Annals q/Glaciology 24 1997
© International Glaciological Society
The rate of che:mical weathering beneath a quiescent,
surge-type, polytherrnal-based glacier,
southern Spitsbergen, Svalbard
J. L. WADHAM,I A.J.
HODSON, 2
M. TRA
TER,I
J. A.
DOWDESWELL
3
IDepartment q/GeograPhy, University q/ Bristol, Bristol BS8 1SS, England
2Department q/Geograph)" University q/ Oxford, Oxford OX} 3 TB, England
3Centrefor Glaciology, Institute q/ Earth Studies, University q/Wales, Aberystwyth SY233DB, Wales
ABSTRACT. Glacierized basins in the high Arctic are beli eved to be regions of low
chemical weathering rates, despite the lack of pertinent data, because it is beli eved that
water does not flow in sig nificant quantiti es through subgl acial drainage systems. "Ve have
calc ulated chemica l weathering rates at Finsterwalderbreen, a pol y th ermal , surge-type
g lacier in Svalbard. Rates of 320 and 150 meqI:+ m - 2 year I were m easured in 1994 a nd
7
7
3
1995, resp ectively. The corresponding water fluxes were 4.1 x 10 and 1.7 x 10 m . We estimate that we have measured ",72% of th e total annual discharpe, h ence the true a nnual
chemical weathering rates are ",440 a nd 210 meq I:+ m - 2 yea r- , res pectively. Thi s g ives a
mean annual chemical weathering rate of 330 meq L:+ m 2 year- I, which a pprox im ates
the continental average of 390 meqL:+ m - 2 year 1 a nd is intermedi ate betwee n chemical
weathering rates m easured on cold-based:placiers (",110- 160 m eqI:+ m 2 yea r I) and
temperate glaciers (450- 1000 meqI: + m- year I). This suggests that there may b e a
direct link between chemical weathering rates and th ermal regime, a nd that glacierized
basins in the high Arctic cannot necessaril y be considered as reg ion s of low chemi cal
weathering and CO 2 drawdown .
INTRODUCTION
Glacial environments are often considered as areas of low
chemical weathering rates, due to low temperatures and
minimal biological activity (Kump and Alley, 1994). This
conviction has been used to justify ass umptions of minim a l
chemical weathering beneat h ice (Gibbs a nd Kump, 1994;
Kump and Alley, 1994). Rece nt empirical, hydrochemical
work shows temperate g laciers to be cha racterised by elevated chem ical weathering rates, as much as 1.2- 2.6 times
the continental ave rage (Souchez and L emm ens, 1987). The
suppl y of large volumes of dilute meltwaters to highly reactive, freshly comminuted, glacia l rock flour and other glacial
debris facilitates rapid rates of hydrolytic weathering of carbonate and aluminosilicate rocks. These reactions usuall y require a supply of protons. This conditi on is partly satisfi ed by
carbonation reactions, involv i ng the dissociation of carbonic
acid derived from the dissolution of CO 2 in water. Consumption of protons increases the pH of a sol ution, leading to a reduction in pC0 2 a nd consequent diffusion of CO 2 into
solution . This m ay take place wherever waters come into
contact with th e atmos phere via open conduits or a ir bubbles
in the ice. Thus, chemical weathering a lso provides a mechanism whereby C O 2 is draw n down from the atmosphere
with increasing demand for protons (Sharp and others, 1995).
Current assessme nts of glacial chemical weathering
rates are derived from tem perate g lac iers, where meltwater
has considerabl e co ntact with basal rock material via a welldeveloped subglacial drainage system (Sharp and others,
1995). Chemical weathering beneath high-Arctic glaciers,
however, has received comparatively littl e atte ntion. A predominance of cold basal ice on these glaciers is held to restrict
the access of meltwaters to the bed (Sugden and John, 1976),
leading to low overall chemical weathering rates. Support for
this a rgumcnt derives from the onl y two chemical weathering
rates measured on high-Arctic glaciers, of 160 meqI: + m 2
year I at Scott Turnerbreen in central Spitsbergen (Hodgkins
I
and others, in press) and ",110 meql:+ m 2 year- at Austre
Br0ggerbreen, Svalbard (A.J. H odson, unpublished data ),
where meltwater contact with glacial debris is restricted to
supraglacia l and ice-m a rgin al environments.
