J Appl Physiol 98: 1213–1220, 2005;
doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00742.2004.
Early plateaus of power and torque gains during high- and low-speed
resistance training of older women
Joseph F. Signorile,1,2,3 Michelle P. Carmel,2 Shenghan Lai,2,4 and Bernard A. Roos1,2,3,5
1
Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Miami, Coral Gables; 2Stein Gerontological Institute, Miami;
Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, Florida;
4
Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland; and
5
Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
3
Submitted 15 July 2004; accepted in final form 1 December 2004
RESISTANCE TRAINING CAN BE an effective short-term intervention
to counteract the strength (6, 14, 18) and power (15, 33, 56, 57)
losses resulting from sarcopenia. However, studies incorporating training periods longer than 6 mo have reported declining
gains after the initial 2–3 mo of training (42, 43, 51, 52). To our
knowledge, no studies have examined the daily performance
changes during the initial 8 wk of a resistance-training program. The patterns of change in both intensity and volume
during the first 8 wk of training are important because maximal
strength and power gains during resistance training cannot
occur unless the training cycle includes periods of recovery or
taper (3, 46). Therefore, periodization programs are designed
to include periods of taper that gradually reduce the volume
and intensity of training to allow recovery and subsequent
increases in performance (4). In fact, periodization has been
proven more effective than standard progressive resistance
protocols at increasing strength and power (12, 48, 60), and
taper has increased both neuromuscular (24, 25) and cardiovascular (32, 38, 41) performance when incorporated into a
training cycle. Moreover, alternating cycles of overload and
recovery can reduce the incidence of overtraining syndrome
(23), decrease injury levels (13, 58), improve training efficiency (35), increase neuromuscular gains (24, 25), and enhance exercise compliance (5).
In addition to providing alternating cycles of work and
recovery, periodization can also incorporate diverse training
cycles targeting specific goals such as strength, power, or
endurance. For example, maximal strength gains require high
levels of resistance (27), whereas power is better addressed
using moderate loads (30 –50% of maximal) and higher contractile speeds (34, 61). Unfortunately, there are no current data
indicating the proper cycle lengths to maximize strength and
power gains in older persons, and the cycle lengths currently
recommended for younger persons and athletes (1, 3) are
unlikely to apply to an older population.
Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to examine
the time course of improvements, plateaus, and declines during
an initial 9-wk isokinetic resistance-training cycle of the knee
extensors with previously untrained older women and to use
peak torque (PT), average power (AP), and total work (TW) as
markers of strength, power, and volume, respectively. Because
we hypothesized that performance decrements would occur
during the 9-wk training cycle and that changes in intensity
(AP and PT) would affect, and be affected by, changes in TW,
we also examined how PT and AP measures changed relative
to TW to ascertain the temporal relationships between intensity
and volume during strength and power training. We considered
this relationship especially important because maintaining intensity during a taper is thought to be imperative to maintain
improvements achieved during training (28). Finally, we compared mean AP and PT values throughout the training period to
confirm that high-speed training specifically targets AP,
whereas low-speed training targets PT.
Although the patterns of change during isokinetic and isoinertial training may not be the same, studies have found a strong
relationship between isokinetic and isoinertial testing results
(31, 47), and these two testing methods presented statistical
generality across a 12-wk training program (2). In addition,
isokinetic training models have been previously used in time-
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: J. F. Signorile, Dept.
of Exercise and Sport Sciences, Univ. of Miami, PO Box 248065, Coral
Gables, FL 33124 (E-mail: [email protected]).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment
of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement”
in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
elderly; exercise; periodization; prescription
http://www. jap.org
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Signorile, Joseph F., Michelle P. Carmel, Shenghan Lai, and
Bernard A. Roos. Early plateaus of power and torque gains during
high- and low-speed resistance training of older women. J Appl
Physiol 98: 1213–1220, 2005; doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00742.
