from Issues Deliberation Australia (2007), it is almost certain that there
is little published work on the implementation of a successful strategy toward
the reduction of prejudice against Muslims. Pederson (2009) cites a forum to
achieve such an outcome but its relevancy was limited. Pederson, however,
believes that although educational interventions on their own are not sufficient, they can yield positive outcomes as the community becomes directed to
a different ways of thinking, remote from the influences of the media.
There is little published research examining the extent to which false beliefs relate to attitudes of Muslims towards Australia. Much less is reported on
what may constitute negatives attitudes towards Australia that could be predict from the scale of our knowledge, fashionable or well worn. It is held that
many of the false beliefs play a crucial role in perpetuating negative attitudes,
legitimising social distance and justifying blatant and subtle prejudice (Pederson 2005, Eagly,1992). In other words, they link with generalizable attributes
and stereotyping, extending portrayal and the like.
In the written discourse, one can refute empirically most of these inaccuracies. But in common daily conversations, they serve as oxygen for quibbles that can overcome reasoned argument. By the same extension, false
beliefs may be empirically challenged, though such attitudinal tendencies
often elude that. Results from studies on anti-prejudice education showed
that participants believed that factual information about out-groups is crucial in challenging negative feelings, and improving positivity towards them
(Pedersen, 2005).
Several researchers from Europe and Australia found that low and highprejudiced people share the same knowledge of cultural and ethnic stereotypes of minority, thus signifying that the level of knowledge and depth of
prejudice are independent of one another (Gordijn et al 2001; Augustinos,
Ahrens & Innes, 1994; Lepore & Brown, 1997). This could, however, relate
Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and Perceptions -
145
to the validity of the test itself. Gordijn (2001:157) argues that the measuring instrument may be insensitive enough to detect finer 'differences in the
knowledge of cultural stereotypes as a function of level of prejudice when the
free response method'.
The Edmund Rice Centre (2006) listed several falsehoods held by the
mainstream community about Muslims. They contend that such falsehoods
have long-term implications in that they foster negative and passionate reactions. For example, words like jihad have come to overshadow what is a
religion of many perspectives. Jihad does not mean 'holy war', but refers to
'any action by which one makes sincere and conscious effort for a collective
benefit'. Similarly, wearing a hfjab is a testimony of faith, not a subjugation.
It is pointed out that differences of world view between the two societies and
their traditions will continue to exist.
Where might false beliefs about Muslim minorities have originated? It
is argued that attitudes are not only formed by the media but can also be
formed by other more individual social-psychological variables. Utsey, McCarthy, Eubanks and Adrian (2002) found that people with high self-esteem
were more prejudiced. Walker (1994) found the same individuals often have
varying prejudiced views depending on the target group whereby Indigenous
Australians were at the bottom of the pecking order, followed by Asian Australians. Another variable relates to perceived consensus in the community',
that is, how widely people believe that their opinions are shared - a term
which Pederson (2004) ascribes as 'equal opportunity bigots' (see also Hartley
& Pedersen, in press).
Drawing on the findings of the literature, the authors set out to examine
if a relationship exists between prejudice and fact-driven knowledge of other
groups like Muslims. In other words, are negative attitudes towards Muslims
strongly correlated with false beliefs?
Batterham (2001), for example, found that giving accurate information
about false beliefs about Indigenous Australians reduced prejudice scores.
Like this group, if attitudes toward Muslims are to be modified, relevant false
beliefs need to be shown for what they are.
Jones (1997) and Sidanius et al. (2001) believe that legitimising myths
such as Muslims are a threat to Western values and the like has practical
146 - Education Integration Challenges
consequences in that they create, maintain and increase social inequality and
play a role in either the justification of or opposition to social policies.
A study by the Pew Research Centre (2006) showed that those who are
more knowledgeable about Muslims express favourable opinions of Muslims
and Islam. It was noted that through knowledge, greater levels of awareness
come from equal status interaction between the learner and individuals of
Muslim background. The study showed that the ability to identify both Allah
and the Koran correctly correlates with holding a favourable view of Islam.
