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The Science Fiction Novel
CHAPTER EIGHT
THE SCIENCE FICTION NOVEL
INTRODUCTION
The genre of science fiction emerged from the early nineteenth century. It was
a time when the theology of the past was being replaced by the dictates of modern
science. Prior to this time, the world was the center of the universe. It was located
below the sphere of the celestial moon. It was believed that the sun rotated around the
earth. But with the advent of science, this geocentric view of the world began to
change. Copernicus, for example, had already proven that the planets move around the
sun; Kepler had established the laws of planetary motion; and Newton created a
universe bounded by gravitational forces. The God of Medieval Europe no longer
ruled the world. He was being replaced by science. It was science that provided
numerous technological innovations which are characteristically associated with the
Second Industrial Revolution. It was a time of the steam engine, the rise of industrial
slums, the rise of the metropolis as evidenced by Paris and London. People were
ambivalent about this new world of science. It was a time of both commercialism and
despair surrounded by with new instruments of hope. A new literature emerged to
cope with these changes. By the month of April in 1926, a term for this new literature
was created by Hugo Gernsback. He called it "scientifiction." It has survived in a
modified form as "science fiction." It turns out that science fiction functions as an
open genre. One may write a love story and place it in another world and it becomes a
science fiction piece. The same could be said for a murder mystery or even a western.
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This can be depicted in social network theory as an asterisk with all of the arrows
pointing inward the the open genre itself.
Most scholars of this new genre agree that one of the earliest novels of this new
literature occurred in a book written by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley in 1818 (Evans,
1988; Scholes and Rabkin, 1977). It was called Frankenstein: The Modern
Prometheus (1818). During its time, this novel was not seen as a science fiction story.
It was meant to be a gothic romance. It was only later that it was to be transformed by
the emerging popular culture of the American horror film and the influence of German
Expressionism60 on this industry into the formula which currently characterizes that
genre. Frankenstein, it should be noted, was not the name of the monster61. It was the
name of its creator, Victor Frankenstein. He was not a mad scientist, but merely a
graduate student who was in love with science. His attempts to create life were meant
for the benefit of mankind. The monster was not born evil, but was created with
60This is evidenced in the theater of Max Reinhard with its revolt against naturalism and impressionism.
61The monster is never mentioned by name. He is called a monster, a creature, a thing, a wretch, or
fiend. Monster, it should be noted, means "an omen" (cf. monstre from Middle English and Middle
French). Creature means "something created." Thing originally meant an assembly and eventually it
became used as a generic form for objects. Wretch means "outcast" (cf. ME wrecche). Friend means
"enemy." The monster was never called Frankenstein. This only came about after the story was
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intellect and feelings and only later became evil when he was cast out by society
because of his hideous appearance. The monster is a romantic. He talk is filled with
the concepts of love, goodness, and compassion. All that the monster desired was to be
treated as a human being. He merely wanted his inventor to construct him a bride as
his companion. If this tale of a gothic monster was not meant to be science fiction,
and if this story was originally intended to be the expression of a romantic writer, then
why is it so significant as the genesis for the genre of modern science fiction? The
answer to this can be found in situation surrounding its creation. In the preface to the
novel, Mary Shelley notes how the story came to be written. She and her husband, a
great romantic novelist, were guests of the poet Lord Byron and Jane Clairmont in
Switzerland. Polidari, Bryron's physician was also there. One evening in the summer
of 1816, they all decided to write a ghost story. What is interesting about this event is
that Polidori created a vampire story and Mary Shelley wrote about Frankenstein's
monster in the form of a short story. The story of Frankenstein provided the model for
the genres of science fiction; and the vampire story developed into what eventually
became a new genre dedicated to tales of horror and fantasy. Both have their origins
as Gothic tales. Both belong to and were situated in a particular branch of literature
known as Romanticism62. Gothic tales were characterized by the rejection of reason
and intellect for emotion and intuition. Frankenstein is full of emotional scenes. It is
also defined by its disposition for unusual locales (The Alps, The Rhein, and
Scotland). Frankenstein takes place in all of these locations. Gothic stories favor the
creation of different worlds, themes, or ideas. Its subject matter is the uncommon, the
bizarre, and the unexpected. Hence, the focus is on living corpses, the un-dead, the use
of strange creatures, etc. Today, the category of science fiction is divided into hard
science and soft science. The former deals with the use of scientific concepts and
rewritten to fit the formula of the new medium of "pulp fiction."
Greek. daimon, an evil spirit.
Only later is he called a demon,
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principles in the development of the story line whereas the latter involve diversions
into alternative states of mind motivated by either horror or fantasy. They are modern
gothic tales. The scenes of old decaying mansions in the desolate countryside have
been replaced and now take place on different planets and other strange worlds
located across the dimensions of time and space. The eerie situations have been
replaced by aliens, space monsters, and other cosmic forces. Because fantasy is
common to both genres, they have been combined into the amorphous commercial
category63 known as science fiction.
Frankenstein represents the mystical roots of the European genre of science
fiction. Another form of science fiction was to emerge in the United States which
greatly influenced the genre and how it was perceived. This American tradition
emerged from what is known as "pulp fiction." It began around the Civil War when
the magazines for the masses were made out of "pulp" paper. This is a cheap form of
paper which lacks rag content. Since it was inexpensive, it could be massed produced
and distributed as "dime novels." These ephemeral publications were usually written
in two columns and were forty pages long (about 60,000 words). The stories that
constituted these dime novels were formulaic. They were written as serial publications
in which they used the same characters in the same plots. The authors were many and
they used a house name such as Victor Appleton.
They were paid by the word and
were motivated by commercial gain rather than by their literary fame or perspicacity.