2004.—Periodization is the most effective approach to resistance
training; however, optimal cycle lengths for older persons are not
known. This study examined the durations of performance increments, plateaus, and decrements in women, ages 61–75 yr, over 9 wk
of isokinetic training. After a 2-wk adaptation cycle, older women
trained for either power (PWR; 4.73 rad/s; n ⫽ 9) or strength (STR;
1.05 rad/s; n ⫽ 8), 3 days/wk with a 1-day recovery between sessions.
Repetitions were initially selected to equilibrate work volume between groups. Average power (AP), peak torque (PT), and total work
(TW) curves were analyzed using forward and backward stepwise
regression to ascertain inflections and plateaus. PWR training produced the highest AP, whereas STR produced the highest PT. TW was
similar between groups. The AP curves of the PWR group initially
showed a steep positive slope and then plateaued during week 3. The
right leg plateau lasted throughout training, whereas the left leg
showed another positive inflection during weeks 7 and 8. PWR group
TW curves showed positive slopes throughout training. STR group PT
curves for both legs showed initial positive slopes peaking between
weeks 3 and 4 and declining thereafter. The TW curves for both legs
showed slight negative slopes across the first 2 wk, steep positive
slopes during weeks 3– 6, and a final plateau. Because improvements
plateau early during PWR and STR training, isokinetic training
prescriptions for optimizing strength and power improvements in
older persons should use cycles of 3– 4 wk to maximize gains.
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RESISTANCE TRAINING CYCLES IN OLDER WOMEN
course analysis studies where control of movement speed and
power were considered important factors (9, 59). For our study,
the isokinetic training model enabled us to control movement
speed while we observed changes in torque, power, and TW as
markers of intensity and volume of training across time.
Finally, recent data from exercise interventions for patients
with osteoarthritis indicate that isoinertial training may be the
preferred method of improving strength during the early stages
of a resistance-training intervention, but isokinetics may be
more effective in improving joint stability and walking endurance over a longer time period (30).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
J Appl Physiol • VOL
Group
n
Age, yr
Weight, kg
Height, cm
PWR
STR
Sample
9
8
17
68.37⫾12.78
68.76⫾12.96
68.55⫾1.04
65.19⫾4.33
68.38⫾3.86
66.69⫾2.86
160.61⫾1.10
163.13⫾1.47
161.79⫾1.16
Values are means ⫾ SD. PWR, power-training group; STR, strengthtraining group; Sample, PWR and STR groups combined.
provide the training during all sessions. Both the PWR and STR
groups trained their knee extensors three times per week for 12 wk on
the Biodex dynamometer using the same setup and warm-up procedures described for the initial testing session. We chose isokinetic
dynamometry as a training methodology because it allows precise
control of training velocity while providing complete information on
PT, AP, and TW throughout the training period.
Resistance during isokinetic training is dictated by the individual’s
ability to meet the speed setting of the dynamometer; therefore,
low-speed isokinetic training provides higher resistance and a greater
strength stimulus, whereas high-speed training has greater impact on
movement speed and power. In addition, all efforts during isokinetic
training are at perceived maximum; therefore, PT and AP data can be
used to quantify changes in the intensity of the strength and power
cycles, respectively, whereas TW data can be used to evaluate work
volume for each training day. Thus we could assess the relationship
between intensity (PT and AP) and volume (TW) across the training
cycles and examine patterns of change in intensity and volume as the
subject attempted to produce a maximal performance. We could also
determine the optimal cycle lengths for both the strength and power
training cycles based on the changes in each variable.
Both the right and left legs were trained. Subjects were instructed
to perform all repetitions as rapidly and forcefully as possible. The
PWR group did 10 repetitions at 4.73 rad/s, whereas the STR group
did 6 repetitions at 1.05 rad/s so that their initial TW equaled that of
the PWR group. Isokinetic data collected earlier from 104 communitydwelling men and women, 62–78 yr of age, were used to establish the
number of repetitions necessary to equilibrate work between groups
(56). Data from our laboratory have also shown that knee extensor
power continues to increase in this population up to an isokinetic
speed of 5.25 rad/s; therefore, 4.73 rad/s was well within the training
range for these individuals (55). In addition, movement speed, rather
than force production, has been shown to be the major determinant of
instantaneous power in older women (11). Because our study was
designed to examine patterns of change, rather than end-point values,
across multiple training sessions, setting up a control group was not
feasible; a regular pattern of multiple repetition testing of a “control”
group would have constituted training.