Being informed about Islam prompts people to think that Islam and their own
religion have a lot in common. Similarly, being knowledgeable about Islam
makes one more likely to see recent terrorist attacks as part of a conflict.
Survey method and sample characteristics
The survey unit was the high-school student. Over 430 completed
questionnaires were obtained from students at eight schools (six high schools
and two community schools) in Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland
and Western Australia. South Australia, the Northern Territory, Australian
Capital Territory and Tasmania did not take part for logistical reasons. Two
schools catered mainly for students of Turkish background.
Schools were requested to survey Year 11 students, these being considered mature enough to give informed answers. The survey was administered
to eligible students present on the day of the survey. Even so, four of the
schools chose to administer the survey to Years 10 and 12 as well.
As the survey was administered under the auspices of each school, and
in class time, it is unlikely that there was any significant non-response at the
student level. However, certain schools and school agencies declined to participate. Many school principals and school agencies were supportive. They
suggested that the survey was in the best interest of all Australians. However,
most of them declined to consider participating in the survey prior to meeting
with the chief researcher and assessing his credentials. One of the community
principals, an imam, insisted that the researcher meet with him at his home.
Only one principal of European background sent his approval to conduct the
survey promptly by email. He indicated that the survey was relevant to Year
11 students of Religious Education, and that they should be encouraged to
explore the beliefs of other religions whenever that was possible.
Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and Perceptions -
147
The survey was refined in the light of the pilot, after which 431 students
were administered the full survey form. The percentage of female participant students (57%) was slightly higher than male students (43%). Almost the
entire sample (93%) declared themselves to be Muslim. We do not know the
circumstances of those who gave 'Other' (i.e., not Muslim) as their religion. It
is possible that some were children ofinterreligious marriages, and others just
rebellious. There were more students born in Australia (61%) than overseas
(39%). However, the percentage of fathers (3%) and mothers (9%) born in
Australia was significantly lower.
Over 66% indicated that their friends were mostly Muslim and 3% indicated that they were mostly non-Muslim; the remainder were 'half and half
'. Most students (93%) spoke other languages at home. This accords with the
finding that most parents were born overseas. In the companion study only
19% non-Muslim Australian students spoke other languages at home. Respondents were presented with 18 statements concerning subjective attitudes
towards Islam and Muslims and asked to rate their agreement on a three
point scale of Agree through Neutral to Disagree.
Knowledge of Christianity
Respondents were presented with ten statements concerning objectively
verifiable facts about Christianity, and asked to rate their agreement on a
five-point scale from Strong!Y agree through Neutral to Strong!Ji disagree. Responses
were tabulated for each question and aggregated into a score representing
each respondent's knowledge. To avoid bias, questions were worded so that
approximately half had Agree as the correct response, and half Disagree.
Overall results
The survey revealed some lack of knowledge of Christianity (Figure 1).
Muslim students' knowledge of Christianity was, however, noticeably better
than non-Muslims' knowledge of Islam (Ata, 2012a). On two particular
questions - Jesus wrote the Holy Bible and Christians believe that Jesus was the son ef
God - respondents were overwhelmingly correct in their responses. This may
be because on these points Christianity and Islam disagree most starkly in
matters of fundamental doctrine.
148 -
Education Integration ChaUenges
Figure 1. Proportion of correct and incorrect responses.
Jesus was crucified on Easter Day . • • • •
The Holy Bible contains four Gospels. Christians should try to make a ~iif~:~~e to Rome at least once in their . .
Jesus was a carpenter by trade. •
•••
The Pope is the leader of the world Christians. • • • • • • • •
Christians believe that Jesus was the son of God. Jesus was born in Jerusalem . • • • • • • • •
Jesus wrote the Holy Bible, •
Mary was the mother of Jesus.
11111
Saint Paul was the first Pope. -
0%
20%
40%
60%
Proportion of responses
•Incorrect
N
Don't know
80%
-
100°
• Correct
=996, 997, 994, 991, 994, 989, 991, 995, 994, and 993 respectively
Saint Paul was the first Pope. The correct answer to this is Disagree, since
most Christians accept St Peter as the first Pope, and do so on the authority of Matthew 16:18: "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and
upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail
against it."