By the turn of the century the field was dominated by such notables as Edgar Rice
Burroughs, Lou Senarens (Tom Switft), and Hugo Gernsback. Many of these writers
also wrote Westerns. This is significant because the American view of science fiction
great out of the plots and the story lines of the Westerns with their dichotomies of the
62This movement began in Germany at the time of Goethe. Many American writers are associated with
this movement: Herman Melville, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoureau, and most
significantly, Edgar Allan Poe.
63Category novels refer to novels based on commercial categories. Within the nomenclature of the
category novels of science fiction, one can find series that address specific subgenera. Some authors
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in-group versus the out-group and the skilled mediator who belonged to both worlds,
the lonesome cowboy.
Both Westerns and Science Fiction also dealt with the
conquest of new territory. Both envisaged the hero as a young adolescent. Both have
to do with fantasies of power and control. Later, after the Second World War when
the United States basked in its economic hegemony, this Americanized version of
science fiction was exported to Europe and to Asia. It is this model of science fiction
which now provides the formula for the genre. It is this formula which is now
accepted internationally with science fictions plots and story lines. Prior to
investigating this model of science fiction, it is time to go back and consider the story
of Victor Frankenstein in greater detail and this novel provides several interesting
recurring themes.
THE STORY OF FRANKENSTEIN
This romantic novel is about Victor Frankenstein who came from a
distinguished family and who was concerned for the welfare of others, especially the
poor and the underprivileged. When he was growing up, he became fascinated with
the pseudo-science of alchemy and read the writings of Paracelsus, Albertus Magnus,
and Cornelius Agrippa. He was chastised by his professors at the University of
Ingolstadt for his interests in these "charlatans" who attempted to create life in a test
tube or the made gold from lead. He was admonished for his interests in the ancients
and was told to pay attention to the discoveries of modern science. Victor followed
this advice and soon became enamored of his new course of studies. Since Victor was
altruistic and wanted to others, he soon used this new knowledge to conquer death and
challenge this commercial classification of literature and treat fantasy as a separate genre (Todorov,
1975).
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illness with the creation of life.64 He is on a Faustian search for the meaning of life65.
His motives were noble.
Victor worked for two years on his "creation." When the monster is completed
and takes on life, Victor finds that he has become mortified by it. It is horrible and
disgusting. He abandons the monster. He totally rejects his own creation. This thing
that was created from various body parts of cadavers and who looked inhuman was
not. He is depicted as having strong emotions of natural love and respect for his
creator66. The rejection of this creature and its ensuing feelings of alienation and
loneliness is a central theme of this gothic novel. It is reminiscent of the "Ancient
Mariner" (cf. Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner) who feels isolated from the
world. The subtitle of this novel is The Modern Prometheus. This reference is to the
Greek story of Prometheus who brings the fire of life. He was severely punished for
violating the laws of the gods.
Similarly, Victor Frankenstein is the modern
Prometheus who brings the fire of life and gives it to the monster. He too is severely
punished for this deed. He is surrounded by the death of his dearest friends and
relatives and eventually that of his new bride. This story also reflects another theme.
This one occurs in the biblical literature of Adam who was created by God and who
was eventually expelled from the Garden of Eden by his own Creator. The parallel to
this myth can be found in the monster is the modern Adam. He was created by Victor
only to be rejected by him. Later in the story, he will ask Victor to provide him with a
fabricated female companion just as Adam sought the creation of Eve because he was
lonely and isolated. Nevertheless, when Adam was cast out from the Garden of Eden,
he become a Fallen Angel. The monster was also cast out by his creator. He has
64He is not a mad scientist. This view of Frankenstein came about later in the film Metropolis in 1926
under the direction of Fritz Lang who was influenced by the German school of Expressionism on film
and it has been perpetuated ever since.
65It was Faust who dedicated himself to the pursuit of all knowledge so that he could conquer death. It
was Faust want wanted most deeply to understand the meaning of life.
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become a fiend (one who is cast out). He is wretched (one who is separated from the
group). He represents the alienated of man within the contexts of a technological
society ruled and controlled by science.
As the story unfolds, the monster becomes a murderer. This happens because
of his rejection from society. In each instance, this is brought about by his rejection by
others. The first victim is the younger brother of Victor, William Frankenstein. He is
strangled. Justine, his adopted sister is accused of the murder and she is hanged. This
came about after the monster knew that he was the scorn of mankind and he declared
war against them.
He met young William and learned that his last name was
Frankenstein and this caused him to seek revenge against his creator and his relatives.
Henry Clerval is a close friend of Victor and his is later killed by the monster. The
final event in this series of murders takes place during the wedding night when
Victor's new wife is strangled. The monster learned that he could not procreate and he
asked his creator to provide him with a companion, a female creature67. Frankenstein
attempts to create another monster but fears that this act would lead to a race of
monsters. As a consequence, he destroys the body of the female creature. The
monster is deeply hurt by this act. He warns Frankenstein that he will also be denied a
bride on his wedding night.
At this point of the gothic tale, Frankenstein begins his quest to destroy the
monster. This chase meanders around Europe and eventually leads to the Arctic. The
monster goes there because he knows that the weather will be hard and difficult for
Victor and that it will not affect him at all. When Victor Frankenstein is near death
due to his exposure to the elements, he encounters a vessel under the leadership of
Robert Walton, an explorer. When his health is restored, he tells Walton of his search
66He is not a violent individual. Nor is he evil. As the story develops, he comes to understand
humanity and talks of love, goodness, and compassion. He is portrayed as the "noble savage" who is
born innately good. Later, he is made evil by society who has rejected him.
67This theme was developed in The Bride of Frankenstein (1935) under the directorship of James
Whale. He was influenced by Paul Leni, a set designer for Max Reinhard. Hence, the cinematic
influence of German Expressionism continues to dominate this genre.