Most glaciers on Svalbard are poly th ermal (D owdeswell
a nd others, 1984) with at least pa rt of their basal ice at the
pressure-melting point (Schytt, 1969). Chemical weathering
rates in these glacial systems have yet to be evaluated . H ere,
we address this shortcoming through a n investigation of
nJllofT and hydrochemistry at Finsterwalderbreen, a polythermal glacier in so uth ern Spitsbergen.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
Finsterwalderbreen (77 °28' N, 15°18' E ) h as a catchment a rea
of 68 km 2, of which 44 km 2 is glaciated (includ ing 9 km 2 of
dead ice) (see Fig. I). The glacier is 11 km long and has a polythermal regime, being mainly warm-based except beneath
the thinner ice at the front a nd lateral margins (0degard
a nd others, 1997). The eq uilibrium line is located in a zone
aro und 500 m a.s.l. (p ersonal communicati on from]. F. Pinglot and others, 1996). The glacier is reported to have surged
some time b etween 1898 a nd 1910, during which its lower half
27
Wadham and others: Chemical weathering beneath a polythermal glacier
increased in thickness (Nuttall and oth ers, 1997). The bedrock
geology is m a inly of sedimentary origin, consisting ofPrecambri an carbonates, phyllite a nd quartzite, and Permi an
sa ndstones, dolomites and limestones in th e upper catchm ent, and Tri assic to Cretaceous siltstones, sandstones a nd
sha les at lower elevations (Dallm a nn and others, 1990).
Fieldwork was conducted during the 1994 and 1995 melt
seasons from 24 June to 19 August Uulian days 176- 231) a nd
25 Jun e to 14 August Uulian d ays 176- 227), respectively.
About 90 % of the glacier 's meltwater drains from two o utfl ows on the western margin: a basal conduit a nd a subterranean upwelling of water about 10 m to the east of the basa l
conduit (Fig. I). These two outflows converge 10 m downstream a nd together constitute the bulk meltwaters. A
gauging station was established approxim ately 10- 40 m
downstream from the confluence. Frequent channel migration, high flows and icebergs peri odically destroyed th e
gauging stati on, which was subsequently repositioned at
the nearest convenient site. Bulk meltwater stage was measured continuously by a Druck press ure transducer, a nd
hourly averages of 10 s readings were logged by a CRIO d ata
logge r. Stage was calibrated to di scharge da ily by m a nua l
gauging wh en possible, using the velocity/a rea m ethod
(Tra nter a nd ot hers, 1996). Diurna l vari atio ns in di scha rge
were considered in sufficient to warrant more frequent calibrati ons. Errors in discha rge data a re "'15%.
A single bulk meltwater sam ple was collected daily
between 1500 a nd 1900 h throughout both the 1994 a nd
1995 melt seasons. Sa mpl es were fil tered immediately a nd
stored in pl as tic bottl es. T he samples were a nalyzed for pH
using a portablc Ori on 290A pH me ter a nd Ori on pH electrode up to a few days a fter storage. C l- , SO / - a nd Ca 2+
were determined by ion chrom atography on a Di onex
4000i some 2- 9 m onths after coll ecti on. Alkalinity (predomin antl y H C0 3- ) was determin ed by colorimetric titrati on up to 2 months after collecti on. The precision of these
determinations is ± 4% and ± 0.6%, respectively. T he
mean ch arge balance error for bulk meltwaters was - 2.7 % .
During spring 1995, 60 snow samples were collected from
six pits located along the glacier cent re line, so that bulk
meltwater solute concen trati ons co uld be corrected for
snowpack input. Withi n 24 h of coll ecti on, snow samples
were melted, fil te red a nd stored at room temperature for 2
weeks- 4 months. Chemical analysis was carri ed out as above.