Mary was the mother efJesus. The correct answer to this is Agree. Christians
believe that Jesus, though divine, was born of an earthly mother.
Jesus wrote the Holy Bible. The correct answer to this is Disagree. The Bible,
scholars and Christians agree, is a collection of books written at different
times by different authors.
Jesus was born in Jerusalem. The correct answer to this is Disagree.Jesus was
born in Bethlehem, which is near Jerusalem but not in it.
Christians believe that Jesus was the son ef God. The correct answer to this is
Agree. This is unlike Muslims, who hold that the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)
was not God but a messenger for God.
Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and Perceptions -
149
The Pope is the leader ef the world's Christians. The correct answer to this is
Disagree. The Pope is the highest spiritual authority for Catholics, but not
recognized as such by Orthodox Christians or Protestants.
Jesus was a carpenter l!J trade. The correct answer to this is Agree.
Christians should try to make a pilgrimage to Rome at least once in their lifetime.
The correct answer to this is Disagree. There is no injunction for Christians
to make a pilgrimage to Rome or anywhere else, unlike that for Muslims to
make pilgrimage to Mecca.
The Holy Bible containsfour gospels. The correct answer to this is Agree. They
are the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke andjohn.
Jesus was crucified on Easter Day. The correct answer to this is Disagree.Jesus
was crucified on Good Friday; he was resurrected from the dead on Easter
Day.
Knowledge score (method 1)
Under this method of scoring, wrong answers were penalized (figure 2).
Respondents who got many questions wrong could received a negative score.
Hence, it revealed the degree of misinformation as well as correct knowledge.
Some 12% of respondents received a negative score, meaning that they got
more questions wrong than right; 15% scored zero, meaning that they got as
many questions wrong as right, or alternatively did not know; and 73% received
a positive score, meaning that they got more questions right than wrong. We
conclude that although ignorance of Christianity is widespread, those who are
correctly informed outnumber the incorrectly informed in the ratio of six to
one. This is considerably better than the comparable ratio for non-Muslim
students, 2.5 to one (Ata, 2012a).
Knowledge score (method 2)
Under this method of scoring, wrong answers were not penalized (figure 3).
Some 22% of respondents scored zero, meaning that they got no questions
right. The rest got at least some right, with a mode of four correct.
150 - Education Integration Challenges
Figure 2. Proportion of respondents, by knowledge score
(method 1).
22%
18%
15%
13%
10%
II • I •
6%
5%
3%
I
0
4%
I
2%
2%
3
4
6
Score
7
8
9
10
N=970
This demonstrates how students differ in their level of knowledge.
Figure 3. Proportion of respondents, by knowledge score
(method 2).
22%
18%
15%
13%
10%
II • I •
6%
5%
3%
I
0
I
4%
4
5
Score
7
2%
2%
8
10
N=970
A demonstration of how students differ in their level of knowledge.
Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and Perceptions -
151
Figure 4. Gender differences.
~
~.,
3.0
2.8
u
c
2.6
"'c0
2.4
.g
t
2.2
u
'/fl.
Ill
2.0
'i0
1.8
.s;;
1.6
0
1.4
"'cen
.e
u
Ill
c
t
1.2
z
::;; 1.0
Male
Female
A significant difference was found between the mean knowledge scores
of boys and girls (F(l,416) = 7.36, p<.007). Girls were more knowledgeable of
Christianity (mean score 2.53) than were boys (1.78).
Figure 5. Place of birth.
~
3.0
.s
.5
.,u
2.8
.,c
2.6
'C
2.4
u
2.2
~
2.0
"'c0
"'cen
t
'i 1.8
..
0
.s;;
1.4
c
1.2
.
u
z
f
1.6
e0
::;; 1.0
Australia
Asia and Middle East
A significant difference was found between the mean knowledge scores
of those born in Australia and those born overseas (F(l,386)
= 6.21,
p<.013). The Australian- born were more knowledgeable of Christianity
(mean score 2.47) than the overseas-born (1.77).
152 -
Education Integration Challenges
Discussion and findings
Figure 6. Level of Knowledge and positive attitudes .