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for the monster. However, his health becomes impaired and he eventually dies. The
monster enters the ship and stares into Victor's coffin. He laments of the body of his
creator. He felt sorry for him. He pitied him. Walton enters the room to find this
monster hovering over the body of Victor Frankenstein. He laments his death. The
captain of the vessel enters and sees the monster. The monster explains his dilemma
to the Captain. He tells him how he only desired love and friendship. In this way, he
is no different from all other creatures. In the darkness of night, he springs from the
cabin window and disappears into the waves. This appears to be his demise. It is here
that the essence of the basic story within a larger epistolary story ends68.
Prologue
Robert Walton, the
captain of a sailing
vessel, writes to
his sister and
relates the story of
Frankenstein
The Narration Of Frankenstein
The Story Line and Plot Structure
Epilogue
The Story of Frankenstein: Victor
Margaret Saville, the sister
Frankenstein is altruistic and desires to help of Walton reads the story
others.
of Frankenstein
He was to save lives.
He creates a monster.
He rejects it.
The monster is kind and good.
It encounters many other rejections.
He comes to hate society.
He murders.
He is alienated.
He suffers from loneliness.
He wants to have a bride.
He asks Frankenstein for assistance.
Frankenstein resists.
He continues to murder.
He kills the friends and relatives of Victor
Frankenstein.
He kills Elizabeth Lavenza, the young bride
of Frankenstein.
68The captain of the vessel, Robert Walton, is the one who tells the story of Frankenstein. He does so
in epistolary form and through a series of detailed letters written to his sister in which he explains how
he came across Victor in the great expanses of the Arctic. He is a seeker of knowledge and wants to
reach the North Pole. It was on this journey that he encounters Victor and relates to her the details of
the story of the monster as it was told to him on board the vessel.
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This happens on Victor's wedding night.
Frankenstein seeks revenge and tries to undo
the evil that he has created.
This is his quest.
The chase begins.
It takes Frankenstein to the Arctic.
Robert Walton is nearby and saves him.
He relates the story of the monster.
Walton writes down this information in the
form of letters to his sister. Frankenstein
dies. The story ends.
The Plot Structure Of Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus
Protagonist
Antagonist
Plots and
Subplots
Victor Frankenstein, a young graduate student at the University of Ingolstadt
The monster.
Conflict with a god (Frankenstein creates a monster.
He rejects it.
The monster seeks justice against the Promethean scientist.
The Monster is the modern Adam, cast out of the Garden of Eden),
Sacrifice (Frankenstein sacrifices himself to help society),
Metamorphosis (the parts of cadavers are used to create a monster who takes
on life),
Mystery (who is causing the murders),
Adventure (the monster threatens the lives of others),
Transformation (the altruistic Frankenstein becomes evil by hiding
information from the courts on who committed the murders. The monster
was good and becomes evil because of his scorn and rejection by society),
Obstacles to Love (the monster threatens to kill the bride of Frankenstein on
his wedding night) the
Revenge (Frankenstein seeks to avenge the death of his friends, relatives, and
his bride), Rivalry (the monster competes with Frankenstein),
the Quest (Frankenstein vows to kill the monster), The Chase (he pursues
the monster around Europe and to the Arctic),
Rescue (Victor Frankenstein is rescued from the elements as he is near
death),
Escape (the monster escapes),
the Underdog (the monster was the noble savage who was the victim of
society. He is to be pitied).
The social scripts that one finds in science fiction are not a matter of great concern.
This is because science fiction belongs to the world of the subjunctive, that which
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could be or should be. However, the script of this novel has great credibility. The
social scripts are based on actual geographical regions of the world, letter writing as a
means of everyday communication, scientific experiments involving human being, an
understandable use of emotions, and strong themes about human life and human
values.
CATEGORIZING SCIENCE FICTION AS A GENRE
The plot structure of Frankenstein does not lend itself to a different genre.
There is nothing intrinsic to how this story is structured that would make it different
from other kinds of genres. As a matter of fact, this has been one of the problems with
science fiction stories. Evans calls it uncategorized fiction (1988: 3). Consequently,
one could easily find the plot structures of romance stories, tales of adventure, utopian
literature, spiritual quests, murder mysteries, and even historical novels within the
genre called science fiction. Many have endeavored to distinguish this genre from all
of the others and from fantasy, in particular. Evans (1988: 3) notes that it is the
literature of supposition. It endeavors to provide a logical rationale for the unfolding
events. In this sense, it is similar to what Poe has called "tales of ratiocination."
Scholars have also noted that the themes in science fiction may be different from those
of fantasy. However, there is the problem of the overlap and the intersection between
them (Slusser, Rabkin, and Scholes, 1982; 1983; Slusser and Rabkin, 1987). They
both deal, for example, with modifications in the dimensions of time and space such as
the altered present and the imagined future. It is only when these modifications are
outrageous and illogical that one can clearly begin to distinguish fantasy from science
fiction69. However, when the fantastic is made plausible through the use of modern
69Perhaps this supposition is wrong. Science fiction began as fantasy and it has been trying to emerge
as a separate genre ever since. Hard Science Fiction represents this new ideal. Asimov (1990: 6) refers
to this a "true science fiction." It is demarcated by the fact that authentic scientific knowledge is crucial
to the development of the plot, the creation of crises, and their resolutions. SF (science fiction) demands
that science plays an intrinsic role in this genre. What is interesting about this definition is that it does
not depend upon structure for its definition. The plots may vary from adventure to romance to the quest,
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science and technology it reverts back to science fiction. Furthermore, fantasies tend
to be about seeing what one is not supposed to or should not see.
These
categorizations are so amorphous that Bainbridge (1986: Chapter Two) found it
necessary to select the stories of Jules Verne and H.G. Wells are statistical ideals
around which other writers can be organized. This use of factor analysis provides an
interesting array of science fiction subgenera such as Fantasy, New Wave, Classic,
Hard Science, Soft Science, Action Adventure, Horror, The Weird, and Sword and
Sorcery (Bainbridge, 1986: 40-46). However, this categorization leaves the question
of plot structure unanswered. Card (1988), a noted science fiction writer, provides an
interesting approach to the study of genres. In his book on how to invent, construct,
and animate characters, he notes that different kinds of stories require special
characterization. This is because the protagonist varies in how he functions in novels
of divergent genres. There are four factors which are singled out for evaluation and
comment.