During the first 2 wk of the study, TW was gradually increased to
allow tissue adaptation and reduce the level of delayed-onset muscle
soreness commonly associated with maximal-effort training. Table 2
shows the patterns of volume and intensity change for the tissueadaptation period. Although both groups started at the same work
volume, the STR group increased its work volume more rapidly than
the PWR group, as indicated by the initial TW values for each group
on the first day of week 3. During the final week of training, TW was
gradually reduced to allow recovery (taper) before posttesting. Because the research protocol rather than the subjects’ performance
governed the volume, these data were not included in the time-course
analysis. Pretest and posttest data were not considered part of the
analysis of time-course changes during training and have been reported elsewhere (55).
Statistical analysis. Means and standard deviations were computed
for AP, PT, and TW produced by the right and left legs during PWR
and STR training. As noted earlier, the tissue-adaptation phase was
not included in the time-course analyses because it did not represent
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Subjects. Seventeen women, ages 61–75 yr, participated in this
study. All subjects were living independently in the community, and
no subject had resistance trained within the past 3 yr. Subjects filled
out a comprehensive medical disclosure form. No subject reported
neuromuscular or metabolic conditions that would have negatively
affected her participation in the study or her ability to perform the
exercise prescriptions. Subjects were fully informed of all procedures
and signed an informed consent before beginning the study. All
procedures were approved by the University of Miami Subcommittee
for the Use and Protection of Human Subjects.
Experimental design. Subjects’ baseline PT, AP, and TW values for
the left and right legs were assessed on a Biodex dynamometer
(Biodex, Shirley, NY) before the training program began, and they
were matched using age and isokinetic knee extension PT values at
3.14 rad/s. This speed was chosen because it is intermediate between
our high-speed power and low-speed strength-training conditions and
because it has been used as the intermediate training and testing speed
in a number of other studies on speed-specific training (10, 55, 56).
The subject was positioned according to the setup procedures outlined
in the Biodex manual. To reduce the impact of accessory muscles,
Velcro restraining straps were placed diagonally across the shoulders
and across the waist and thigh. The leg was secured to the Biodex arm
with a padded Velcro strap. The pad was placed immediately inferior
to the heads of the gastrocnemius, and the axis of the dynamometer
was aligned with the lateral femoral condyle.
Before being tested, subjects were given a number of practice trials
at 1.57, 3.14, and 6.28 rad/s to make them familiar with the concept
of isokinetic testing and the speed-specific nature of a maximal effort.
Subjects were then allowed a 3-min recovery period before actual
testing began. After recovery, the subject was allowed a five-repetition warm-up at 3.14 rad/s using a perceived exertion of 50% of
maximum. The warm-up was followed by a 1-min recovery before the
actual testing. Three maximal efforts were performed. Verbal encouragement was offered during all efforts. If a subject did not provide
maximal effort throughout the three repetitions, as evidenced by a
large disparity among the testing curves, the test was repeated after a
3-min recovery period. The calibration of the Biodex dynamometer
was confirmed on both the morning and afternoon of each testing day.
No significant differences were found between pretest values for
the right and left legs. In addition, all subjects were right handed.
Given the lack of significant difference between legs and the reported
correlation between hand and leg dominance (7), we chose to use
right-leg PT values to match the subjects. Once matched, subjects
were randomly assigned to a high-speed power-training group (PWR)
or a low-speed strength-training group (STR) using a simple coin toss.
Table 1 shows the mean ages, weights, and heights for the PWR and
STR groups. Because the purpose of the study was to trace patterns of
change in PT, AP, and TW values during isokinetic training, only
training groups were included in the analysis.