R ESULTS
C oncentrations of C a 2 + were corrected for th e sea-salt-deri ved contribution from th e snowp ack by using the ionic
r ati o of Cl : Ca 2+ in sea water (H oll a nd, 1978) a nd th e Clconte nt of bulk runoff (ass umed to be derived entirely from
sea salt). S042 concentrati ons in th e bulk runoff were also
corrected for the snowpack inpu t (i.e. that associated with
sea salt and with oth er S042- containing aerosols) using
the m ean ratio of Cl : S0 42- in snow sampl es. Non-sea-salt
Ca 2 + a nd non-snowpack SO/ - are denoted as "*".
Discha rge time series for both the 1994 and 1995 fi eld seasons a re given in Figure 2a. Both seasons exhibit mid-season
pea k fl ows, with periods of recession during the early a nd late
season, when di scha rges were <6 m:l s I in 1994 and <2 m 3 s I
in 1995. High flows towa rds the end of 1995 UD 224) a re
probably associated with accelerated abl ati on and rapid
transit of meltwater through a n efficient, wel l-developed,
28
b
itiliMW
MoraIne
- - - - - - - - Conlour Interval lOOm
E.L.A.
Equilibrium line Altitude
(500m)
I
I
Skm
I
I
3ml
Fig. 1. (a) Sketch map ifglacie1"Snoul. ( b) JlIap ifFinslerwalderbreen, Sualbard.
channelised drainage system . The peak di scha rge is up to
three times greater during 1994 than 1995 due to high rainfall, atta ining va lues of 35 m 3 s I . HC0 3 loads replicate th e
m ain trends in discha rge, with the highest HC0 3- loads re.
.
. '
2
•
2+
glstered dunng p eak fl ows (Fig. 2b ). S0 4 a nd Ca
loads a lso display similar trends, although these data a re not
presented here.
R a tes of chemical weathering were calculated in the following ma nner. Th e errors in !lux determinati ons, estim ated to be'" ± 25%, a re simil a r in m ag nitude to those in
previous chemical weathering studies. Solute fluxes have
not been corrected [or rainfa ll inputs of non-sea-salt aerosol,
which a re considered to be r elatively trivial. Th e a nnua l
water flu x for 1994 a nd 1995 was determin ed by calcul ating
the !lux of water per hour, a nd summing the va lues for the
whole seaso n. Miss ing disch a rge values were inte rpolated,
or predicted [rom the associati on between electrical conductivity a nd discha rge for the preceding and following
periods. The cumulati ve water flu x for the season was multipli ed by the summed discha rge-weighted mean concentrati on of H C0 3 - a nd 'S0 42 (ass umed to be equ a l to the
cati on co ncentrati on by cha rge bala nce). Thi s value was
then divided by the catchment a rea (68 km 2) to give the rate
of chemica l weathering over the sampling season in
m eqL:+ m 2. We estim ate th at ",80 % of th e a nnu al bulk
vVadham and others: Chemical weathering beneath a poly thermal glacier
a
35
-
30
---- 1994 (int erp.)
- - 1 995
25
'I(J)
'"E
0
20
15
10
0
"Co
"
\,
I ....
'O'J,.
"
'0'0
"
CC
'V
0,,'"
"
4FeS2(aq) + 16CaC0 3 (s) + 150 2 (g) + 14H2 0 (aq)
,
,.~
.•.
~;
cCo
'V
,,'J,.
'J,.
,,'0
'J,.
'J,.~
,!>C
'J,.
Julian day
16Ca2+(aq) + 16HC0 3- (aq) +88 0 42- (aq) +4Fe(OHh(s) .
(1)
H ence, two moles ofH C0 3 for each mole of SO/- a rc subtracted from the tota l concentrati on of HC0 3 . Of the rema ining HC0 3 , ha lf is assumed to come from the
atm osphere a nd halffrom carbonate rocks:
carbonation ifcarbonates
700
6 00
~
coupled sulphide oxidation/carbonate dissolution
....... ,99S PO,. 'P.)}'..