Milieu
The world surrounding the characters, the landscape, the interior spaces, the
environment, etc. For example, the Wild West is the Milieu that dominates
the cowboy Western.
Idea
The information that the reader is meant to discover. This is the theme.
However, it also includes the question that needs to be answered or the
problem that needs to be solved. For example, the idea dominates the murder
mystery (Whodunit fiction).
Character
but the theme must rely on scientific knowledge. Hence, it follows from this definition that Isaac
Asimov himself writes true science fiction. So do such authors as Arthur C. Clarke and Robert A.
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This has to do with the people in the story, what they do, and why they do it.
The protagonist, antagonist, and supporting roles. Character development is
crucial to the literary novel and constitutes this genre.
Event
This is about everything that happens and why. It is about bringing order out
of disorder. It is about making sense of the story line. Action stories (war
stories, cowboy westerns, star war trilogy or space operas, etc.) are event
driven stories.
Card (1988: Chapter Five) refers to these factors as "The MICE Quotient." One
should note that he does not refer to the plot structure even though it is implied in his
discussion of the ordering of events..
There are several aspects of this view of
categorizing genres that merit comment. First, it provides a different set of factors
upon which to develop a coherent and relevant system of classification. Perhaps some
of these factors could be employed by Bainbridge (1986) as an overlay on his own
model of classification.
Card presents highly relevant categories upon which to
perform a statistical analysis of literary types. Second, if one assumes that science
fiction and fantasy are largely uncategorized and lack rigid formula or plot structures,
then this approach to science fiction provides an insightful instrument for literary
analysis. Consider how his treatment of these four factors enables one to differentiate
one genre from another.
The M-I-C-E Quotient
Genres
Historical,
MICE
M, C
Orson Scott Card (1988)
Commentary
Hence, the historical novel is locked in a time period. The
characters reflect the social mores of the time. Hence, people act
differently in Victorian times because of the dictates of the
Heinlein. They include the detailed knowledge hard sciences in their novels.
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Science Fiction Novel
surrounding cultural values.
Western,
Science
Fiction,
M, C, E The Western is situated in the American frontier during a specific
period of American history. The characters are the farmers, the
ranchers, the cattlemen, the sheepmen, and the Indian. There is a
lone hero and he is the gunfighter. The idea is about the struggle
M, I, C between good and evil.
Fantasy,
M, C
Utopian
novels.
M
In hard science fiction, the milieu is science and technology. In
soft science fiction, the characters, ideas play a major role. Events
are not restricted.
The milieu is in another time and place, the people are different,
the ideas and the plots are not restricted.
Eu-topia (sweet or good places), ou-topia (no place), and dys-topia
(bad place). Hence, the milieu is the driving force in this genre.
Murder
Mysteries,
I
Allegory
I
The resolution of a problem is the major concern. Logic and
science are both used to resolve this problem. Deviations from this
model employ defamiliarization techniques such as outrageous
personalities (Ian Fleming), animal cunningness (Columbo), travel
(Ludlum), etc.
The restoration of order from disorder dominates this genre.
Literary
novel
C, E
Characterization is most important and it even drives the plot.
Also the use of greater and more complex plot structures
differentiates this genre from category novels..
The MICE Quotient provides an interesting added dimension for the analysis and
understanding of uncategorized fiction. Science fiction and fantasy remain largely
uncategorized. The boldest attempts so far are the distinctions between hard and soft
science fiction70. The reason for this is obvious. Any plot structure could be used to
create a story line which deals with other times, other worlds, other beings, and other
states of mind. What the MICE Quotient provides is a structural overlay from which
future subcategorization will emerge. The Western, for example, is already fully
70Other formal categories exist among publishing houses, but they are not very insightful: the short
story (under 7,500 words), the novelette (7,000 to 17,500 words), the novella (17,500 to 40,000 words),
and the novel (over 40,000 words).
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categorized. One has to write about the ranchers, the sheep men, the Farmers, the
Railroad men, or the Indians.
The availability of plot variety is rather limited.
Similarly, romance novels are fully categorized as a genre. There bodice rippers,
sweet romance (teenage audience), historical romance, twice loved romance (about
divorced people in love), etc. The plots in these novels are usually restricted to
obstacles to love. Murder mysteries are also over categorized with its subgenera of the
detective, romantic suspense, police procedural, heists, kidnappings, and capers. This
is not the case with the genres of science fiction and fantasy. Both are still open
ended. Both need to be further categorized. Given the current state of affairs which
include a range from uncategorized fiction to an over categorized genre, devices such
as those developed by Card (1988) are beneficial. Bova (1994), a noted science fiction
writer and the editor of Omni and of Analog, has noted that most contemporary
contributions to the field have to do with fantasy and horror in the form of soft science
fiction. There are very few good writers of hard science fiction. Writers of the stature
of Arthur C. Clarke or Isaac Asimov are rare71. Most scientists are not interested in
writing literary works and most writers deplore science. Consequently, science fiction
is a viable commercial category at present due to the overabundance of contributions
by writers in the subgenera of soft science fiction. Perhaps, when more writers of hard
science fiction will emerge in the future, science fiction will be limited to hard science
and fantasy and horror will become separate categories with their own viable markets.
What is needed rectify the problem of genre contamination is for the other
subgenera of science fiction to redefine themselves as legitimate separate genres.
Sword and Sorcery novels should not be considered soft science fiction. Horror novels
71Ben Bova, it should be noted, is among these writers of hard science fiction. He worked on the first
U.S. space project, Vangard, and this was even before NASA was officially created by the government.