..,.._Most Muslims
dislike the
Australian way of
life.
2.6
.....,._Most Muslims treat
women with less
2.4
respect than do
2.2
other Australians.
2.0
- Australian TV and
1.8
newspapers show
Muslims in a fair
1.6
way.
1.4
..,.._Islamic values clash
with Australtan
values.
1.2
1.0
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
The assumption behind cross tabulating the two variables was that
a knowledgeable person (in this case Muslim students) will answer in one
way and those with little knowledge will answer in another. More to the
point: Those who are knowledgeable about Christianity will not be bigoted
(a reasonable assumption). It is possible, though, that people can dislike
Christians and be knowledgeable, because of their ethnic and religious
affiliation; that is one is swayed to express tendencies that they believe share
with the rest of the community.
Figure 6 shows that people who are knowledgeable about Christianity, at
a high ranking of2.4 and above, disagree with the statements outlined above.
It is shown in particular that the five statements above, for example, Most
Muslims dislike the Australian wqy ef life, ranked highest (at 2.9) on the knowledge scale. On the other hand, the statement Movies show Muslims in afair way
ranked lowest (at 2.45).
Given the high bi-directional relation between the two variables, surprisingly no group was found to fall in the middle, i.e., showing a flat line. This
is expected in that a knowledgeable person will answer in one way and one
with little knowledge answer in another. It is clear that the hypothesis is cor-
Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and Perceptions -
153
roborated by evidence - one that suggests bigots are ignorant but those who
have a high level of knowledge are not.
Figure 7. Level of Knowledge and negative attitudes.
2.8
-o-some Muslims face
discrimination because
they dress differently
., ~"'Since being at this
school I understand
non·Musllms better.
person can be both a
good Muslim and a loyal
Australian .
~,,,.,.A
...._, have learnt a lot about
other religions beside
Islam at this school.
Oi~agree
Neutral
Agree
Figure 7 shows people who disagree with the four statements: Some Muslims
face discrimination because they dress dif.ferentfy; Since being at this school I understand
non-Muslims better; A person can be both a good Muslim and a loyal Australian; I have
learnt a lot about other religions besides Islam at this school. Those who are least
knowledgeable about Christianity (at a ranking that ranges between 1.1 - 2.0,
lower that the 2.4 knowledge threshold shown in Figure 6) disagree with these
statements. These results do not show causality. One could say, though, that
being pre-disposed towards other cultures, and by extension Christianity,
would show a positive movement/attitudes on average towards the group in
focus. Three false beliefs were particularly prevalent with the statements I
have learnt a lot about other religions beside Islam at school and A person can be both a
good Muslim and a loyal Australian.
It is understood that if participants were given the opportunity to express
all the reasons behind their attitudes, more false beliefs were likely to have
emerged.
154 - Education Integration ChaUenges
Figure 8. Knowledge and neutral attitudes.
3.0 T--------------------------
..,._Most non-Muslim
Australians want good
relations with the Muslim
2.8
--------------------Australian schools should
teach more about
Muslims.
1.6
1.4
--""'This school helps people
of different cultures to
get along better.
1.0
Oisagnie
Neutral
Agree
People who are ignorant (i.e., those with neutral attitudes shown in Figure
8) do not agree or disagree with the statements listed above. That is, they have
no opinion. Statements in Figure 8 clearly demand some form of knowledge,
and those who indicated neutrality in their responses are presumed not to
show any disposition of knowledge.
Participants who spontaneously mentioned false beliefs and had low levels
of knowledge reported significantly more negative attitudes to Christians
than those who did not. This is an important result because it is possible that
accepting incorrect information may be shaping negative attitudes toward
Christians.
On the basis of the research analyzed, the results show that there is no
conclusive relationship between prejudice and the degree of knowledge of or
cultural perception of Christians in the Australian society.
Educating people to reduce prejudice levels may be seen as an agenda
flagged by some interest groups. The agenda behind this research is to present
new findings that will generate alternate ways of thinking and educational
interventions.
Muslim Students' Beliefs, Knowledge and Perceptions -
155
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