Training. The reliability of isokinetic evaluations of strength and
power in older subjects has been well established (17). Our study also
utilized only one technician, with more than 2 yr of experience, to
Table 1. Physical characteristics of subjects
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RESISTANCE TRAINING CYCLES IN OLDER WOMEN
RESULTS
Table 2. Training schedule across all training weeks
Group
Day
1
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
PWR
STR
1
1
1
2
2
2
3–11
3–11
3–11
12
12
12
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
Sets
Repetitions
1
6
1
4
2
6
2
4
1
8
1
5
2
8
2
5
1
10
1
6
2
10
2
6
3
10
3
6
3
10
3
6
3
10
3
6
2
10
2
6
2
10
2
6
No training
Recovery day before
testing
a period of imposed change dictated by the stress of the training
stimuli. A repeated-measures analysis was used to detect differences
in AP, PT, and TW between right and left legs and training groups.
When a significant leg ⫻ group interaction was detected, a Bonferroni
least squares means post hoc test was used to detect significant
differences among the means of these variables.
Scatterplots showing the daily values for AP, PT, and TW across
the 9-wk training period were first examined visually for inflections or
plateaus. We then used regression lines, derived from Spline and
Friedman smoothing techniques, to improve visualization. Finally, a
two-stage linear regression technique was performed using the data
from the days preceding and after each visual inflection point to
establish the actual point of inflection. First, the forward stepwise
regression started with the initial 7 training days and continued
through the data of the last day. Next, the backward stepwise analysis
started with the data from the last day and worked forward. The
correlation coefficients (R2 values) for each of the lines were continuously computed as the data points for each day were added to the
analysis. An inflection point was the point where the R2 value was
among the highest seen during the forward stepwise regression and
the lowest seen for the backward stepwise equation. This point had a
large impact on the fitting of the initial regression line but little impact
on the equation for the second fitted line. Where two inflection points
appeared, the analysis was repeated for each visible inflection in the
curve, with the forward stepwise regression beginning at the previous
inflection point.
Repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed a significant
group ⫻ leg interaction for AP (P ⬍ 0.0001), PT (P ⬍ 0.0001),
and TW (P ⬍ 0.0439) produced across the training period.
Table 3 shows the results of the Bonferroni post hoc analyses
used to detect significant differences in these variables by
group and leg. As Table 3 indicates, the PWR group produced
a significantly higher mean AP than the STR group across the
9-wk training cycle (P ⬍ 0.0001). In contrast, the STR group
produced significantly higher mean PT than the PWR group
(P ⬍ 0.0001). TW showed no significant difference between
groups. As Table 3 shows, the right (dominant) leg produced
significantly greater mean AP, PT, and TW than the left leg
across the training cycle of the PWR and STR groups.
The right and left leg AP curves for the PWR group (Fig. 1,
A and B) were similar in shape throughout the initial 6 wk of
training, although they varied slightly in magnitude. The slopes
of the regression lines produced by the stepwise analyses show
nearly parallel rates of improvement (⬃6 W/wk) during the
first 3 wk of training. Both curves then showed a prolonged
plateau beginning during training week 3. The plateau for the
right leg lasted for the duration of the training period, whereas
the left leg produced a second positive inflection during week
7. Both the right (Fig. 1C) and left (Fig. 1D) legs of the PWR
group showed a continuous increase in TW across the first 6
wk of training (⬃25 kJ/wk). For the left knee, this pattern of
increase lasted throughout the training period, whereas the
right knee showed a reduced rate of improvement starting at
week 7 and lasting for the duration of the training.
For the STR group, both the right and left legs produced a
bell-shaped PT curve (Fig. 2, A and B). Rates of improvement
for the right and left legs were similar during the initial portion
of the training curves (1–1.5 kg-m/wk). By weeks 4 and 5,
respectively, the training curves for the right and left legs
showed a gradual decline that approached week 1 levels by the
end of the training period. The TW curves for both legs of the
STR group were also very similar (Fig. 2, C and D). The right
and left legs showed initial TW declines that lasted into
training week 2. Both curves then showed a sharp incline
(10 –15 kJ/wk) followed by a final plateau lasting the remainder of the training period. The plateaus for both legs began
during training week 5.