He was the manager of marketing for Avco Everett Research Laboratory where he was an active
participant in meetings with the Pentagon on the role of high-powered lasers in the Strategic Defense
Initiative which has come to be known as Star Wars. It is his unique experience with space science that
places him in this special category. His colleagues have recognized this fact and have rewarded him in
numerous ways. He was the president of Science Fiction and of Fantasy Writers of America. He is also
President Emeritus of the National Space Society.
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do not belong to science fiction. Fantasy needs to belong to its own genre. New Wave
fiction should be eyed with suspicion. It is still an experiment and should remain as
uncategorized fiction. Furthermore, science fiction needs to resolve numerous
problems with its subgenera. Evidently, hard science fiction is a subgenera. So are the
planet stories. Space opera novels such as Star Wars belong to this classification.
Utopian novels could also be listed as subgenera.
JULES VERNE, A SATIRE ON THE POPULAR PASSION FOR SCIENCE
Another European writer who contributed to the tradition of science fiction is
Jules Verne. He wanted to become a sailor and was fascinated by the adventures of
Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe (1719). He realized that he did not have the
constitution for travel and he sublimated these desires72 into his literature of "voyages
extraordinaire." One of these adventures of travel was his 20,000 Leagues Under the
Sea (1870). He wrote it as a sequel in 1870 to The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym.
This was a disturbing story by Edgar Allen Poe about a boy who became a stow away
on a ship which was heading in the direction of Antarctica. It is a story that has no
coherent theme except that it is structured by a series of episodes. In the final episode,
the boy escapes from an island of cannibals and travels southward. The waters become
colder. It starts to snow. Then, he finds himself in warmer waters and the forces
around him which impel the canoe ahead at greater speed. He has entered a strange
world73. Suddenly, he encounters a giant mysterious white figure that rises from the
sea into the path of the boat. What will happen to Arthur Gordon Pym? Who or what
72When he was able to make a living full time writing science fiction, Verne bought a boat which he
called "the St. Michel." It never went anywhere. It remained tied to land and was like the original St.
Michel, part land and part sea. This is where he wrote about his extraordinary voyages. When he
acquired greater wealth from his writings, he bought another boat and called her "The St. Michel, II."
73The significance of the South Pole and the climatic changes in this story may have been influenced by
theory of the hollow earth with its access from either of the Poles. This view was espoused by John
Clove Symnes in Symzonia.
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is this mysterious white figure? Where is this strange land? It is here that the story
ends and it is here that the idea for the sequel occurred to Jules Verne.
This story is told by Professor Pierre Aronnax, the director of the Museum of
Paris. He is a naturalist and a pedant. He has a faithful servant, Conseil (Fr. Counsel).
They have joined the American Frigate, The Abraham Lincoln which is in pursuit of a
strange underwater creature that is endangering naval commerce. They are joined by a
pragmatic Canadian harpooner by the name of Ned Land. They are in pursuit of a giant
Narwhal. The creature destroys their ship and it was during this crisis that they
learned the truth. It was not a giant creature, but a submarine. They are rescued by the
Captain of this vessel. His name is Captain Nemo. They board his vessel and begin
their journey of 20,000 leagues. The remainder of the story is narrated by Professor
Aronnax on board the Nautilus, the submarine74 operated by Captain Nemo. They
traveled around the world with him. His vessel takes them from one episode to
another. They want to escape, but cannot evade their extraordinary captor. The story
ends with the escape of Aronnax, Conseil, and Land when Captain Nemo is
unconscious.
Since this story was offered as a sequel to the adventures of Arthur Pym (Poe),
there are several changes from the original that merit comment. The protagonist, Pym,
was a young stow away who became a part of the world around him. He did not
separate himself from others on the deserted island nor did he divorce himself from
nature. Captain Nemo, on the other hand, is a protagonist who is similar in many ways
to the protagonist created by Daniel Defoe in his story of Robinson Crusoe.
This
marooned European never becomes a part of the natural world around him. He
maintains a calendar in a world where the rhythms of nature provide the temporal
74Some have argued that Jules Verne was prophetic and foresaw the invention of the submarine. This
concept was not entirely new to Verne as the submarine was nearly a century old. It was introduced in
1807 by Robert Fullton, an American. He demonstrated it in the Seine during that year. The name of
this vessel, it should be noted, was The Nautilus. Another version of the submarine was also used in
1864 during the Civil War to sink the U.S.S. Frigate, Housatonic. The term was coined by David
Bushnell in 1775 to describe "the Turtle" which was the first fully tested underwater vehicle.
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measure of existence. He also resorts to his old life style as much as possible and
dresses for the public life of England rather than for the more practical dress of the
tropics. When he encounters Friday, he attempts to mold him into the ways of his own
culture. He makes Friday speak his own language and does not try to learn about the
mores of his visitor. He judges Friday in terms of his own cultural values and does not
see any value in things which are non-European. Captain Nemo shares a similar world
view. He may have traveled around the world, but he never becomes a part of it. He is
a misogynist who finds it difficult to deal directly with other people. He forms
opinions of others and carries his own version of them with him. He is distanced from
his culture, but his submarine is an encased version of his own European roots. It has
a library, carbon arc lamps, European paintings, and all of the comforts of his
homeland. Hence, his actions are reminiscent of the story of Robinson Crusoe. Even
his political statements are done at a distance. One learns that he is helping to
underwrite the revolution in Greece. This is the same revolution which was supported
by Lord Byron, the romantic poet. Romantics do not always fully participate in nature.
Many of them are engulfed by their own feelings and interpretations of nature. In this
sense, it can be argued that Captain Nemo is also a romantic. He does not fully
participate in life. He is merely a spectator. What makes him different from other
romantics is his passion for science. This fact is significant.
It is because the
knowledge science figures to dominantly in this episodic tale of the voyage of the
Nautilus that it can be classified under the modern genera of science fiction. The
protagonist is a scientist. His milieu is a product of science. He search is done in the
name of science.