\
,
v./ \".)
5
b
lows. Of the total HC0 3 , some is ass umed to b e deri ved
from co upled sulphide oxidation/ca rbonate di ssolution:
-1 99 4
- t r - 1 994
CaC0 3 (s)+H 2 0(aq) +C 0 2 (aq) <-> Ca2+(aq) +2HC0 3' (aq).
--+-- 1995
(2)
50 0
.r:.
Cl 400
.!oo::
I",
300
o
o
200
I
100
0
"Co
"
'0'1.-
"
""",,,,
'1.-CC
'1.-cro
'1.-,,'1.-
Jul ian day
Fig. 2. Temporal variation in (a) bulk runqff (Q) and (b)
H C0 3 loads during 1994 and 1995 at Finsterwalderbreen.
Julian days 176- 231.
runoff was di scharged during the sampling season (after
Repp, 1988). Given that o ur gauging site collects ~90% of
the dra inage from the catch ment, the total water flux measured is ~72% of the annu a l flux. R ates of meas ured chemical weathering and water Duxes are give n in Table I, as a re
our estim ated annual rates.
Th e co ncentrations of cr ustal ions (HC0 3- , 'S0 42 a nd
'Ca2+ ) in bulk meltwater samples show inverse relationships with discharge (Fig. 3a). Both ·SO.!2 a nd H C0 3 display high concentrations at low discharge (>700 lLeq I I),
but while 'S0 42 declin es steeply as discharge rises, the
corresponding decrease in HC0 3 is less and concentrations of >400 lLeq I I are maintained. The association of
'Ca 2 + (as the major cation ) with discharge represents the
summation of both th ese trends.
We have estimated the minimum CO 2 drawdow n from
insta ntaneo us H C0 3- load s, ave raged over an hour, as fol-
Table 1. Water jluxes and chemical weathering rates at
Finsterwalderbreen
JIJeaslI/'ed rale
( ~72 %
We have also applied a minor correction for HC0 3 acquired by th e neutralisation of snow pack acidity. These calcul ations give a minimum estim ate of CO 2 drawdow n, as
th ey do not ta ke acco un t of HCO :)- derived from the ca rbonation of a luminosilicate and silicate minerals.
CO 2 drawdown at Finsterwalderbreen ranges from I to
150 kg Ch- I a nd exhibits a strong direct association with
bulk discharge (1.5 g C m 3, R2 = 0.96) (Fig. 3b). This compares with a rate of 1.2 g C m - 3 drawdown at Haut G lacier
d'Arolla, Switzerland (Sharp and othe"s, 1995).
DISCUSSION: RATES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING AND CO 2 DRAWDOWN
Calculated
a
chem ical
weathering
rates
of 440
a nd
1200
.
0800
Q)
:::1.
400
b
F inst erw a ld er b re en (1994/95)
= 6 .9x-5 . 1
R2 = 0 .96
y
Annual eslimale
of
tlllnualmle)
Watcr flu x, 1994 (m ')
Water flux , 1995 (m 3)
So lut c d cnudation ral C, 1994
(meqL:+ m- 2)
Solute denudation rate, 1995
(meqL:+ m- 2)
Mean annua l solute denudat ion rate
(l11 eqI: + 111- 2 year I)
4. 1 X 107
1.7 X 107
5.7
2.4
X
X
107
107
320
440
150
210
330
Q(m 3 s-1 )
Fig. 3. (a) Association between H C0 3- , * sol and Ca2+
and bulk discharge in 1994. H CO ] dataJar 1995 are also
included. (b) Association between bulk discharge and CO 2
drawdowl1 in 1994 and 1995.