DISCUSSION
The major result from our study of intense resistance training in previously untrained older women is that gains in PT and
power leveled off early (at 3– 4 wk) in the training cycle. Our
data also show that progressive increases in intensity and
volume led to declines in performance and that the reciprocal
Table 3. Results of repeated-measures analysis of group and leg AP, PT, and TW values across the training period
Group
AP, W
PT, kg䡠m
TW, kJ
Leg
PWR
STR
P value
Right
Left
P value
108.94⫾6.30*
48.23⫾4.98
541.17⫾39.41
59.35⫾6.68
92.75⫾5.29*
625.28⫾41.80
⬍0.0001
⬍0.0001
NS
85.94⫾4.61*
71.09⫾3.64*
590.65⫾28.81*
82.35⫾4.22
69.89⫾3.24
576.28⫾23.11
⬍0.0001
0.0034
0.0011
Values are means ⫾ SD. AP, average power; PT, peak torque; TW, total work; NS, not significant. *Significant difference between conditions or legs.
J Appl Physiol • VOL
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Week
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RESISTANCE TRAINING CYCLES IN OLDER WOMEN
patterns of change between intensity and volume differ during
PWR and STR training. Finally, our data confirm the results of
previous studies in older persons showing that high-speed,
low-load training targets power improvement, whereas lowspeed, heavy-resistance training increases strength (55).
Training specificity. The fact that the PWR group produced
their greatest gains in AP whereas the STR group showed their
greatest gains in PT can be attributed both to the nature of the
isokinetic stimulus and the joint action trained. Isokinetic
dynamometers use changes in resistance to control movement
speed (50). Therefore, our PWR training protocol, performed
at 4.73 rad/s, was expected to provide the velocity-based
overload commonly used to increase power (27, 34, 61). In
contrast, the lower speed setting used during STR training
(1.05 rad/s) provided greater resistance and therefore a greater
impact on torque production (26, 37).
Our findings are supported by a study indicating that movement speed, rather than force production, is the major determinant of instantaneous power in older women (11) and by our
recent work showing that the knee extensors, but not the knee
flexors, dorsiflexors, or plantar flexors, can reach the training
speeds necessary to elicit significant increases in power (55).
The results of this study also confirm previous findings by our
group and others that power is more effectively increased using
J Appl Physiol • VOL
lower loads and higher training speeds, whereas strength is
better addressed using high-load, low-speed training in both
younger (26, 36, 37) and older (14, 18, 55) persons.
Patterns of change during strength and power training
cycles. As noted earlier, periodized training uses variations in
volume and intensity to reduce the incidence of overtraining
syndrome (23), decrease injury (13, 58), improve training
efficiency (35), increase neuromuscular gains (24, 25), and
enhance exercise compliance (5). Training tapers lasting a 4- to
14-day period have also positively impacted strength and
power improvements (24, 25, 32, 41). In addition, variations in
the nature of the training stimulus appear to have a significant
impact on fatigue and recovery after a training cycle (20, 39).
The simultaneous increases in AP and TW during the first
3– 4 wk of training indicate that our subjects were able to
tolerate the low-load, high-velocity training associated with
our PWR training protocol with minimal decreases in performance. This result agrees with studies showing no significant
performance decrements during the early stages of light- to
moderate-load resistance-training regimens (20, 39). Our data
do show, however, that by the third week of training further
increases in TW were at the cost of further increases in
intensity (AP). Because our training model required subjects to
complete all sets and repetitions, and because all repetitions
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Fig. 1. Right and left knee average power (A and B, respectively) and total work (C and D, respectively) curves during high-speed power training.
RESISTANCE TRAINING CYCLES IN OLDER WOMEN
1217
were performed at the subjects’ perceived maximums, a logical
interpretation of these data is that the subjects’ capacity to
increase TW after training week 3 required an involuntary
reduction in training intensity (AP) dictated through either
central or peripheral fatigue mechanisms.
