INTEGRATION OF FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY INTO AFRICA’S
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS:
MOBILIZATION OF INFORMATION AND DEMONSTRATION SITES
Demonstration Project in the Gambia River Basin
Training of Trainers Module On The monitoring
of flora and
aquatic
vegetation
By Dr. Fatimata Niang Diop September 2010 Module on Plants Page 1 INTEGRATION OF FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY INTO AFRICA’S
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS:
MOBILIZATION OF INFORMATION AND DEMONSTRATION SITES
Demonstration Project in the Gambia River Basin
Training of Trainers Module On The monitoring of flora and aquatic
vegetation
Wetlands International Afrique
Rue 111, Zone B, Villa No 39B
BP 25581 DAKAR-FANN
TEL. : (+221) 33 869 16 81
FAX : (221) 33 825 12 92
EMAIL : [email protected]
Module on Plants Page 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4 Course 1. An Introduction to the monitoring plan ........................................................................................................ 10 1.1. Why monitor flora and vegetation .................................................................................................................... 10 1.2. The role of plant communities in the monitoring of ecosystems ....................................................................... 10 Course 2. General information on aquatic plants ......................................................................................................... 12 2.1. The ecology of aquatic plants ............................................................................................................................ 12 2.2. The morphology and biology of aquatic plants ................................................................................................. 13 2.3. Structure of a plant formation ........................................................................................................................... 14 2.3. Principle types of aquatic plants ........................................................................................................................ 14 Course 3. PRINCIPLE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS AND STUDY SITES ................................................................................... 16 Course 4. TERMINOLOGY AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF AQUATIC PLANTS ................................................................. 20 4.1. Terminology..................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.2. Illustrations of select aquatic plants ............................................................................................................. 22 Course 5. METHODS FOR MONITORING FLORA AND AQUATIC VEGETATION .............................................................. 28 5.1. Preparatory phase ............................................................................................................................................. 28 5.2. Materials ............................................................................................................................................................ 28 5.3. Collection methods: techniques of transection and phytosociological data collection ..................................... 29 5.4. Data analysis ...................................................................................................................................................... 36 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................................... 42 ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................................................................... 43 Annex 1. Data collection sheet...................................................................................................................................... 43 Annex 2 : List of freshwater flora in the Gambia River basin ........................................................................................ 45 Module on Plants Page 3 INTRODUCTION
As part of the implementation of the project “Integration of Freshwater Biodiversity into Africa’s
Development Process: Mobilization of Information and Demonstration Sites” Wetlands
International has implemented a number of programs to ensure effective consideration and the use
of data relevant to biodiversity in the decision-making and implementation of development projects
across the continent. The first phase focusing on the regional evaluation of the conservation status
of freshwater biodiversity has indicated that many freshwater species are severely endangered. In
addition, the management of water resources must take into account the requirements (needs) of
freshwater species. This approach is at the heart of the concept of environmental flows, which aim
to ensure that there is enough water to meet environmental, economic and social needs. After the
first phase, the second phase targets a case study in the Gambia River basin for a better assessment
of biodiversity in development projects. Within this framework, a monitoring plan with regard to
the construction of the Sambagalou dam was developed, and should allow for the documentation of
potential changes in the habitats. This can be the case thanks to careful monitoring of species and
habitat dynamics that should enable the identification of potential negative changes and as such that
adequate measures are taken. Different taxonomic groups will be monitored. In the framework of
this document, we will focus on the development of a method for monitoring aquatic plants. They
are typically studied through various methods. The study of flora and aquatic vegetation is generally
based on phytosociological methods relying on the use of transects and phytosociological data
collection. Phytosociology, or the science of plant groupings, allows the description and
understanding of vegetation, the organization in space and time, both on the quantitative and
qualitative levels of the plant species they constitute (Rameau, 1987). Phytosociology is based on
the assumption that plant species, or even better plant associations, are considered the best
integrating factors of all those ecological factors responsible for the distribution of vegetation
(Beguin et al., 1979). Vegetation is considered to reflect site conditions (Beguin et al. 1979;
Rameau, 1987). The use of transects enables the description of the vegetation distribution. These
phytosociological data will allow for the collection of quantitative data. The use of records
necessitates a directed sampling that requires a few basic practices and precautions (Guinochet,
1955).
Module on Plants Page 4 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF
THE MODULE
This module is designed for the state’s
technical services, NGOs and the local
communities of the Gambia River Basin to
implement in a practical manner a preliminary
plan
for
the
monitoring
of
freshwater
Photo1 : Wetlands workshop (Simenti, 2009)
biodiversity in the Gambia River Basin. It
offers a precise and operational methodology
to monitor the status and dynamics of
freshwater plants. The creation of this type of
course involves choices that must be justified
on the field and eventually adjusted.
Ultimately, this course will enable a:
‐
General understanding of concepts
related to plant ecology
‐
Recognition of the most common
aquatic plants of the Gambia River
Basin
‐
Grasp a method of studying and
monitoring flora and aquatic
vegetation
Photo 2 : The Gambia River (Wetlands, 2009)
Module on Plants Page 5 CONTENT OF THE MODULE
It contains different chapters detailed
throughout the courses.
Course 1 gives an introduction to the
monitoring plan.
Course 2 contains general information on
aquatic plants.
Course 3 gives the definitions of some terms
commonly encountered in the analysis of
flora and aquatic vegetation. It also provides
Photo 3 : The Gambia River (Wetlands, 2009)
illustrations of some aquatic plants so as to
facilitate their recognition.
Course 4 is a brief summary of the flora and
vegetation in the Gambia River basin and of
the sites where monitoring should be done.
Course 5 describes the method to be used for
monitoring the flora and aquatic vegetation in
the Gambia River basin. This course also
focuses on the analysis of collected data.
Photo 4 : Visit to the Sambagalou site (Wetlands, 2009)
Module on Plants Page 6 ORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE
Courses 1, 2 and 3 will consist of explanations related to the monitoring plan and aquatic
ecosystems, with a focus on flora and aquatic vegetation, but also on the greater ecosystems of
the Gambia River basin. Concerning the latter, a description will be given of the major types of
vegetation in the aquatic ecosystems of the Gambia River Basin, and of present sites where
monitoring should be done by emphasizing the current list of plants that are present there. The
procedure is to first listen to the views of participants on certain issues pertinent to the relevant
chapters. Then, the facilitator will compile and present through slides the main points of the
chapters. At the end of the course, a hard copy should be given to participants.
The required duration of courses 1, 2 and 3 is 9 hours, or more precisely 3 hours for each.
For course 4 the objective is to share with participants some concepts commonly encountered in
the realm of aquatic plant study. Thus, the facilitator must show images of some common aquatic
plants encountered in the Gambia River Basin. The course will last 3 hours.
Course 5 is the most important course so the facilitator will insist as much as possible on the
various points of this course. Clear explanations should be provided, discussion with the
participants and questions should be asked to check their level of understanding. This course will
last 12 hours (2hx6 or 3hx4).
At the end of the training and before the actual collection of data, it is important to organize a
field mission to test the operational capabilities of the methodology and, if needed, to make the
necessary adjustments.
Module on Plants Page 7 TRAINING NEEDS
Human Resources:
-
1 facilitator (specialist who will do the training)
-
People in charge of the conservation of ecosystems in the countries sharing the
Gambia River Basin
Materials needed
-
Room (to host the training)
-
Training documents (in a PowerPoint format)
-
Copies of the complete training document
-
Video projector
-
Flip chart and markers
-
Notebooks, pens, pencils and erasers
Financial resources
-
Facilitators per diem
-
Participants per diem
-
Other expenses related to the organization
Module on Plants Page 8 EXPECTED RESULTS
The main expected outcomes in developing this module are the training of technicians
and
the
establishment
of
a
method
for
monitoring
flora
and
aquatic
vegetation. Ultimately, the participants in this training will have a much clearer
understanding of the flora and aquatic vegetation. They will also master a method for
monitoring the flora and aquatic vegetation that they will be able to share with the
technicians who will be in charge of monitoring.
Wetlands International will be the recipient of a methodology for the monitoring of flora
and aquatic vegetation.
Photo 5 : Visit to the Sambagalou site (Wetlands, 2009) Module on Plants Page 9 COURSE 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE
MONITORING PLAN
1.1. WHY MONITOR FLORA AND VEGETATION
The Gambia River basin is characterized by a diversity of habitats (estuaries, marshes, swamps,
mudflats, etc.), which host a very large number of species. With the erection of the Sambagalou
dam, Wetlands International Africa with the support of the IUCN Species Survival Commission has
developed a plan for monitoring the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems in the Gambia River
basin. This monitoring would enable documentation of the changes that might occur with the
implementation of the dam, which is certain to cause profound changes in the ecosystem. These
changes can be seen particularly throughout plant communities, via regular data collection of their
species and respective habitats. In the case of plant communities, those known as "key species" are
essential to maintaining one or more communities. A key species can thus be considered a species
whose loss or disappearance can cause a major change in the ecosystem. For example, among plant
species, those which provide food for animal species are key species. The importance of key species
is proven by the role they play in the maintenance of a given community and not by the size of their
population in numbers. Their loss leads to major changes in the actual functioning of the ecosystem.
In conservation biology, one uses the term bio-indicator for species whose presence or the
fluctuation of whose population reflect changes in the environment or in communities of other
species. These species can act as biological indicators or bio-indicators and enable one to determine
the state of the ecosystem.
The species’ population status must be checked in the field at regular intervals because potential
negative changes within their populations or environment may be revealed. As such it would enable
an immediate respond and the application of adequate measures.
1.2. ROLE OF PLANT COMMUNITIES IN THE MONITORING OF ECOSYSTEMS
Module on Plants Page 10 Aquatic plants are vital for both men and animals. They also play an important ecological role
through the ecological processes of oxygenation and water purification and also in maintaining
balance in the ecosystem. An ecosystem is a dynamic unit composed of, among other things,
various species that not only interact with each other, but also with the environment. These species
play an important role in maintaining the balance of habitats. Among these species, those known as
"key species" are essential to the survival of one or more other species through the action they
perform for the maintenance of these species. With regard to plant communities, species that
provide, for example food for certain animal species are key species. Other species are used for
shelter, nesting and spawning grounds for many animal species. Their loss causes major changes in
the functioning of the ecosystem.
Moreover, in conservation biology, one uses the term bio-indicator for species, which are those
whose presence or the fluctuation of whose population reflects changes in the environment or in
communities of other species. For example, the proliferation of some algae indicates the existence
of organic pollution.
Photo 6: Aquatic plant community (ISE, 2009)
Module on Plants Page 11 COURSE 2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON
AQUATIC PLANTS
2.1. PLANT ECOLOGY OF AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
The vegetation of aquatic environments is organized into plant groups within which species cohabit
under favorable conditions; the predominant environmental factors are not the same for all of the
collective species; the plant community is more or less a result of a kind of juxtaposition of a group
of species each being tied to the variation of certain ecological factors. These factors, such as the
permanence and depth of water, and its chemical characteristics (especially pH and salinity) can be
considered essential due to their influence on the vegetation; in that they themselves are the result of
an interplay of many edaphic, climate and even biological elements, the differentiation of
vegetation is integrated in a complex manner, and specifies the variation of those factors essential to
the general ecology. Let us briefly consider some aspects of the vegetation in differing
habitats. Slightly brackish waters are mainly located in the littoral-dependent lagoons, behind the
mangroves; submerged groups in Najas or Potamogeton are found in open waters while at their
periphery, meadows of Diplachne or Paspalum vaginatum undergo a more or less prolonged
seasonal flooding. Freshwater with relatively important loads of salt generally correspond to
eutrophic environments, given their chemical balance. If the depth is sufficient, the Ceratophyllum
constitute a floating group, the Nyrnphaea create a shallow beltcloser to the surface, that itself is
encircled by a Typha zone. Various types of vegetation can occupy these margins that are slightly
but consistently (or almost) flooded, such as Cyperus papyrus or Cladium. If the annual change in
water level is higher, you will be able to find « bourgoutières » (Echinochloa stagnina) that can
spontaneously switch to rice fields. The vegetation of these shallow groups may have variants,
which float through and tend to colonize deeper waters. The meadows of Bourgoo rise with the
water level, forming a loose tangle of floating stems more or less anchored to the ground, with
many edge species, belonging to the papyrus or typhaie for example, who elongate rods that float
above the deeper waters, and extend their group at the expense of the Nymphaea zone. In some
cases, the floating vegetation of these margins can development significantly; fragments can break
off or tear, while the floating stems intertwined with roots form a dense thatch, coherent enough that
debris will remain hooked to it, such that seeds can germinate there. It is therefore a veritable
substrate, composed of living vegetation, which propagates itself; plants, rooted on themselves just
Module on Plants Page 12 below the surface, have in fact an ecology of shallow peripheral zone, though permanently flooded.
Thus, when marginal environments occupy considerable areas, it is to the detriment of deep-water
plant groups whose species are eliminated when the surface is no longer free. For numerous
reasons, including their impact on the biology of deep water or sedimentation; edge environments
often play a major role in the dynamics of aquatic biological communities.
Waters minimally loaded with salt, more or less acid, and that can be described as oligotrophic, can
for instance accommodate special species of Najas, or Nymphaea if the depth is not too great. On
the margins whose levels do not fluctuate much, one can find Pycreus mundtii, which may extend
over the water in rafts. Rock pools, temporary or not, have rich and varied vegetation. One can
mention fugitive ponds of bowe, small bladderworts and Eriocaulon, ponds with variable levels, but
which are permanent or almost, of wild rice, savannah ponds fed during the dry season with seeps,
rich in Cyperaceae. The vegetation of flowing waters is perhaps less rich and less diverse than calm
waters, whether stagnant or not, permanent or not. Only the Podostemaceae can be found in
waterfalls on the heavily beaten rocks, or in sharp flowing streams, mostly the substrate will define
the presence (or possibility) either Utricularia rigida or Bolbitis heudelotii, or also Eriocaulon
latifolium or Crinum natans. The streams in Rotala or Limnophila for example, have a more calm
current, and the flow is definitely slow if the surface waters contain floating species such as
Ceratopleris, Pistia or Azolla.
2.2. MORPHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY OF AQUATIC PLANTS
In this work, we place the focus on "higher plants", meaning ferns and flowering plants. These are
chlorophyll containing organizations, hence capable of assimilating carbon dioxide to produce
oxygen; their various parts being differentiated by specialized organs on the one hand, and specific
tissues on the other, among which one can mention sap conduits (vessels among them).
Among ferns (Figure 1), leaves and roots are attached to a stem that is relatively short. They do not
flower but produce fruiting structures (on the leaves or directly on the stem) that contain spores.
After release, spores develop into tiny and ephemeral plants that contain microscopic sexual organs;
after fertilization, they produce young ferns.
Flowering plants are typically composed of roots, leaves, stems and flowers. The flowers are the
location of the plant’s sexual reproduction: one can find stamens that produce pollen (male organs)
and a pistil, which contains ovules (female organ). Some plants have bisexual flowers, in others the
male and female flowers are separate. The pollen is dispersed, and will fertilize the female organs:
Module on Plants Page 13 each fertilized egg becomes a seed, and the pistil a fruit. The seeds will later develop into young
plants.
Figure 1: Illustrations of a few ferns
2.3. STRUCTURE OF A PLANT FORMATION
A plant formation has a structure that gives it its particular physiognomy. It’s thus, that the aerial
parts of plants are usually arranged in an orderly manner. This order is the manifestation of a
structure in space. The vertical structure or stratification of the vegetation: the leaves of different
plant species are often arranged in several stages that are more or less individualized. Four
vegetation strata are eventually encountered: a tree layer, composed of the tops of tall trees, a lower
shrub layer composed of leaves of shrubs, a herb layer at no more than 50 cm above the ground, and
finally a moss layer in which one can find high bryophytes barely measuring a few centimeters.,
The number of strata however varies from one plant community to another.
2.3. PRINCIPLE TYPES OF AQUATIC PLANTS
Aquatic plants are plants adapted to life in water. Among these plants, one finds mostly microscopic
plants or phytoplankton as opposed to macrophytes or large plants visible to the naked eye. These
aquatic plants are found in marine and fresh water environments, whether in stagnant waters (lakes,
small ponds, ponds, marshes) or flowing water (rivers, streams, channels). This course will only
Module on Plants Page 14 tackle freshwater plants. It’s agreed that one should distinguish different types of aquatic plants by
their water requirements, but the concept of an aquatic plant is difficult to define. One can find
plants that must be submerged without exception and those that subsist on a few short weeks of
seasonal flooding, and everything in between. Aquatic plants however, can be divided into two
main groups: hydrophytes and helophytes (Figure 2). The hydrophytes are plants that have their
entire vegetative body in water, or on the water surface. One can distinguish three groups among
them:

The free floating hydrophytes: water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes)

The fixed hydrophytes with floating leaves: these are plants whose leaf blades float on the
water surface. During flowering, the flowers emerge from the water and are carried by a
stalk that can reach 20 cm in height. Example: Nymphaea lotus.

The emergent plants or helophytes in contrast, have part of their vegetative and reproductive
body in the air while developing a root system in a waterlogged muddy substrate. Example
Typha australis.
Moreover, there are plants on dry land that are likely to survive to temporary flooding. These are
called accidental or occasional aquatic plants.
Module on Plants Page 15 Figure 2: Main types of aquatic plants
COURSE 3. PRICIPLE AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEMS AND STUDY SITES
Based on the three main reaches (Gambian, Guinean and Senegalese), one finds in the Gambia
River basin a relatively diverse set of ecosystems consisting primarily of gallery forests and the
classified forests of Guinea, the Niokolo Koba / Badiar complex, and the freshwater marshes and
Module on Plants Page 16 flood plains of the Gambia. These ecosystems are characterized by the presence of numerous plant
species.
The Gambian part of the river is located in the estuarine zone. The upper part of the estuary is
influenced by the freshwater marshes that as such form floodplains. These floodplains are
characterized by the presence of gallery forests and various meadows where you can find species
such as Anodelphia afzeliana, Vetivera nigritana, Eragrostris atrovirens, Panicum sp. with the
extensive settlements of Paspalum, Setaria and Andropogon on the edges of floodplains. In this
Gambian reach, three sites in freshwater ecosystems have been identified, but it was proposed to
integrate other ecosystems of brackish to saline water due to the probable influence them by the
dam. Thus, the sites that will be monitored are:
•
« Lower-River ecological site »: nursery area for fish and the first Ramsar site in Gambia.
•
« Central-River region » : reserve area (Manatee)
•
« Upper-River ecology »: mountainous region irrigated by water from the Fouta Djallon.
•
« Baobalon Wetland Reserve »
Photo 7: The Gambia River (IUCN, 2005)
Module on Plants Page 17 In the Guinean reach, one can find the Niokolo-Badiar, the Ndama forest, the forests of the
Gambia-Kabela and the Bakoun forest, and the Bafing basin. In Guinea, the selected sites are:
•
Site in Thiéwiré in the Lébékéré Commune Rurale de Developpement (CRD);
•
Site in Parabanta in the Balaki Commune Rurale de Developpement (CRD);
•
Site in Kounsi in the Balaki Commune Rural de Developpement (CRD)
•
Site in the District of Pakaya in the Commune Urbaine de Mali, the host site
The Senegalese portion of the basin is marked by extensive wetlands that are seasonally flooded
by rainwater and covered by grasslands and aquatic or semi aquatic formations. In this reach, the
main sites to monitor are located within the Niokolo Koba National Park. Niokolo Koba National
Park is transected by the Gambia River from southeast to northwest and is joined by two major
tributaries: the Koulountou and Niokolo Koba. To these surface waters, one can add the numerous
temporary and permanent ponds and creeks. The sites are located in Bara, the Gue of Damantan, to
the confluence points of Gambia-Niokolo and Gambia- Niériko, the ponds of Simenti, Kountadala,
Wouring, Oudassi, Banthantity, Padan and the site of Sambagalou.
Figure 3: Map of the National Park of Niokolo Koba (OMVG, 2005)
Module on Plants Page 18 At these sites, the main vegetation types are forest galleries and swampy grasslands. Gallery forests
located along the rivers are characterized by a relatively diverse flora with species such as Borassus
aethiopum and many epiphytes and lianas. Grasslands, located in swampy depressions and ponds,
contain a diversity of aquatic and semi aquatic plants. One can find there semi-aquatic herbaceous
species such as Vetivera nigritana, Rytachne triaristata, Commelina difusa and Melastromastrum
capitatum.
The wetlands (lakes and ponds) are found in the area going from Simenti to Gouloumbou. These are
areas usually flooded during the rainy season. They are overwhelmed by aquatic vegetation that
sometimes form extensive swampy meadows. During the dry season, these wetlands gradually
regress to form ponds in the lower areas. These areas are home to a relatively diverse flora with
species such as Arundinella nepalensis, Eichhornia natans, Eriochrysis brachypogon, Nymphoides
indica, Oryza barthii, Ottelia ulvifolia, Potamogeton nodosus and Vetivera nigritana. Other species
such as Sacciolepis, Echinochloa, Setaria, Leersia, Panicum Acroceras can also be found there. In
the Simenti pond, two semi-aquatic woody species Mimosa pigra and Mytragina inermis form
almost impenetrable thickets with Mytragina inermis occupying the edges of the pond, Mimosa
pigra closer to the center and Vetivera nigritana make up the vast meadows. Aeschynomene
afraspera, Aeschynomene crassicaulis, Echinochloa colona, Heliotropium indicum, Ipomea
aquatica, Ludwigia adcendens, Stylosanthes erecta and Vetivera nigritana are also found inside
these ponds. In the Kountadala pond, Mimosa pigra forms almost pure settlements and occupies
about 90% of the pond’s area (ISE 2009). Other aquatic species including Aeschynomene afraspera,
Aeschynomene crassicaulis, Heliotropium indicum, and Ludwigia adscendens can be found inside
the pond.
Photo 8: The Gambia River (IUCN, 2005)
Module on Plants Page 19 COURSE 4. TERMINOLOGY AND
IDENTIFICATION OF AQUATIC PLANTS
4.1. TERMINOLOGY
o Helophytes: These are plants that grow at the water’s edge, and are rooted deep
within. Their base is submerged while the assimilative organs are at least partially borne
above the water. Examples: common reed (Phragmites australis), cattail (Typha sp.)
o Hydrophytes: These are aquatic plants
o Macrophytes: Aquatic plants visible to the naked eye -in contrast to phytoplankton
o Phytoplankton: Composed of microscopic plants floating in water. Examples: various algae
o Flora: The flora of a given region is the list of plant species found in this region. This
catalog may considerably differ from one geographical location to another, yet both can be
subject to the same environmental conditions.
o Vegetation: The structure of plant settlements
o Plant formations: Plant formations refer to the structure of plant colonies. They are often
described by the recovery percentages of the various types that compose them (herbaceous,
woody...).
o Biological types: Describe various shapes and plant structure based on their adaptation
strategy in the environment in which they live. Trees, shrubs, bushes, perennials, annuals,
rosette plants, plants with bulbs or rhizomes, and aquatic plants are all of different biological
types.
o Phytosociological table: A raw table containing data as they were collected in the field. The
summary table includes all data on a specific type of vegetation and is arranged so as to
highlight the associated characteristic species, differential species, companion species and
ecological groups.
o Plant groups: Refer to combinations of plant species found in a place without prejudice as
to their status. There are two types of schematic approaches to describe the plant
communities.
o Plant associations: These are categories of plant groups having common floral and
sociological characters. The concept of association is based on the idea that plant species do
not
cluster
Module on Plants randomly,
but
follow
affinities
in
relation
to
the
environmental
Page 20 conditions. Phytosociology or sociology of plants, is the science which classifies
associations (just like systematics is the classification of species).
BRAUN-BLANQUET, 1928: « The plant association is a more or less stable plant
community, in balance with the surrounding environment, characterized by a specific floral
composition in which certain elements are nearly exclusive, and species characteristics
reveal with their presence a particular and autonomous ecology ». In an association, one can
then find stateless species, or companions, and species characteristics, indicative of the
environment.
o Ecological groups: These are groups of species posing the same requirements on the
environment. Monitoring the species representation of a particular group or several groups
enables one to have an indication of changes related to the environmental conditions
(example: increase of species after fertilization).
o Vegetation dynamics: This is the study of vegetation changes over time. It goes through
very short periods such as seasonal changes during much longer periods that date back
further in the vegetation’s history.
o Species Characteristics: Species more or less localized in an association, which allow for
floristic characterization; whether they are exclusive, regional or local, common or rare.
o Companions: Species present in the collected data, but not particularly related to a specific
association.
o Recovery: Vertical projection surface of the plant’s aerial projections (crown, tower), or
vegetation (canopy) on the ground, or a proportion or percentage of this surface in relation
to the total area being surveyed.
o Abundance: The total number of individuals of each species in the complete sample.
o Recovery: The area occupied by individuals of a species. It is estimated using the projection
on the ground of the leafy ground cover.
o Density: The number of individuals belonging to a species per area unit.
o Relative density: The density of a species compared to the density of all species.
o Dominance: The area occupied (using recovery) by a species in a colony, per unit area.
o Relative dominance: Area occupied by a species, using recovery, compared to the area
occupied by all species.
o Frequency: Distribution of a species in a colony, i.e., the percentage of quadrants in the
sample, where one can find individuals of a species.
Module on Plants Page 21 o Relative frequency: The distribution of a species compared to the distribution of all species
in the sample.
o Value of Importance (VI): This is an index composed of the relative density, relative
dominance and relative frequency, which locates the structural role of a species in a colony.
The value of importance is also used to for comparison among colonies in terms of species
composition and settlement structure.
Value of Importance = relative density + relative dominance + relative frequency
3.2. ILLUSTRATIONS OF SELECT AQUATIC PLANTS