Scholes and Rabkin (1977: 196-200) note that Verne uses science as the basis
for satire. There are many scenes in which this correct interpretation of Verne is
evident. One is told that Captain Nemo has the world's greatest collection of mollusks
shells. It is classified in great detail with regard to species and genus. It represents a
great scientific achievement.
Jules Verne contrasts the scientific world of the
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naturalist with the non-naturalist when he has French Professor Aronnax differ with
the Canadian pragmatist, Ned Land as to what constitutes a fact. For Aronnax the
classification of the mollusks shells represents a scientific fact. It constitutes progress.
The Canadian harpoonist, however, merely divides things into two classes: edible and
inedible. Hence, what is a fact to Ned Land is not a fact to Captain Nemo or to
Professor Aronnax. Verne wrote a satire on science. It is at this point that one is
forced to ask the perennial question of what makes this story part of the genre of
science fiction? Obviously, it could be classified as a satire. It also follows what Poe
called "tales of ratiocination" because it engages the mind. It is also an adventure
story. But the satire has to do with science, and the thinking through of events also has
to do with science. And, the adventures taken by Captain Nemo are scientific one. If
Card (1994) were categorizing this novel, he would note that the Milieu (M) is the
field of science, the ideas (I) are satires of science, the main character is a scientist,
and the events (E) are scientific ventures. Once again, there is nothing in the plot
structure that makes it uniquely science fiction. Asimov would merely argue that this
novel is classified as science fiction because it uses scientific knowledge as an intrinsic
part of its plot development. Its protagonist is a scientist. Its theme is about science.
H. G. WELLS AND THE TIME MACHINE (1895)
Many writers of science fiction are using the genre as a vehicle from which
they can satirize some aspect of their own society. Jules Verne denunciated science
for its arrogance. This is especially true of the character known as Professor Pierre
Aronnax. He also treated Captain Nemo in a pejorative way when he showed how one
may misuse science. In 1895, H. G. Wells also used science for social commentary.
He wrote about social conditions in England that disturbed him.
In order to
demonstrate how current trends in education, social classes, and Victorian mores
would lead to human destruction, he created the vehicle of the time machine. It was
through this device that he was able to go into the future and demonstrate the real
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nature of social progress in England. What is interesting about Wells, is that many
have come to know him merely as a science fiction writer rather than as a social
reformer. His time machine has become the archetype for other stories of space travel.
His War of the Worlds (1898) also provided the model for many contemporary science
fiction novels. Hence, he has provided numerous plot structures for the emerging genre
of hard science fiction.
The story of the Time Machine: An Invention is prophetic. It begins at a dinner
where the host identifies himself as the time traveler and explains to his guests that any
real body has four dimensions. The fourth dimension is, of course, time. One may
remain in the same space and travel along this dimension. The fourth dimension was
created as science fantasy, but it is held in that regard. It provides the basis for modern
astrophysics and underlies the theory of Space-time as espoused by Einstein after the
turn of the century. As the story unfolds, the host enters his time machine and
ventures into the future. His journey takes him to the year 802,701 A.D. He is located
in the same space and has only traveled into the along the dimension of time. What
the time traveler encounters upon his arrival into the future is a world populated by the
Eloi. These are small creatures who speak a euphonious (cooing) foreign language.
They all share similar features: vivid red lips, large and gentle eyes, small ears, smooth
and shiny skins, no facial hair, curly hair, smiling faces, they sleep together in large
groups in great halls, there appear to be no differences between the sexes, they wear
soft silk-like togas, and they have a stature of about four feet in height. They seem to
have the intelligence of a five-year old. They are limited in intelligence and lack long
term memory. They exist as vegetarians who live on the bounties of nature. There are
no old people. The time traveler is amazed and assumes that this race represents man's
triumph over the environment. Disease has vanished. Horticulture has been perfected.
Life is more secure. He considers this to be a golden age.
While living among the Eloi and learning their language, the time traveler
comes to realize that these people have a fear of the darkness. When the sun goes
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down, strange things happen. Some of the Eloi disappear and are never seen again.
Gray figures are seen fleeting in the darkness before retreating to their caves and
subterranean wells. The time traveler investigates these beings and learn that they are
the Morlocks. They appear in the dark of night and carry away the Eloi. They are
white, evil, foul smelling creatures, they have reddish eyes, they have greater
intelligence, they have a sense for science and demonstrate an interest for mechanical
objects.
The Morlocks live underground and have evolved into light sensitive
creatures that sun light and other light emitting sources such as fire. He learns that the
Morlocks use the Eloi as food. They are taken into large underground slaughter
houses where they provide the food source for the carnivorous colony of Undergrounders. It is at this moment that the time traveler comes to understand why there
are no old people among the Upper-worlders. He also realizes that the Eloi live as
cattle who have all of their needs supplied by nature. Their large halls are barns. As
cattle, they have no need for intelligence or memory. Their language consists of
euphonious cooing sounds which just as the mooing of the cows in a field consists of
emitted melodious tones of content. This is not a golden age.
The time traveler learns that in the old days, the Upper-Worlders (the Eloi)
were of the aristocratic class and that the Under-grounders (the Morlocks) were their
servants. The members of the Aristocracy were the capitalists who had money and
who owned everything. They were the upper-class (the Upper-Worlders). Their needs
were taken care of. They did not need their intellect. They lived only for their own
pleasures. With the passage of time, they emerged as a new species. They have
become cattle-people. The servants, on the other hand, were the laborers of the past.
They were the lower class (the Under-grounders). They lived artificial lives. With the
passage of time, they were cut off from the natural surface of the earth. However, the
were not alienated from their machines. There is an interesting use of symbolism by
Wells in describing these creatures of the future. The symbolism is interesting because
it portrays his Fabian interests, and socialist leanings. The aristocrats were the upper
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class and the capitalists; the servants were the lower class and the laborers. It was a
class division of the "Haves" and the "Have-nots."