29
Wadham and others: Chemical weathering beneath a polythermal glacier
210 meqI:+ In 2 year- I in 1994 and 1995, respectively, (see
Table I) give a mean annual weathering rate of 330
meqI:+ m - 2 year I. These rates are considerably higher than
rates of'" 110- 160 meqI:+ m - 2 year 1 measured at predominantly cold-based glaciers (Hodgkins and others, in press;
A.J. Hodson, unpublished data), and approach chemical
weathering rates on temperate glaciers that range from 450
to 1000 meqI:+ m 2 year- I (see Fig. 4). Inter-glaciercomparisons of chemical weathering rates, however, are complicated
by a number offactors. There may be error in some ofthe former estimates due to the fai lure to distinguish between crustal and atmospherically derived solute (Sharp and others,
1995). Varying degrees of glacierization of the catchment
area, together with differing relative proportions of active
and stagnant ice, may also influence the magnitude of calculated chemical weathering rates. }or example, chemical
weathering rates at Finsterwalderbreen are considerably deflated because only half of the catchment is occupied by
active glacier ice. We also appreciate that differences in lithology confound a simple, direct comparison between basins.
Since an appreciable quantity of reactive carbonate minerals
exists in the upper catchment ofFinsterwalderbreen, the chemical weathering rates we calculate may be higher than for
basins that do not contain carbonate rocks. Chemical weathering rates at Finsterwalderbreen, however, are 2-3 times the
magnitude of those calculated for Bf0ggerbreen, Svalbard
(A.J. Hodson, unpublished data), a predominantly coldbased catchment of similar lithology. This points towards
thermal regime as a first-order control on chemical weathering rates. Extrapolation of our findings to other high-Arctic
poly thermal glaciers leads us to conclude that these ice
masses may make a more significant contribution to global
chemical-weathering budgets than previously assumed,
since the rates are simi lar in magnitude to the continental
average of390 meqI:+ m 2 year- I (Livingstone,1963).
Discharge exerts a strong control on solute Duxes at
Finsterwalderbreen, as illustrated by seasonal trends III
Gornerg lets cher;
Me tcalf ( 1986)
.1
1000
HC0 3 - loads and bulk runoff during 1994 and 1995 (Fig.
2b). The higher HC0 3 loads in 1994 than in 1995 show that
high discharges are accompanied by elevated solute fluxes.
This supports conclusions reached in Alpine studies of chemical weathering rates and reflects the high flushing rates,
turbulent meltwaters and high suspended-sediment concentrations which accompany high discharges (Sharp and
others, 1995). These factors serve to promote chemical
weathering by preventing the equilibration of meltwaters,
providing large quantities of weatherable material and facilitating diffusion of CO 2 into solution.
The strong interannual variability in chemical weathering rates at Finsterwalderbreen can also be ascribed to contrasting discharge conditions over the two melt seasons (Fig.
2a). A high incidence of intense rainfall events during the
1994 sampling season (",79 mm ) was responsible for elevated
3
discharges (>35 m s \ producing a measured water flux of
7
3
4.1 x 10 m . This compares with only 1.7 x 10 7 m 3 in 1995
when rainfall receipts were ",27 mm over the melt season
and net incoming solar radiation exerted a stronger control
on meltwater generation. It should be noted that these rainfall amounts were measured at sea level, and that precipitation at higher elevations in the catchment probably fell as
snow and therefore did not contribute directly to runoff.
Thus, meteorological conditions are an important determinant of chemical weathering rates via elevated discharge.
High interannual variability in discharge, and hence chemical weathering rates, may be the norm on Spitsbergen
glaciers (Repp, 1988). The 1994 and 1995 melt seasons represent extremes of rainfall conditions, the typical incidence
of rainfall during summer in Spitsbergen lying intermediate
between those recorded in 1994 and 1995 (unpublished
information from Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo). Annual weathering rates of 440- 2lO meqI:+ m - 2 year I are, therefore,
probably more common.