The plants should be properly identified by species. When you are in the field, you must always
have a manual for plant identification and the preliminary list of species in the study area. In order
to facilitate this identification in the field, a few illustrations are provided here to represent species
that are frequently encountered. Even the most seasoned experts make identification errors. If you
have any doubts whatsoever, take a specimen that can be identified later.
Module on Plants Photo 9 : Pistia straiotes
Page 22 Family: Araceae
Genus: Pistia
Species: stratiotes
Description: Grass rosette freely floating on the surface resembling lettuce leaves. Finely
branched roots are immersed in water. Almond green leaves are hairy, sessile and broadly oval.
Minute inflorescence
Ecology: Permanently or impermanently calm waters, eutrophic environments. The plant can
completely cover water ponds and thus become harmful.
hidden between the leaves
Family: Nympheaceae
Genus: Nymphaea
Species: lotus
Description: Rooted fleshy herb; rosette
leaves floating in limbo; white flowers
held by a long pedicel. The fruit ripens
under water and contains many seeds.
Ecology: Shiny calm waters that may
eventually dry out for a short period (muddy
ponds, eutrophic)
Photo 10 : Nymphaea lotus Module on Plants Page 23 Photo 11 : View of pond covered with water lilies (Nymphaea lotus)
Family: Typhaceae
Genus: Typha
Species:
domingensis
Description: Robust herbs with long linear
leaves, thickly erected, brown ears; Small
flowers densely crowded.
Ecology: Permanent waters somewhat shallow
sometimes slightly brackish: ponds. Lakes, large
stretches of water. The plant can be used in
herbal floating rafts for deep waters.
Module on Plants Page 24 Photo 12 : Typha australis (ISE, 2008) Photo 13: View of pond covered with water lilies surrounded by Typha australis (Nymphaea lotus)
Family: Pontederiaceae
Genus: Eichhornia
Species: crassipes
Common name: Water Hyacinth
Description: rosette grass floating freely in the
water surface: finely branched roots rose mallow,
plunge into the water. Leaves with swollen petioles
and oval limbs, rough. Wide flowers 2 to 3 cm.
Module on Plants Ecology: American species that tends to become
naturalized in certain regions of Africa. It spreads
in tropical countries where it is often harmful. It
forms dense floating populations. It is sometimes
Page 25 grown as an ornamental plant.
Family: Ceratophyllaceae
Genus: Ceratophyllum
Species: demersum
Description: Brittle branched herbs, rootless and
submerged, floating freely. Vertical leaves, forked,
denticulate at the apex. Spiny fruit about 5 mm
long, containing a single seed,
Habitat: Calm waters, deep and permanent. The
plant does not support dewatering.
Photo 15 : Ceratophyllum demersum Family: Potamogetonaceae
Genus: Potamogeton
Species: sp
Description: Leafy stems, submerged, sometimes
very long, flexible. Submerged membranous leaves,
translucent.
Habitat: Deep permanent waters, lakes, calm
streams.
Photo 16 : Potamogeton sp Family: Poaceae
Genus: Vetivera
Species: Nigritana
Common Name: Vetiver
Description: Powerful grass with strong tufts;
upright stems reaching up to 3 m. Leaves with very
long lamina that can reach up to 1 m.
Photo 17 : Vetivera nigritana Module on Plants Ecology: Flood zones
Page 26 Family: Mimosaceae
Genus: Mimosa
Species: pigra
Description: Shrub more or less scandent,
very thorny and bushy, with erect stems, with
leaves sensitive closing when touched.
Habitat:
forming
impenetrable
thickets along rivers and along areas of
lowland flooding Species
Photo 18 : Mimosa pigra Family: Salviniaceae
Genus: Salvinia
Species: sp
Aquatic fern native of Brazil floating freely on
the surface of the water. Horizontal stems with
opposite leaves, emerging covered with hair.
It has a strong ability to duplicate and is
capable of covering all the water. That was the
Photo 19 : Salvinia sp case in the Senegal River.
Module on Plants Page 27 COURSE 5. METHODS FOR MONITORING
FLORA AND AQUATIC VEGETATION
5.1. PREPARATORY PHASE
In the framework of a large scale study such as the basin scale, it is often necessary to collect all
available information on the subject (vegetation maps, topographic, geologic, and soil maps,
floristic data, etc.). Thus, it is important to answer a number of questions including:
 What is the general floristic knowledge of the site?
 What is the biological and ecological knowledge about species that we want to monitor?
 Is monitoring already being undertaken?
 What are the technical and scientific skills required?
 Are there any constraints such as accessibility?
The answers to these questions help determine the feasibility of the method and the monitoring
frequency that should be considered. It is very easy to make a decision on the necessity of setting up
monitoring, or even undertake a baseline study, however, the on-going data collection over time, in
addition to their interpretation and exploitation of results are often abandoned! Hence, it is
important to only initiate useful monitoring, feasible (in terms of ability, time and resources devoted
to it) and exploitable.
In addition, preliminary field surveys will be useful to gain an overview of the sites but also to test
the operational capability of the method. The transect method has been proposed to monitor the
flora and vegetation; this method will probably be adjusted in the field.
5.2. MATERIALS
To complete the study of flora and vegetation, various materials will be needed:
o a compass to orient transects
o GPS
o Camera
o a rope to establish transects
Module on Plants Page 28 o machetes to clear transects without disturbing the vegetation structure or destroying certain
species
o The flora of the Gambia, Guinea, Senegal and neighboring regions
o a notepad and pencil to record data.
5.3. COLLECTION METHOD:
TRANSECT TECHNIQUE AND PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL
DATA COLLECTION
Phytosociological methods are generally used for the study of aquatic plant communities. The
transect method combined with Braun Blanquet’s phytosociological data collection will be used to
collect quantitative data. While undertaking the study of flora and vegetation, it is also important to
study some ecological factors that will facilitate a better understand of the monitoring results.
5.3.1. TRANSECTS
Transects enable the measurement of changes from one community to another due to environmental
gradients such as moisture. These environmental gradients create vegetation gradients whose
monitoring will provide useful data on various environmental changes. They permit the
visualization of succession of vegetation and thus propose clues as to the influence of certain
ecological factors.
Transects facilitate analysis of the vegetation monitoring along one or several gradients such
as moisture, topography, the study of soils or even human activities, going, for example, from
the dewatered to the flooded area.
 How to make a transect?
To make a transect, one should stretch a wire or ribbon fixed at both ends by two unmovable stakes
driven into the ground. The main species that appear will be carefully identified along that line. With regard to the monitoring, one needs simply to return to the same location at regular intervals,
each time stretching the tape between the two stakes remaining in the ground, and write down the
plants that are in contact with the line. Module on Plants Page 29  Size of transects
The width of any transect depends on the type of community found along the gradient that is being
studied. The size must be adapted to the type of vegetation.
Transects at least 5m in width will be used when the dominant community type consists of large
trees and shrubs, whereas transects measuring 1m will be used when grass dominates.
The length of transect will depend on the site where the monitoring is done. A transect extending
from a small community to another may measure a few meters, while another associated with a
bank or an elevated gradient may be much longer. Sometimes, depending on the type of vegetation,
the transect will have two widths, or even more, along the same gradient.
 How to decide the number of transects?
The objectives of the monitoring program and the extent of the area covered call for the
establishment of a large number of transects. This number will depend on the sample stations and
other considerations that may be decided in the field.
 How to choose the arrangement of transects and their placement?
Transects cross the moisture gradient and can start with the dewatered area and stretch toward the
flooded area, unless a barrier or a natural barrier determines the points of departure and
termination. The transect’s reference base should be placed at a convenient and easily recognizable
demarcation. From that point, the transect can be extended in both directions: up to the water
(preferably in the area of the submerged vegetation) and in the opposite direction crossing the
different types of vegetation until the transect is in a vegetated area where the gradient is no longer
apparent.
5.3.2. PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTION
Phytosociology is the description of plant associations. It analyzes plant associations and their
dynamics. The phytosociological data collection enables the determination of the floristic
composition of the groups. A comparison of phytosociological data collection undertaken initially
permits the intake of information on the evolution of flora and vegetation. Such phytosociological
or phytoecological data will be carried out using the Braun-Blanquet system.
 Data collection
Module on Plants Page 30 Three conditions are required for data collection:
1)
Appropriate dimensions -to contain a sample of species representative of the
community
2)
Habitat uniformity -the collected data will not overflow in two different habitats
3)
Homogeneity of the vegetation
 Identification and location of collected data
It is important to geo-reference the location and position on a map of the collected data. Moreover
in the field, marking will allow one to easily find them for the next visits. In fact, one needs to
materialize in the field an angle, or the center of the collected data with a strong stake while
considering the danger it may cause.
Data collected will be distributed in a systematic manner following steps that may be decided on the
field.
 Attributes of collected data
The vegetation data should also be completed by specific guidance enabling its identification and
location in space and time. These parameters are mainly: 