Wells creates an interesting
reversal of power. The Under-grounders have become the new rulers; and the UpperWorlders are there to serve the needs of the Morlocks. The industrial and economic
divisions within society have evolved into different biological species.
Towards the end of the story, the space traveler leaves the land of the Eloi and
the Morlocks and ventures further into the future to a time where the earth appears to
stand still. There is no wind. No waves break on the desolate shores of the Thames
River. The sun hovers in the same spot in the sky. He sees a giant crab approaching
him. It has eyes on its stalks. Its antennae are waving. Its shell is corrugated and
encrusted with green slime. He soon sees another of these creatures approaching him.
He had traveled thirty millions years into the future.
Human life had become
extinct75. He has witnessed a grim mutation of life - the last groans of creation. He
reverses the time machine and returns back to his colleagues in London. Wells has
made his social statements. He has made his judgment about the nature of human
progress. Obviously, H. G. Wells created the time traveler as his literary persona.
The major plot of the Time Traveler is the journey. It just so happens that the
journey is through time rather than through space. The journey is not a quest. It a tale
of spiritual growth. The purpose of this journey is social satire. It should be noted,
however, that this story has several subplots. At one point, the time machine is stolen
by the Morlocks and he begins a search for his instrument of return. He needs to
protect himself and travels on foot for some twenty miles to visit and old museum in
order to retrieve weapons and fire-making equipment. Fire is used to ward off the
Morlocks. On his travel back to recover his time machine, the time traveler builds a
fire in the forest in the dark of night. He is surrounded by the Morlocks and it is at this
moment that the fire goes out of control and causes a great inflagration. The forest
burns and kills many of the Morlocks. He has a companion, Weena, who is attached to
75This novel goes beyond prophecy. This novel has apocalyptic overtones.
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him. He shows tenderness for her and provides a weak plot based on the obstacles to
love. He even contemplates bringing her back to the Present when he returns. Weena,
however, is killed in this fire. He foreshadows the story about Weena by having her
put flowers in his pocket and upon his return his colleagues are amazed about the new
species of flowers that he shows them. However, they still remain skeptical. The
story ends with the time traveler returning to his machine in order to demonstrate the
credibility of his stories by bringing back evidence from another time. He never
returns.
ALDOUS HUXLEY ON SCIENCE AS DYSTOPIA
When Aldous Huxley wrote Brave New World (1932), he created one of his
most popular novels. It was a masterpiece of science fiction. The novel deals with the
concept of a "scientific utopia." This idea was not new to this novel. It had occurred
at least a decade earlier in one of his other novels76. However, it is not the idea of a
scientific utopia that makes this novel prophetic. It can be found in how this idea is
manifested. It is intended to be a warning about the destruction of mankind. The story
begins in the Central London Hatcheries and Conditioning Centre. The Director,
Tomakin, is leading a tour of students. He has the demeanor of a corporate executive.
He is very businesslike, officious, and very concerned with conformity. But, he is not
merely the Director of a Centre. He is an extraordinary man. He is a highly intelligent
Alpha Plus male. What makes him unique, however, is that he has read the "forbidden
books." As he leads the tour, he takes them through the Fertilizing Room filled with
incubators. It is here that male and female reproductive cells are kept. A single
human egg, he notes, can reproduce up to ninety-six identical twins. It is because
these twins are identical that this service of the Centre contributes towards social
stability. As he speaks, one notices the motto of the Centre: Community, Identity, and
Stability. The students follow the Director into the bottling Room in order to observe
76This happened in Chapter five of Chrome Yellow (1922). .
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the mechanical process of reproduction.
They are then led into the Social
Predestination Room. It is here that their functions in society are programmed over a
9.2 month period. The Alphas will hold leadership positions. The Epsilons will be
conditioned for the simplest jobs. The range within this caste system is ranked in
accordance with intelligence. The Epsilons require little or no intelligence. As the
story unfolds, one learns that the Delta caste are being conditioned to hate books and
flowers. It it noted that all classes share one common - they are compelled to consume
as this will further the economy.
Reading and nature study do not further the
economy. Consequently, it is considered a useless trait for the Delta caste. Another
common conditioning factor is the attitude that individuals have towards the State.
Man is no longer responsible for himself. The State provides for all needs. The State
is the Master of all. All of this is happening in the year, 632 A.F.77
There are numerous characters in this story which moves this utopian plot
structure. Bernard Marx is from the Psychology Bureau. His name is reminiscent of
Karl Marx. He does not feel that he belongs to this Brave New World. He does not
look like the other members of his caste. He is short and slight whereas his comembers are tall and robust. He tends to have feelings of guilt and depression while
the others in his group are happy.
He appears to be modest and unassuming rather
than portraying the personality of a boastful and self-confident male. His difference is
attributed to bad blood. Somehow alcohol was mixed in with his own blood during
the incubating period. As the story begins, one is led to believe that Bernard Marx is
the hero of the story. However, he is not. His role is to merely move the plot. Lenina
Crowe is the central female figure during the first half of the novel. Her name is
reminiscent of Nicolai Lenin. Bernard is interested in Lenina. But, his emotions are
disturbed by the fact that she does not belong to him. She belongs to everybody. In
this utopia, people do not fall in love. They do not marry, nor do they raise children.
77A.F. means After Ford. Henry Ford is held up as a godlike figure and time is reckoned in accordance
with his creation of the factory assembly system in the United States. The choice of the year, 632,
however, is interesting. It merely stands one generation from the dreaded apocalyptic year 666 A.F.
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They are not allowed to show an allegiance to others. Hence, sexual license is
encouraged by the State. Lenina will play a significant role in this novel as she is a
driving force in this utopian plot. Mustapha Mond is the Resident Controller. He is
one of the ten world controllers.