The relationship between training intensity and volume can
also be seen by examining the PT and TW curves for the STR
group. These data show that increases in PT at the onset of
training were at the cost of TW. Apparently, high-resistance/
low-velocity STR training required subjects to reduce their
training volume (TW) to increase intensity (PT) across the first
2 training wk, even after the 2-wk tissue-adaptation period.
Between weeks 2 and 6, increases in volume (TW) became
apparent. Both curves then plateaued for the remainder of the
study, with the right and left legs showing slightly negative and
positive slopes, respectively. The associated PT curves showed
positive slopes until training week 4 and a subsequent decline
to near baseline levels by the end of training. These data
indicate that even after a 2-wk tissue-adaptation period, in
which training volume was gradually increased, the women in
our study could not adjust to the high loads associated with
STR training without reducing training volume (TW). In addition, once the volume of work began to increase, the intensity
progressively declined until the end of training. By the end of
week 6, TW had plateaued even in the face of declining PT,
J Appl Physiol • VOL
showing that the women could no longer maintain either
volume or intensity using the high-resistance STR overload.
The results described in the previous paragraph are similar to
those reported previously using isoinertial training, and the
mechanisms causing the concurrent AP and TW patterns during PWR training and PT and TW patterns during STR training
may be similar to those presented in these studies. Linnamo et
al. (39) examined the levels of neuromuscular fatigue in eight
men and eight women randomly assigned to either maximal
strength training [MSL; 10 repetitions maximum (RM)] or
explosive strength training (ESL; 40% of 1 RM) on different
days. Both protocols used the same number of repetitions, sets,
and training sessions. As was the case in our study, these
researchers reported different fatigue patterns for each training
protocol. They reported that decreases in force production were
greater and recovery times were longer after MSL compared
with ESL. They also noted higher lactate accumulations after
MSL vs. ESL. Although integrated electromyographical activity during the initial 100 ms of each contraction declined more
during ESL, the integrated electromyographical activity declines during the prolonged 500- to 1,500-ms portion of the
contraction were greater during MSL. The researchers suggested that these differences might have been related to greater
peripheral fatigue produced by the higher load MSL protocol
and greater central fatigue generated by the lower resistance
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Fig. 2. Right and left knee peak torque (A and B, respectively) and total work (C and D, respectively) curves during low-speed strength training.
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J Appl Physiol • VOL
of training should begin by the third or fourth week of isokinetic training.
Further research, using longer training periods and diverse
training cycles, is needed to determine what differences in
volume and intensity patterns might be seen across a periodized training regimen. Additionally, similar studies using
isoinertial training could determine whether these time-course
changes hold true under different contractile conditions. Finally, given the importance recently placed on high-speed,
low-resistance training to improve power and contractile speed
in older persons (15, 33, 55, 56), studies should examine
changes in performance, integrated electromyographical activity, and hormonal levels with both high-load and high-velocity
overload to determine the relative impacts of each of these
factors during training.
We and other researchers have found that the greatest rate of
improvement occurs during the initial portion of a training
period (42, 43, 51, 52). These findings differ in part from those
reported in two studies by McCartney et al. (42, 43), who
found continued increases in training across a 2-yr resistancetraining program with men and women 60 – 80 yr old. However, the different findings may be explained by a number of
factors. The first is the contrasting nature of the data collected.
In both of their studies, McCartney et al. reported data collected during testing sessions designed to elicit maximal isoinertial 1-RM performances. The assessments followed a 1- or
2-day recovery period and reflected the best single lift recorded
during two testing sessions separated by 24 h. In contrast, our
data were collected during the actual training sessions and
described the efforts made by the subjects during multiset,
isokinetic training.
The second differentiating factor between these studies was
the sampling frequency and duration. Our data were collected
during every training session over a 9-wk training cycle.
McCartney et al. (42, 43) collected data during separate testing
sessions performed once every 6 wk. In comparing their data
with differing results from other groups, McCartney et al. (43)
noted that their more frequent data collection (every 6 wk)
might have allowed them to detect transient changes missed by
studies that tested less frequently. Sampling during every session
may have allowed us to detect changes in training adaptations
that would not have been evident with less frequent sampling
such as the 6-wk cycle used by McCartney et al. (42, 43).