Station Number
Number of data
Date
Name of data
Geographic coordinates
Type of plant formation
Dominant plant species
Topography


Particularity of the station
etc.
(see monitoring form) 
 Size of the data or minimum area:
The search for the minimum phytosociological area meets the first condition. The concept of
minimum area is designed as the area in which almost all species of the plant community are
represented. A classical approach is based on the « method of nested surfaces » (Figure 1).
Module on Plants Page 31 Calculating the minimum area
In a homogeneous sector, it is defined as a square 1m2 with 4 poles and a rope. Count the number
of species present in this square. Double its size (1m x 2m = 2m2) and count the number of new
species. One doubles again this square (2m x 2m = 4m2) then (4m x 2m = 8m2) and so on. Trace the
curve area / species (abscissa = increasing area; ordinate = number of species).
The minimum area is the area corresponding to the inflection point of the curve.
Figure 4: System of nested surfaces to determine the minimum area
Each plot numbered from 1 contains the surface area of the previous plot. Thus, odd plots are
square and rectangular plots are pairs (from [18]). In bringing the cumulative number of species,
depending on the area in meters squared, one obtains the graph in Figure 2.
Module on Plants Page 32 Figure 5: Curve area / species for the search of the minimum area

Data collection The statement contains three categories of information: 
Geographic: date, location, coordinates (by GPS eventually), altitude, slope, exposure...

Environmental: lithology, drainage, moisture, humus, soil pH, biotic factors (browsing by
game, defoliation, etc.), microclimate

Specifics or flora: List of plant species, eventually depending on the stratification of
individuals with quantitative indications of abundance, recovery, biomass, or simply
qualitative, presence.
 The list of plants: all species present in the statements will be listed. And those that are not
identified in the field will be collected and later identified using herbarium. Module on Plants Page 33  The abundance-dominance of each species will be assessed using the Braun-Blanquet
scale. The index of abundance-dominance of a given species is an overall estimate of the
density (number of individuals, or abundance) and the recovery rate (vertical projection of
the aerial parts, or dominance) of individuals of this species in the sample area. The
abundance-dominance concept is the one most commonly used in phytosociology. BraunBlanquet created the coefficient of abundance-dominance, which combines the concepts of
abundance and dominance. Abundance expresses the number of individuals who constitute
the population of the species present in the statement. Dominance is the recovery of all
individuals of a given species, as the vertical projection of their aerial vegetative parts on the
ground. The coefficient of abundance-dominance is estimated visually. It is therefore not a
real measure. Its estimate is subject to some subjectivity, which is however negligible in the
overall phytosociological analysis.
Coefficient of abundance-dominance
Among the data collected, the coefficient of abundance - dominance is typically established in the
phytosociological data collection. The following scale is that most commonly adopted:
5: recovery of more than 75% of the quadrant
4: recovery between 50 and 75%
3: recovery of between 25 and 50%
2: recovery between 5 and 25%
1: less than 5% recovery
+: Very few individuals with very low recovery
r: rare  The recovery: it is estimated both from the abundance (relative number of individuals of a
species compared to the total number of individuals identified in the plot or quadrant) and
dominance (covered area i.e. the projection on the ground of foliage cover of all individuals
of the species). It is expressed through the coefficient of abundance-dominance determined
by the Braun-Blanquet scale. These coefficients vary according to the recovery.
 Procedure to assign a coefficient of abundance
•
Does the species cover more than 50%? Module on Plants Page 34 •
If more than 75%, coefficient 5 •
If less than 75%, coefficient 4 •
Does the species cover less than 50%?
•
If more than 25%, coefficient 3 •
If less than 25%, coefficient 2 •
Does the species cover less than 5%?
•
If many individuals, coefficient 1 •
If a few individuals, coefficient + •
Is the species rare (unique individual, very low recovery)?
•
Coefficient r.  Other attributes of species
 Vitality, phenology and biological types
Various notations can be added as a subscript or superscript, to the coefficient of abundancedominance.
Thus, one can distinguish three classes of vitality [5, 22, 24]:
•
Low vitality, never flowers or fruits °°
•
Medium Vitality °
•
Strong vitality •
Other notations can describe the phenological state (leaf-leafless, barren-flowered-fruited) of each
species. These seasonal aspects require revisiting the same sites in order to undertake further data
collection. Raunkiaer biological types, which are the subject of a separate description, can be
associated with each species for the establishment of a biological spectra.  Sociability of species
This value, on a scale of 1 to 5 according to [5], indicates the degree of spatial dispersion of
individuals. It can be added to the coefficient of abundance-dominance, by separating it from the
latter by a hyphen:
Module on Plants Page 35 
5: Almost pure population, important