His role in the novel is to provide valuable
information to the reader about this scientific utopia. He is also highly intelligent and
has read the forbidden books on literature (Shakespeare), history, philosophy, and the
Bible. His name means world. Benito Hoover is another interesting person created by
the novelist. It is a combination of Benito Mussolilni and Herbert Hoover. His role in
the novel is insignificant. Henry Foster is an individual who works at the Hatchery.
He is presented as the ideal citizen. He is a young man with a future. He will become
a success. What this means is that he will become a bureaucrat. Helmholtz Watson is
another Alpha-Plus male. He is dissatisfied with his life and questions the values of
the State and the requirements of conformity. He feels that there must be more to life
than mere physical existence. His name is a combination of Wilhelm Helmholtz and
Thomas Watson78. All of these characters provide background information for the
novel. The story begins to move when Bernard and Lenina visit a Reservation of
Savages in the United States. The Savages are those people who have not been
conditioned. Therefore, they are considered to be uncivilized. Bernard and Lenina
have permission to visit the Savage Reservation. While they are there they meet a
couple from their own world who have been living on the Reservation for more than
two decades. The male is John, the Savage. He represents both worlds. He identifies
with the Reservation, but the Indians do not accept him because he is different. They
seem him as an alien, a misfit. John has learned to read and has read the forbidden
books. He shares this unique experience with Tomakin, the Director of the Hatchery,
and with Mustapha Mond, the World Controller. Linda is John's companion. She was
bread as a Beta female before going to the Reservation. She is also alienated from
78Watson merits some explanation. He was the industrial psychologist who favored the philosophy of
behaviorism and who created IBM. Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Helmholtz was a German scientist
(1821-1894) and a professor of physiology. He invented the ophthalmoscope.
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others on the Reservation and wishes to return to her homeland. The visitor, Bernard
and Lenina, provide her with that opportunity. They convince John and Linda to
return to London with them. Linda has aged while on the Reservation and this frighten
the citizenry of London. They have not experienced old age, illness, corpulence, and
death. They find her repulsive. John arrives in London with a different set of mores.
He has a strong moral code. He does not believe in free love. He is attracted to
Lenina and wants to marry her. She is also attracted to him, but is repulsed by the idea
of marriage and commitment to one individual. He is perturbed by her promiscuity.
The relationship between John and Lenina provide the author, Huxley, with a means of
presenting his own ideas on love, sex, and relationships. He favors the Greek culture
with its balance between the physical and the spiritual. This idea is presented in the
character of Helmholtz Watson who believes that there is more to life than physical
existence. Huxley is also concerned with the ideas of the Marquis de Sade, a French
novelist who believed that sensations and carnality alone possessed reality. Lenina
and her promiscuity represents this counter philosophy. Bernard wanted Lenina for
himself, but she belonged to everybody and this left him with an emotional scar.
Similarly, John (the Savage) wanted Lenina for himself. She refused. It is believed
that this is one of the factors that led to his suicide.
The entrance of John the Savage also moves the plot along intellectual lines.
He has long conversations with the Director of the Hatcheries about the meaning of
life, religion, literature, social values, and the constraints of conformity in society.
John is a natural leader. He wants others to known of his own values and begins to
preach to those around him. He tells them about Shakespeare and quotes from the
Bible. Helmholtz Watson and Bernard Marx come to his assistance and support his
views. He and his supporters become a threat to the State. Eventually, Bernard and
Helmholtz are arrested by the police and taken away. They will be placed in exile and
are deported to Iceland. Through the interaction with John, the Savage, and his
supporters, Huxley is able to introduce his own views of the need for diversity within a
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coherent society. He creates a reversal of values by bringing John back to London.
John is considered to be uncivilized because he has morals and believes in marriage.
He is seen as seen as a primitive because of his love for the great books. He loves to
read and he is at home with nature. John is contrasted with those whom the State
considers to be civilized, the Caste system. They love and respect the State. They
believe in free love, promiscuity, and consumerism. They abhor nature and find no
value in reading. Who is really the civilized person? The answer is obvious; it is
John, the Savage.
There is another plot mover created by the return of John, the Savage. One is
told that the Director of Hatcheries, Tomakin, once visited the Reservation several
decades ago and that he had to leave suddenly. Some of the members in his party were
lost and they had to be left behind. These individuals were John and Linda. One is
also told that John, the Savage, was the son of the Director of Hatcheries, Tomakin.
Upon their return to London, the people are told this information by Bernard Marx.
Immediately, the Director of Hatcheries is deposed from his leadership. The crowd
laughs at him. He violated all of the precepts of the State. He is no longer trusted.
Meanwhile, Bernard Marx is treated as a hero. He has become very popular with the
masses and for the first time he is happy. His discontent was not ideological. It was
similar to that of an adolescent who rebels because his identity is in crises. When his
peer group satisfies his longing for acceptance, his rebellion subsides.
There is something very interesting occurring in this genre. The prototype was
the hard science fiction novel whereby one visits another world in the future and
comes to understand that world through the wonders of science. However, when one
looks at the various stories that are listed as science fiction, they cover a wide range of
different kinds of literary constructions such as space opera (a reworking of the old
western soap operas), space romance (the old romance novels in a utopian
environment), fantasy, etc. It turns out that science fiction is an open category. It is
more than a genre. It represents a testing ground whereby new types of literary
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constructions are invented, marketed, and received. It is in this category, for example,
where literary experimentation is encouraged and promulgated. One may write fantasy
and call it science fiction because that fantasy is something out of this world.
Eventually, fantasy will emerge from science fiction as its own genre, but at present, it
is a loosely connected part of an open category. Part of this open category houses the
genre known as science fiction. It is where one may still find both hard and soft
science novels. However, the reality is that one has an open category which houses a
genre. Should one try to restructure this category? If so, when and how should it be
restructured? This is the subject of the next chapter.