Other factors that may have contributed to the contrasting
findings in these studies are the higher training intensity (maximal speed-dictated loads vs. submaximal loads) and frequency
(3 sessions vs. 2 sessions per week) of our program and the
periodic increases in intensity during their study (every 6 wk)
compared with the performance-dictated changes for each
repetition during our training program.
Factors such as the nature of the training, sampling frequency, duration, intensity, and frequency of training and the
rate at which intensity, volume, and duration change during
training may all affect performance improvements and fatigue
during training. Thus the sampling techniques we used would
be advantageous in assessing changes during long-term resistance-training studies in older persons, where the goal is to
ascertain daily variations in training performance so that training cycles can be adjusted to maximize performance gains.
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ESL protocol. Similar fatigue mechanisms may explain the
differences seen in the AP, PT, and TW curves produced by the
PWR and STR groups in our study. For example, we saw an
initial rise in both AP and TW during the first 3 wk of PWR
training, whereas TW declined during the initial weeks of STR
training. This pattern reflects the conclusions by Linnamo et al.
that explosive low-load movements seem to facilitate neuromuscular function rather than cause fatigue.
The unique fatigue patterns resulting from different training
protocols were also examined in a study by Fry et al. (20). One
protocol employed high-load, low-volume training (10 onerepetition sets at 100% 1 RM), whereas the other employed
low-volume, low-load training (1 set of 5 repetitions at 32 kg,
1 set of 5 repetitions at 40% 1 RM, and 3 sets of 5 repetitions
at 50% 1 RM). The researchers reported that, by training week
3, significantly greater 1-RM decrements were observed in the
high-load vs. low-load group. They also reported greater reductions in isokinetic and stimulated isometric force production during high-load training, attributing the differences to
greater peripheral fatigue and acute muscle damage.
In a follow-up study (21) using the same training protocols,
these researchers quantified epinephrine and norepinephrine
levels across a 3-wk training period. After training, their
high-load group required significantly greater catecholamine
levels to achieve the pretraining work levels. They concluded
that the higher load protocol caused a downregulation of the
␤2-receptors of the working muscles and that greater catecholamine levels were required to elicit the same contractile response. Finally, a number of researchers have noted the impact
of training volume (49) and intensity (22) on mood states and
associated performance in athletes. In fact, Morgan et al. (44)
reported a dose-response relationship between increases in
training stimulus and declining mood states.
Although we did not measure the hormonal, electromyographical, or psychological responses to our STR or PWR
training protocols, given the similarities between our training
protocols and those cited earlier, an attractive hypothesis is that
the divergent performance responses produced by each of our
protocols were attributable to fatigue mechanisms similar to
those reported in the cited studies.
Although other responses such as cortisol-to-testosterone
ratios, growth factor expression, and immune system changes
have been reported with overtraining syndrome (staleness),
these responses vary greatly according to type of overload,
training protocol, and testing methodology and do not seem to
be as pronounced with resistance-training protocols as they are
with endurance training (19, 22).
Our data suggest that high-resistance, low-speed STR training produced a greater level of stress than low-resistance,
high-speed PWR training. Reductions in performance may be
the combined result of a fitness effect and a fatigue effect, and
in our study it appears that at the onset of training the fitness
effect predominated in the PWR group, whereas fatigue dominated in the STR group. By the fourth week of training,
however, increases in volume were always accompanied by
reductions in intensity regardless of the training protocol. As
noted above, intensity is the major factor dictating performance
enhancements during both training and taper. Therefore, our
data indicate that, for training intensity to be maintained in
older women during the taper period, reductions in the volume
RESISTANCE TRAINING CYCLES IN OLDER WOMEN
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the University of Miami students who helped with data collection
and training, including Laura Myerburg and Rachael Epstein.
GRANTS
We are grateful for support from Florida’s Teaching Nursing Home program funded by the State of Florida Agency for Health Care Administration
and from the Department of Veterans Affairs.
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