4: Many small colonies or forming a broad belt

3: Population forming small groups or cushions

2: Dense aggregates or groups

1: Solitary growth
5.4. DATA ANALYSIS  Manual sorting technique of phytosociological tables
The traditional technique of manually sorting collected data is still widely used. It consists of
moving columns (collected data) and rows (species) of a phytosociological table so as to bring the
records that are most alike and to group the species according to their sociological affinities. One uses a raw table which is a double entry table. The columns correspond to data collected
randomly and the lines correspond to the species listed in the order they appear in the first
collected data. One then adds species from the subsequent data collection, which do not appear in
the first and so on, until all collected data and all species are listed. In the box at the intersection of
a row and a column, one indicates the abundance-dominance and sociability of the species from the
collected data. If the species is not present in the collected data, the box remains empty.
In the raw table, collected data and species identified are ranked. The table method aims to change
the order of data collected and species so as to consolidate them in the most logical manner
possible. For that, the raw table will be converted into an attendance table. In this attendance table,
one ranks the species according to their decreasing degree of attendance (the number of data
collected in which they can be found).
On this attendance table, one needs to search for the groups of species that generally flock together
in some collected data and are at the same time generally absent from the others. These species are
classified as differential species. One looks therefore to isolate subsets of collected data that share
subsets of differential species.
The most frequent species (relative frequency superior to 90%) or the most rare (relative
frequency inferior to 10%), which only play a minor role in this process are temporarily ignored
Module on Plants Page 36 (working on a differential table without these species may facilitate comparisons when the
number of species on the raw table is very large).
One then seeks to bring together species that are simultaneously present in some collected data and
simultaneously absent in others, by neglecting isolated presence: at the same time, one locates the
species that exclude themselves (which are almost never present together in the collected
data). This search for correlated species is used to group collected data that share these groups of
species.
A permutation of rows and columns can reconcile species and collected data by successive
approximations. By including constant and accidental species in the edited differential table, one
elaborates a table in which subsets of collected data are individualized hierarchically, and
arranged along a gradient of flora composition. This table is then divided into a number of tables,
each consisting of a homogeneous group of collected data that correspond to the tables of different
groupings.
A group consists of one or more species living in homogeneous stationary conditions.
The characteristic species are the dominant species.
Companion species: these are species that are less abundant or less numerous. The accidental are
those that are not in their environment in the ecological sense. In the analysis, it is important to test the homogeneity of phytosociological tables, for example using
the coefficient of variation. A table is considered homogeneous when the coefficient of variation is
between 10 and 25%. In each phytosociological table, it is important to note the number of
collected data, recovery, the number of species per record, the frequency of each species, the class
frequency. Frequency classes are defined as follows:
‐
Species present in 0-20% of collected data: Class I
‐
Species present in 20-40% of collected data: Class II
‐
Species present in 40-60% of collected data: class III
‐
Species present in 60-80% of collected data: Class IV
‐
Species present in 80 to 100% collected data: Class V
 Example of summary tables of collected data
Module on Plants Page 37 If one performs a number of complete floristic data collection on surfaces at least equal to the
minimum area, they can be compared conveniently by transcribing them in a double entry table,
where each row is assigned to a species and each column to collected data. Species are descriptors;
columns are objects and indications at the intersection of row and column descriptions. A table
composed of data collected in the order they were entered in the field is a raw table, qualitative,
semi-quantitative or quantitative, based on the following attributes: presence, abundancedominance, number of individuals, biomass, etc. Table 1 gives an example of a raw table from a
series of collected data.
Table 1: Raw floristic table
Raw table Record number Species Sp1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Sp5 Sp6 Sp7 Sp8 Sp9 Sp10 Sp11 Sp12 Sp13 Sp14 Sp15 01 02 5 + 4 1 2 3 3 03 3 2 1 3 4 2 04 2 3 3 1 3 3 05
06
07
08
5
3
3
3
2
2
2
4
2
3
3
5
+
3
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
2
2
2
09
5
1
3
1
3
3
2
1
1
10 11
3 4 + 2 + 3 1 3 2 + 4 12
5
3
1
3
2
These records are tabulated in the order they were entered in the field
Lines: species. Columns: collected data. Numbers: Braun-Blanquet coefficients of abundancedominance
One may revise the raw table to elaborate other tables. For example, by substituting the values of
the coefficients of abundance-dominance with a simple indication of presence (1) and absence (0)
species, one obtains Table 2. This obviously results in a loss of information. Nevertheless, one can
consider that the mere presence of a species structure distances it from the collected data. Specific
quantitative treatment can be applied to the tables based on presence-absence.
Module on Plants Page 38 Reading of the tables can be done vertically and horizontally. Vertically, we can check whether the
species present are related or associated. In other words: Are the species together by
chance? Otherwise,
can
we
identify
groups
of
species
related
by
their
ecological
requirements? Horizontally, quantitative (abundance-dominance) and qualitative (presence /
absence) differences between collected data occur. Despite the floristic homogeneity being sought
and eventually tested, environmental heterogeneity and biotic interactions lead to differences in
collected data. Our task is to highlight similarities between collected data and gather those who are
alike, or separate the most dissimilar.
Table 2 Table of floristic presence-absence
Table of presence‐absence Record number Species Sp1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp6 Sp4 Sp7 Sp8 Sp9 Sp 10 Sp5 Sp11 Sp12 Sp13 Sp14 Sp15 Number of species 01 02 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 03 04 1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
6
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 05
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
06
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
07
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
7
08
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
0
1
8
09
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
6
10 11 12
FR
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 7 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
5
12
11
11
9
5
4
4
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
15
The coefficients in Table 1 have been replaced by the values of presence (1) and absence (0) of
species.
Last column: absolute frequency of species (Fr). The species are arranged by decreasing
frequency. Last line: number of species per collected data. Last number (bold): total number of
species recorded (observed species richness, S). The average number of species per collected data
is 5.7 with a variance of 2.6.
Four changes have been applied in Table 1 to elaborate Table 2:
Module on Plants Page 39 1. The coefficients in Table 1 were replaced by 1 and the empty cells with 0.
The result is a table on the presence-absence.
2.
A column was added at the end of the table. It contains the frequency values (or presence) of
different species (Fr). The frequency of a species is the number of times a species is present in
a table (absolute frequency) or compared to the total number of records in the table (relative
frequency).
3.
Species have been rearranged by decreasing frequency. This manipulation of the table permits
the underlining of the frequent species, also known as common species, and less frequent
species, known as rare species. In Table 2, six species are represented only once. They are
unique species.
4.
An additional line at the bottom of the table shows the number of species per collected
data. Thus, species richness (or flora) varies between 2 and 8 and amounts to 15 for the entire
table. It is easy to calculate an average wealth per collected data (S = 5.7) and variance (s2 =
2.6). The emergence of new species, from left to right of the table, enables to draw a cumulative
curve of species that tends to become asymptotic as the number of collected data increases
(sampling effort).
The cumulative curve of species can be used for several functions:
1) Indicate whether the sampling effort is sufficient (the curve reaches the top) or should be
continued (the slope is still too high) to optimize sampling
2) Compare species richness of communities subject to different sampling efforts
3) Improve knowledge of the total richness of the community, one of the components of biodiversity.
Thus, in our case, the cumulative numbers of species are, successively: 2, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14,
14, 15.
5.3.3. OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER
It is important to take into account the hydrological parameters and some soil factors of the
environment and analyze them. For that, it is important to integrate into the team a hydrogeologist
who can assist with the collection and analysis of the data. The hydrological parameters are:
o The water level
Module on Plants Page 40 o pH
o Temperature
o Dissolved oxygen
o Conductivity
o Presence of other chemicals such as nitrates, phosphates and potassium.
The soil parameters must also be written down on the basis of soil samples that will be taken at
different points at the sampling station. These samples will be analyzed in the laboratory and
various parameters will be considered:

pH

Electrical conductivity

Total nitrogen

Assimilable phosphorus

Exchangeable bases

Cation Exchange Capacity

Degree of saturation

Organic Carbon

Organic matter

Ionic Balance

Granular measuring
Module on Plants Page 41 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
Arbonnier M. 2000. Arbres, arbustes et lianes des zones sèches d’Afrique de l’Ouest. CIRADMNHN-UICN, 542 p.
BERGHEN V. 1982. Initiation á l’étude de la végétation. Jardin Botanique national de Belgique.
263 P.
Durand JR. & Lévêque C.1980. Flore et Faune aquatiques de l'Afrique Sahelo-soudanienne.
ORSTOM Paris, 389 P.
Emms, C. and Barnett, L.K. 2006. Gambian biodiversity: A provisional checklist of all species
recorded within The Gambia, West Africa, part three: fungi and plants, 4th version.
Francois Gillet. 2000- La phytosociologie synusiale intégrée- Guide méthodologique. Laboratoire
d'écologie végétale et de phytosociologie, Institut de Botanique, Université de Neuchatel (Suisse).
Thiam A. 1984. Contribution á l’étude phytoécologique de la zone de décrus du lac de Guiers
(Sénégal). Thèse de troisième cycle, Institut des Sciences de l’Environnement, faculté des Sciences
et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar. 105 P.
Thiam, A. 1998. Flore et végétation aquatiques et des zones inondables du delta du fleuve Sénégal
et le lac de Guiers, AAU reorts 39: 245-257.
Wetlands International Afrique. 2009. Plan préliminaire pour le suivi de la biodiversité des eaux
douces du bassin du fleuve Gambie. Rapport d‘étude du projet « Freshwater Biodiversity »
Wetlands International Afrique. 2009. Biodiversité des eaux douces du bassin du fleuve Gambie.
Rapport d‘étude du projet « Freshwater Biodiversity »
Jean-Michel Noël Walter. 2006. Méthode d’étude de la végétation. Université Louis Pasteur,
Institut de Botanique-Strasbourg.
White, F. 1986. La végétation de l’Afrique, ORSTOM – UNESCO, 384p.
www.google.fr
Module on Plants Page 42 ANNEXES
ANNEX 1. DATA COLLECTION SHEET Station………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Data collection number…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Date………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Name……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Geographical coordinates……………………………………………………………………………………………………… Altitude………. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Topography (slope, terrain)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Exposition……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Substrate……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Soil characteristics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Biotic factors…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Recovery (%)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...... Species
Module on Plants Abundance-dominance
Page 43 Module on Plants Page 44 ANNEX 2: LIST OF FRESHWATER FLORA IN
THE GAMBIA RIVER BASIN
Genre
Famille
1 Abildgaardia
wallichiana
Cyperaceae
2 Acacia
seyal
Mimosaceae
3 Acacia
nilotica Subsp adstringens
Mimosaceae
4 Acroceras
amplectens
Poaceae
5 Acroceras
zizanioides
Poaceae
6 Adenostemma
perrottetii
Asteraceae
7 Aeschynomene
afraspera
Fabaceae
8 Aeschynomene
crassicaulis
Fabaceae
9 Aeschynomene
elaphroxylon
Fabaceae
10 Aeschynomene
indica
Fabaceae
11 Aeschynomene
nilotica
Fabaceae
12 Aeschynomene
pfundii
Fabaceae
13 Aeschynomene
schimperi
Fabaceae
14 Aeschynomene
sensitiva
Fabaceae
15 Aeschynomene
tambacoundensis
Fabaceae
16 Aeschynomene
uniflora
Fabaceae
17 Ageratum
conyzoides
Asteraceae
18 Albizia
ferruginea
Mimosaceae
19 Aldrovanda
vesiculosa
Droseraceae
20 Alloteropsis
paniculata
Poaceae
21 Althernanthera
sessilis
Amaranthaceae
22 Ammannia
auriculata
Lythraceae
23 Ammannia
baccifera
Lythraceae
24 Ammannia
prieureana
Lythraceae
25 Ammannia
senegalensis
Lythraceae
26 Ancistrophyllum
secundiflorum
Arecaceae
27 Andropogon
africanus
Poaceae
28 Andropogon
tenuiberbis
Poaceae
Module on Plants Espèce
Page 45 29 Aneilema
mortonii
Commelinaceae
30 Aneilema
paludosum Subsp. paludosum
Commelinaceae
31 Anosporum
pectinatus
Cyperaceae
32 Anubias
heterophylla
Araceae
33 Aponogeton
subconjugatus
Aponogetonaceae
34 Aponogeton
vallisnerioides
Aponogetonaceae
35 Arundinella
nepalensis
Poaceae
36 Ascolepis
brasiliensis
Cyperaceae
37 Asystasia
gangetica
Acanthaceae
38 Avicennia
germinans
Avicenniaceae
39 Azolla
africana
Azollaceae
40 Bacopa
crenata
Scrophulariaceae
41 Bacopa
decumbens
Scrophulariaceae
42 Bacopa
floribunda
Scrophulariaceae
43 Bergia
ammannioides
Elatinaceae
44 Bergia
aquatica
Elatinaceae
45 Bergia
capensis
Elatinaceae
46 Blumea
viscosa
Asteraceae
47 Blumea
guineensis
Asteraceae
48 Blyxa
senegalensis
Hydrocharitaceae
49 Bolbitis
heudelotii
Lomariopsidaceae
50 Bolboschoenus
grandispicus
Cyperaceae
51 Bolboschoenus
maritimus
Cyperaceae
52 Borassus
aethiopum
Arecaceae
53 Brachiaria
jubata
Poaceae
54 Brachiaria
mutica
Poaceae
55 Buchnera
bowalensis
Scrophulariaceae
56 Buchnera
capitata
Scrophulariaceae
57 Burnatia
enneandra
Alismataceae
58 Butomopsis = Tenagocharis
latifolia
Limnocharitaceae
59 Calamus
deerratus
Arecaceae
60 Caldesia
oligococca
Alismataceae
61 Caldesia
reniformis
Alismataceae
62 Canthium
cornellia
Rubiaceae
Module on Plants Page 46 63 Caperonia
fistulosa fistulosa
Euphorbiaceae
64 Caperonia
senegalensis
Euphorbiaceae
65 Caperonia
serrata
Euphorbiaceae
66 Carapa
procera
Meliaceae
67 Cassia
mimosoides
Caesalpiniaceae
68 Cassia
obtusifolia
Caesalpiniaceae
69 Celosia
argentea
Amaranthaceae
70 Centella
asiatica
Apiaceae
71 Ceratophyllum
demersum
Ceratophyllaceae
72 Ceratophyllum
submersum
Ceratophyllaceae
73 Ceratopteris
cornuta
Parkeriaceae
74 Chara
aspera
Characeae
75 Chara
fibrosa
Characeae
76 Chara
zeylanica
Characeae
77 Chloris
robusta
Poaceae
78 Chlorophora
regia
Moraceae
79 Chlorophytum
gallabatense
Lilliaceae
80 Cladium
mariscus
Cyperaceae
81 Coelorhachis
afraurita
Poaceae
82 Coldenia
procumbens
Boraginaceae
83 Commelina
congeesta
Commelinaceae
84 Commelina
diffusa
Commelinaceae
85 Commelina
macrospatha
Commelinaceae
86 Commelina
erecta
Commelinaceae
87 Crateva
religiosa
Capparaceae
88 Crateva
adansonii
Capparidaceae
89 Cressa
cetica
Convolvulaceace
90 Crinum
distichum
Amaryllidaceae
91 Crinum
glaucum
Amaryllidaceae
92 Crinum
purpurascens
Amaryllidaceae
93 Crinum
zeylanicum
Amaryllidaceae
94 Crinum
natans
Amaryllidaceae
95 Cyanotis
lanata
Amaryllidaceae
96 Cyclosorus
gongylodis
Thelypteridaceae
Module on Plants Page 47 97 Cyclosorus
striatus
Thelypteridaceae
98 Cynodon
dactylon
Poaceae
99 Cynometra
vogelii
Caesalpiniaceae
100 Cyperus
alopecuroides
Cyperaceae
101 Cyperus
articulatus
Cyperaceae
102 Cyperus
auricomus
Cyperaceae
103 Cyperus
congensis
Cyperaceae
104 Cyperus
denudatus
Cyperaceae
105 Cyperus
difformis L.
Cyperaceae
106 Cyperus
digitatus
Cyperaceae
107 Cyperus
dives
Cyperaceae
108 Cyperus
esculentus
Cyperaceae
109 Cyperus
exaltatus
Cyperaceae
110 Cyperus
haspan
Cyperaceae
111 Cyperus
imbricatus
Cyperaceae
112 Cyperus
iria
Cyperaceae
113 Cyperus