The incidence of elevated chemical weathering rates at
Finsterwalderbreen, relative to cold-based glaciers, has im-
2
.2
.3
3
~
'",
,
E
C\J
aoo
+
w
C"
Ql
E 600
.6
.5
.4
.7
Ql
«i
.a
~
Cl
c
~
Ql
..c
0
H a ut Glacier d 'Ar olla (1992);
Sharp and o thers (1995)
5
South Cas cade GlaC ier, US ;
Reyn olds & J ohnso n (1 995)
6 Haut G/acierd 'A ro lla ( 199 1);
Sha rp and others (1 995)
.9
7
Glacier de Tsijiore No uve ;
8
So uchez & Lammens ( 198 7)
G ornerg letscher;
Collins (198 3)
9 Finsterwa lderbreen (1 994)
Ql
'"
4
10
Fins terwalde rb r een ( 1995)
11
Scott Turnerbreen;
(Hodgkins and o thers, in p r ess)
12
Brogg erbreen, Svalba r d;
H odson (unpublished da ta)
400
'"3:
'E
10.
200
+11
Ql
..c
c..>
+12
0
y
'~'
V
Temperate
Poly thermal
Cold
based
Fig. 4. Chemical weathering rates measured on glaciers ofdijJerent thermal regime.
30
Berendo n Glac ier, Can ada;
Ey les and others (1 982)
South Cascade Glacie r, US;
Reynolds & Johnson ( 1972)
Wadham and others: Chemical weathering benfath a /Jolythermal glacier
plications for the drawdown of CO 2 from the atmos phere.
The steeper decline in 'SO/ with discharge, relative to
HC0 3 (Fig. 3a), signifies an increasing dominance of carbonation reactions over sulphide oxidation as discharge ri ses,
a nd an increased drawdown of CO 2 into solution. This
increased relative contributi on of carbonation m aintains
high Duxes of cations, as is evident from the behaviour of
Ca 2 + concentrations as discharge rises (Fig. 3a). These features explain the strong, direct association of CO 2 drawdown with discharge (Fig. 3b). The amount of CO 2
drawdow n per unit of discharge (1.5 g C m - 3) is higher than
that reported at Haut Glacier d'l\rolla, a temperate glacier
in Switzerland (Sharp and others, 1995). This demonstrates
the potentially important role played by poly thermal
glaciers in the drawdown of CO 2 from the atmosphere a nd
the strong control of discharge on the magnitude of this
removal. It is possible that periods of high meltwater production on longer time-scales, e.g. during deglaciation
(Tranter, 1996) and the final stages of a surge, are accompanied by the removal of considerable volumes of CO 2 from
the atmosphere, provided meltwater is able to access weatherable rock material.
CONCLUSIONS
C hemical weatheri ng rates at Fi nsterwa lderbreen far exceed
lhose measured on cold-based Arctic glaciers, and app roach
rates cha racteristic of temperate glacier systems. We consider
thermal regime to be a first-order control on the m agnitude
of chemical weathering rates. A predominance of warm
basa l ice permits the development of a subglacial drainage
system beneath Finsterwalderbreen, a ll owing surface meltwaters to access reactive basal material and acquire solute.
Extrapolation of these findings to other large, poly thermalbased, high-Arctic g laciers leads us to co nclude that these ice
masses have high chemical weathering potential, pa rticularly during high-runoff years. This has implications 1'01- the
drawdown of CO 2 from the atmosphere at high discharges.
The magnitude of CO 2 drawdown per unit di scharge at
Finsterwalderbreen (1.5 g C m 3) is greater than that re3
ported in the Alps (1.2 g Cm ; Sharp and others, 1995). We
conclude that glacier basal thermal regime is an important
determinant of chemical weathering rates through the degree of subglacial routing of water. Consequently, high-Arctic regions ca nnot be considered as areas of low chemical
weathering rates and CO 2 drawdown.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Environment Programme
g rant EN5V-CT93-0299 to Prof. J. A. Dowdeswell and by
u.K. Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) studentship GT4/94/116/A to J. L. Wadham. We thank Norsk
Polarinstitutt, Osl o, for logistical support and J. Evans, I.
Frearson, D. Garbett, A. J ackson and \\1. Nandris for their assistance in the fi eld.
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