laevigatus
Cyperaceae
114 Cyperus
latericus
Cyperaceae
115 Cyperus
latifolius
Cyperaceae
116 Cyperus
longus
Cyperaceae
117 Cyperus
maculatus
Cyperaceae
118 Cyperus
meeboldii
Cyperaceae
119 Cyperus
michelianus
Cyperaceae
120 Cyperus
pectinatus
Cyperaceae
121 Cyperus
podocarpus
Cyperaceae
122 Cyperus
pulchellus
Cyperaceae
123 Cyperus
pustulatus
Cyperaceae
124 Cyperus
reduncus
Cyperaceae
125 Cyperus
remotispicatus
Cyperaceae
126 Cyperus
rotondus
Cyperaceae
127 Cyperus
submicrolepis
Cyperaceae
128 Cyperus
procerus
Cyperaceae
129 Cyperus
tenuispica
Cyperaceae
130 Cyrtosperma
senegalense
Araceae
Module on Plants Page 48 131 Dalbergia
ecastaphyllum
Fabaceae
132 Dialium
guineense
Caesalpiniaceae
133 Digitaria
acuminatissima
Poaceae
134 Digitaria
patagiata
Poaceae
135 Diplacrum
africanum
Cyperaceae
136 Dopatrium
senegalense
Scrophulariaceae
137 Dopatrium
macranthum
Scrophulariaceae
138 Drepanocarpus
lunatus
Caesalpiniaceae
139 Echinochloa
colona
Poaceae
140 Echinochloa
crus-pavonis
Poaceae
141 Echinochloa
obtusiflora
Poaceae
142 Echinochloa
stagnina
Poaceae
143 Echinocloa
callopus
Poaceae
144 Echinocloa
pyramidalis
Poaceae
145 Eclipta
prostrata
Asteraceae
146 Eichhornia
crassipes
Pontederiaceae
147 Eichhornia
natans
Pontederiaceae
148 Elaeis
guineensis
Arecaceae
149 Eleocharis
acutangula
Cyperaceae
150 Eleocharis
atropurpurea
Cyperaceae
151 Eleocharis
complanata
Cyperaceae
152 Eleocharis
decoriglumis
Cyperaceae
153 Eleocharis
deightonii
Cyperaceae
154 Eleocharis
dulcis.
Cyperaceae
155 Eleocharis
mutata
Cyperaceae
156 Eleocharis
naumanniana
Cyperaceae
157 Eleocharis
nupeensis
Cyperaceae
158 Eleocharis
setifolia
Cyperaceae
159 Eleocharis
variegata
Cyperaceae
160 Elymandra
gossweileri
Poaceae
161 Elytrophorus
spicatus
Poaceae
162 Entada
mannii
Mimosaceae
163 Enydra
fluctuans
Asteraceae
164 Eragrostis
atrovirens
Poaceae
Module on Plants Page 49 165 Eragrostis
barteri
Poaceae
166 Eragrostis
gangetica
Poaceae
167 Eragrostis
japonica
Poaceae
168 Eragrostis
plurigluma
Poaceae
169 Eriocaulon
afzelianum
Eriocaulaceae
170 Eriocaulon
bongense
Eriocaulaceae
171 Eriocaulon
cinereum
Eriocaulaceae
172 Eriocaulon
fulvum
Eriocaulaceae
173 Eriocaulon
irregulare
Eriocaulaceae
174 Eriocaulon
longense
Eriocaulaceae
175 Eriocaulon
meiklei
Eriocaulaceae
176 Eriocaulon
nigericum
Eriocaulaceae
177 Eriocaulon
setaceum
Eriocaulaceae
178 Eriochloa
fatmensis
Poaceae
179 Erythrophleum
suaveolens
Caesalpiniaceae
180 Evolvolus
alsinoides
Convolvulaceae
181 Ficus
acutifolia
Moraceae
182 Ficus
asperifolia
Moraceae
183 Ficus
capreaefolia
Moraceae
184 Ficus
congensis
Moraceae
185 Ficus
trichopoda
Moraceae
186 Ficus
vallis-choudae
Moraceae
187 Fimbristylis
alboviridis
Cyperaceae
188 Fimbristylis
bisumbellata
Cyperaceae
189 Fimbristylis
dichotoma
Cyperaceae
190 Fimbristylis
miliacea
Cyperaceae
191 Fimbristylis
tomentosa
Cyperaceae
192 Floscopa
africana
Commelinaceae
193 Floscopa
aquatica
Commelinaceae
194 Floscopa
axillaris
Commelinaceae
195 Floscopa
flavida
Commelinaceae
196 Floscopa
glomerata
Commelinaceae
197 Fuirena
stricta
Cyperaceae
198 Fuirena
umbellata
Cyperaceae
Module on Plants Page 50 199 Genlisea
africana
Lentibulariaceae
200 Glinus
lotoides
Aïzoaceae
201 Grangea
maderaspatana
Asteraceae
202 Hallea
stipulosa
Rubiaceae
203 Heliotropium
baclei
Boraginaceae
204 Heliotropium
indicum
Boraginaceae
205 Heliotropium
ovalifolium
Boraginaceae
206 Hemarthria
altissima
Poaceae
207 Heteranthera
callifolia
Pontederiaceae
208 Heteranthoecia
guineensis
Poaceae
209 Heterotis
rotundifolia
Melastomataceae
210 Hydrocotyle
bonariensis
Hydrocotylaceae
211 Hydrolea
floribunda
Hydrophyllaceae
212 Hydrolea
glabra
Hydrophyllaceae
213 Hydrolea
macrosepala
Hydrophyllaceae
214 Hygrophila
abyssinica
Acanthaceae
215 Hygrophila
auriculata
Acanthaceae
216 Hygrophila
barbata .
Acanthaceae
217 Hygrophila
brevituba
Acanthaceae
218 Hygrophila
laevis
Acanthaceae
219 Hygrophila
micrantha
Acanthaceae
220 Hygrophila
niokoloensis
Acanthaceae
221 Hygrophila
odora
Acanthaceae
222 Hygrophila
senegalensis
Acanthaceae
223 Hygrophila
africana
Acanthaceae
224 Hyparrhenia
glabriuscula
Poaceae
225 Impatiens
irvingii
Balsaminaceae
226 Indigofera
macrophylla
Fabaceae
227 Indigofera
nigritana
Fabaceae
228 Ipomoea
aquatica
Convolvulaceae
229 Ipomoea
setifera
Convolvulaceae
230 Isachne
kiyalaensis
Poaceae
231 Ischaemum
rugosum
Poaceae
232 Ixora
brachypoda
Rubiaceae
Module on Plants Page 51 233 Khaya
senegalensis
Meliaceae
234 Kyllinga
pumila
Cyperaceae
235 Lasiomorpha
senegalensis
Araceae
236 Laurembergia
tetrandra
Haloragidaceae
237 Ledermanniella
abbayesii
Podostemaceae
238 Ledermanniella
pygmaea
Podostemaceae
239 Leersia
drepanothrix
Poaceae
240 Leersia
hexandra
Poaceae
241 Lemna
aequinoctialis
Lemnaceae
242 Leptochloa
caerulescens
Poaceae
243 Lightfootia
hirsuta
Campanulaceae
244 Limnophila
barteri
Scrophulariaceae
245 Limnophila
dasyantha
Scrophulariaceae
246 Limnophyton
angolense
Alismataceae
247 Limnophyton
fluitans
Alismataceae
248 Limnophyton
obtusifolium
Alismataceae
249 Lindernia
debilis
Scrophulariaceae
250 Lindernia
diffusa
Scrophulariaceae
251 Lindernia
oliveriana
Scrophulariaceae
252 Lindernia
senegalensis
Scrophulariaceae
253 Lipocarpha
chinensis
Cyperaceae
254 Lipocarpha
kernii
Cyperaceae
255 Lipocarpha
filiformis
Cyperaceae
256 Lipocarpha
sphacelata
Cyperaceae
257 Lobelia
senegalensis
Campanulaceae
258 Loudetia
phragmitoides
Poaceae
259 Loudetiopsis
ambiens
Poaceae
260 Ludwigia
adscendens
Onagraceae
261 Ludwigia
decurrens
Onagraceae
262 Ludwigia
erecta
Onagraceae
263 Ludwigia
hyssopifolia
Onagraceae
264 Ludwigia
leptocarpa
Onagraceae
265 Ludwigia
octovalvis brevisepala
Onagraceae
266 Ludwigia
perennis
Onagraceae
Module on Plants Page 52 267 Ludwigia
senegalensis
Onagraceae
268 Ludwigia
stenorraphe
Onagraceae
269 Ludwigia
affinis
Onagraceae
270 Ludwigia
pulvinaris
Onagraceae
271 Ludwigia
pulvinaris
272 Machearium
lunatum
Fabaceae
273 Mariscus
luridus
Cyperaceae
274 Mariscus
squarrosus
Cyperaceae
275 Marsilea
berhautii
Marsileaceae
276 Marsilea
crenulata
Marsileaceae
277 Marsilea
diffusa
Marsileaceae
278 Marsilea
gymnocarpa
Marsileaceae
279 Marsilea
minuta
Marsileaceae
280 Marsilea
nubica
Marsileaceae
281 Marsilea
polycarpa
Marsileaceae
282 Marsilea
subterranea
Marsileaceae
283 Marsilea
tricopoda
Marsileaceae
284 Melastomastrum
capitatum
Melastomataceae
285 Melochia
corchorifolia
Sterculiaceae
286 Mesanthemum
radicans
Eriocaulaceae
287 Mimosa
pellita
Mimosaceae
288 Mimosa
pigra
Mimosaceae
289 Mimosa
aspera
Mimosaceae
290 Mitragyna
inermis
Rubiaceae
291 Mitragyna
stipulosa
Rubiaceae
292 Monochoria
brevipetiolata
Pontederiaceae
293 Morelia
senegalensis
Rubiaceae
294 Murdannia
simplex
Commelinaceae
295 Murdannia
tenuissima
Commelinaceae
296 Najas
graminea
Hydrocharitaceae
297 Najas
marina
Hydrocharitaceae
298 Nelsonia
canescens
Acanthaceae
299 Neptunia
oleracea
Mimosaceae
300 Nesaea
radicans
Lythraceae
Module on Plants Page 53 301 Nymphaea
guineensis
Nymphaeaceae
302 Nymphaea
heudelotii
Nymphaeaceae
303 Nymphaea
lotus
Nymphaeaceae
304 Nymphaea
micrantha
Nymphaeaceae
305 Nymphaea
nouchali var. caerulea
Nymphaeaceae
306 Nymphoides
ezannoi
Menyanthaceae
307 Nymphoides
guineensis
Menyanthaceae
308 Nymphoides
indica
Menyanthaceae
309 Oldenlandia
capensis
Rubiaceae
310 Oldenlandia
goreensis
Rubiaceae
311 Oldenlandia
lancifolia
Rubiaceae
312 Oryza
barthii
Poaceae
313 Oryza
brachyantha
Poaceae
314 Oryza
glaberrima
Poaceae
315 Oryza
longistaminata
Poaceae
316 Oryza
punctata
Poaceae
317 Oryza
sativa
Poaceae
318 Ottelia
ulvifolia
Hydrocharitaceae
319 Oxycarium
cubense
Cyperaceae
320 Pandanus
candelabrum
Pandanacea
321 Panicum
anabaptistum
Poaceae
322 Panicum
brazzavillense
Poaceae
323 Panicum
fluviicola
Poaceae
324 Panicum
calocarpum
Poaceae
325 Panicum
hymeniochilum
Poaceae
326 Panicum
laetum
Poaceae
327 Panicum
parvifolium
Poaceae
328 Panicum
repens
Poaceae
329 Panicum
subalbidum
Poaceae
330 Panicum
walense
Poaceae
331 Paratheria
prostrata .
Poaceae
332 Paspalidium
geminatum
Poaceae
333 Paspalum
conjugatum
Poaceae
334 Paspalum
scrobiculatum
Poaceae
Module on Plants Page 54 335 Paspalum
vaginatum
Poaceae
336 Pauridiantha
afzelii
Rubiaceae
337 Pavetta
corymbosa
Rubiaceae
338 Penaclethra
macrophylla
Mimosaceae
339 Pentodon
pentandrus
Rubiaceae
340 Phacelurus
gabonensis
Poaceae
341 Phoenix
reclinata
Arecaceae
342 Phragmites
australis
Poaceae
343 Phragmites
karka
Poaceae
344 Phragmites
mauritianus
Poaceae
345 Phyla
nodiflora
Verbenaceae
346 Phyllanthus
reticulatus
Euphorbiaceae
347 Physalis
angulata
Solanaceae
348 Phytolacca
dodecandra
Phytolaccaceae
349 Piper
capense
Piperaceae
350 Piper
guineense
Piperaceae
351 Pistia
stratiotes
Araceae
352 Polycarpon
prostratum
Caryophyllaceae
353 Polygonum
acuminatum
Polygonaceae
354 Polygonum
lanigeratum
Polygonaceae
355 Polygonum
limbatum
Polygonaceae
356 Polygonum
pulchrum
Polygonaceae
357 Polygonum
salicifolium
Polygonaceae
358 Polygonum
senegalense
Polygonaceae
359 Polygonum
strigosum
Polygonaceae
360 Portulaca
oleracea
Portulacaceae
361 Potamogeton
nodosus
Potamogetonaceae
362 Potamogeton
octandrus
Potamogetonaceae
363 Potamogeton
schweinfurthii
Potamogetonaceae
364 Pothomorphe
umbellata
Piperaceae
365 Pterocarpus
santalinoides
Fabaceae
366 Pulicaria
crispa
Asteraceae
367 Pycreus
capillifolius
Cyperaceae
368 Pycreus
flavescens
Cyperaceae
Module on Plants Page 55 369 Pycreus
intactus
Cyperaceae
370 Pycreus
intermedius
Cyperaceae
371 Pycreus
lanceolatus
Cyperaceae
372 Pycreus
macrostachyos
Cyperaceae
373 Pycreus
mundtii
Cyperaceae
374 Pycreus
nitidus
Cyperaceae
375 Pycreus
polystachyos
Cyperaceae
376 Ranalisma
humile .
Alismataceae
377 Raphia
palma-pinus
Arecaceae
378 Raphia
sudanica
Arecaceae
379 Rhamphicarpa
fistulosa
Scrophulariaceae
380 Rhizophora
harrisonii
Rhizophoraceae
381 Rhizophora
mangle
Rhizophoraceae
382 Rhizophora
racemosa
Rhizophoraceae
383 Rhynchospora
brevirostris
Cyperaceae
384 Rhynchospora
corymbosa
Cyperaceae
385 Rhynchospora
eximia
Cyperaceae
386 Rhynchospora
gracillima
Cyperaceae
387 Rhynchospora
holoschoenoides
Cyperaceae
388 Rhynchospora
triflora
Cyperaceae
389 Rhytachne
gracilis
Poaceae
390 Rhytachne
rottboellioides
Poaceae
391 Rhytachne
triaristata
Poaceae
392 Rhytachne
megastachya
Poaceae
393 Rorippa
nasturtium-aquaticum
Cruciferae
394 Rotala
elatinoides
Lythraceae
395 Rotala
gossweileri
Lythraceae
396 Rotala
stagnina
Lythraceae
397 Rotala
tenella
Lythraceae
398 Rotala
welwitschii
Lythraceae
399 Rothmannia
langiflora
Rubiaceae
400 Rotula
aquatica
Lythraceae
401 Rytigynia
senegalensis
Rubiaceae
402 Saccharum
spontaneum subsp aegyptiacum
Poaceae
Module on Plants Page 56 403 Sacciolepis
africana
Poaceae
404 Sacciolepis
chevalieri
Poaceae
405 Sacciolepis
ciliocincta
Poaceae
406 Sacciolepis
cymbiandra
Poaceae
407 Sacciolepis
micrococca
Poaceae
408 Sacciolepis
indica
Poaceae
409 Sagittaria
guayanensis lappula
Alismataceae
410 Salacia
senegalensis
Hippocrateaceae
411 Salix
chevalieri
Salicaceae
412 Salvinia
nymphellula
Salviniaceae
413 Sarcocephalus
latifolius
Rubiaceae
414 Sarcocephalus
pobeguinii
Rubiaceae
415 Saxicolella
flabellata
Podostemaceae
416 Schoenoplectus
articulatus
Cyperaceae
417 Schoenoplectus
corymbosus
Cyperaceae
418 Schoenoplectus
junceus
Cyperaceae
419 Schoenoplectus
lateriflorus
Cyperaceae
420 Schoenoplectus
litoralis
Cyperaceae
421 Schoenoplectus
roylei .
Cyperaceae
422 Schoenoplectus
senegalensis
Cyperaceae
423 Schoenoplectus
subulatus
Cyperaceae
424 Scilla
sudanica
Lilliaceae
425 Scleria
gracillima
Cyperaceae
426 Scleria
lacustris
Cyperaceae
427 Scleria
mikawana
Cyperaceae
428 Scleria
racemosa
Cyperaceae
429 Scleria
rehmannii
Cyperaceae
430 Scoparia
dulcis
Scrophulariaceae
431 Sesbania
bispinosa
Fabaceae
432 Sesbania
leptocarpa
Fabaceae
433 Sesbania
pachycarpa
Fabaceae
434 Sesbania
rostrata
Fabaceae
435 Sesbania
sericea
Fabaceae
436 Sesbania
sesban
Fabaceae
Module on Plants Page 57 437 Setaria
sphacelata
Poaceae
438 Simirestis
paniculata
Celastraceae
439 Sorghastrum
stipoides
Poaceae
440 Sorghum
arundinaceum
Poaceae
441 Spermacoce
bambusicola
Rubiaceae
442 Spermacoce
hepperana
Rubiaceae
443 Spermacoce
ocymoides
Rubiaceae
444 Spermacoce
quadrisulcata
Rubiaceae
445 Spermacoce
verticillata
Rubiaceae
446 Sphaeranthus
senegalensis
Asteraceae
447 Sphenoclea
dalziellii
Sphenocleaceae
448 Sphenoclea
zeylanica
Sphenocleaceae
449 Spirodela
polyrrhiza
Lemnaceae
450 Stachytarpheta
indica
Verbenaceae
451 Stylochiton
hypogaeus
Araceae
452 Syzygium
guineense var. macrocarpum
Myrtaceae
453 Tetraceara
alnifolia
Dilleniaceae
454 Tetraceara
djalonica
Dilleniaceae
455 Tetraceara
leiocarpa
Dilleniaceae
456 Tetraceara
potatoria
Dilleniaceae
457 Thalia
welwitschii
Marantaceae
458 Thalia
geniculata
Marantaceae
459 Torenia
thouarsii
Scrophulariaceae
460 Trapa
natans
Trapaceae
461 Treculia
africana
Moraceae
462 Typha
capensis
Typhaceae
463 Typha
domingensis
Typhaceae
464 Typha
elephantina
Typhaceae
465 Uapaca
togoensis
Euphorbiaceae
466 Urena
lobata
Malvaceae
467 Utricularia
foliosa
Lentibulariaceae
468 Utricularia
gibba
469 Utricularia
inflexa var. stellaris
Module on Plants Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Page 58 Lentibulariaceae
470 Utricularia
micropetala
471 Utricularia
pubescens
472 Utricularia
reflexa
473 Utricularia
rigida
474 Utricularia
spiralis
475 Utricularia
striatula
476 Utricularia
subulata
477 Utricularia
benjaminiana
478 Utricularia
stellaris
479 Vallisneria
spiralis var. densesrrulata
Hydrocharitaceae
480 Vernonia
colorata
Asteraceae
481 Vetiveria
fulvibarbis
Poaceae
482 Vetiveria
nigritana
Poaceae
483 Vigna
luteola
Fabaceae
484 Vigna
longifolia
Fabaceae
485 Vossia
cuspidata
Poaceae
486 Websteria
confervoides
Cyperaceae
487 Wiesneria
schweinfurthii
Alismataceae
488 Wolffia
arrhiza
Lemnaceae
489 Wolffiella
welwitschii
Lemnaceae
490 Xyris
anceps
Xyridaceae
491 Xyris
barteri
Xyridaceae
492 Xyris
capensis
Xyridaceae
493 Xyris
straminea
Xyridaceae
494 Ziziphus
spina-christi var. microphylla
Rhamnaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Lentibulariaceae
Module on Plants Page 59