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ORAL PRESENTATION ASSIGNMENT
VST 111- FARM ANIMAL NURSING – SPRING 2017
For each of the diseases selected, prepare a 5-7-minute oral presentation. Your oral presentation should
include the following: etiology, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and if the particular
disease is zoonotic and reportable. Also, note your sources for review. You will be required to submit a
written report for each disease to me on or before Tuesday March 14th. These reports must be word
processed and each, three to five pages in length with at least 5 reputable sources. Failure to submit
these reports on the specified date will result in a grade of zero (0) for the assignment. Lateness will
be graded accordingly. The class reports will be consolidated and made available online to be distributed.
You will be graded on the written report as follows: promptness, length, content, knowledge of subject,
summarization of ideas and overall appearance. The oral presentation grade will be based on speaking
ability, use and pronunciation of vocabulary, knowledge and interest in subject tools, engaging in class
discussion and participation, questions, and overall presentation. Presentations will be made on Tuesday
April 19th (1), April 26th (2), May 3rd (3). Please indicate your preferred date (1, 2 or 3), but be prepared
to go on any date if needed.
Disease
Diseases affecting multiple species
Anthrax
Babesiosis (piroplasmosis)
Bluetongue
Foot and mouth disease
Rabies
Tetanus
White muscle disease
Diseases affecting cattle
Anaplasmosis
Blackleg
Bloat
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Bovine Viral Diarrhea
Brucellosis
Foot Rot
Leptospirosis
Listeriosis
Parainfluenza
Sarcoptic and Psoroptic mange
Shipping Fever
Tuberculosis
Vibriosis
Name
Page
Sharon Restrepo
Alexandra Gilday
Jessica Bolger
Brittany Carruba
Stephanie Filazzola
Katarina Baker
Laura Nichols
3
9
16
23
32
39
48
Briele Edwards
Caitlyn Bermudez
Katie Getz
Gerard Schaufhulte
Anna Gallo
Brianna Sciara
Kaleen Corbett
Caroline Mennella
Kayla Tyler
Dulce Bravo
Brianna Barker
Jessica Castrogiovanni
Alexa Barone
Katelin Sequeira
55
62
215
222
62
76
86
92
101
225
111
118
124
129
Michelle Wooley
136
Diseases affecting Sheep and Goats
Contagious ecthyma (orf)
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Diseases affecting swine
Viral Encephalitis
Brian Hennessy
140
Diseases affecting the Equine
Colic
Contagious equine metritis (CEM)
Equine Encephalomyelitis
Equine Infectious anemia (EIA)
Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP)
Equine Influenza
Potomac horse fever
Rhinopneumonitis
Strangles
West Nile Virus
Annmarie Maniscalco
Sharon Lee
Jamie Clifton
Shannon Sypher
Cathleen Brennan
Stephanie Bonavita
Michelle Moss
Kristen Schmelzle format
Jackie O’Brien
Nicole Altimari
147
155
162
Diseases affecting poultry
Coccidiosis
Newcastle disease
Gabrielle Lemay
Joseph Forgione
204
208
167
172
180
186
193
199
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Anthrax:
Killer
Disease
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March 21
2017
Anthrax is a serious zoonotic disease that can affect most mammals,
but is particularly important in herbivores. This disease is caused by a
spore-forming bacterium, Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax spores are
extremely resistant to inactivation by heat or chemicals, and can survive
in the environment for decades. In endemic regions, anthrax can be a
serious problem in unvaccinated ruminants. Although antibiotics may be
effective if started early, the course of disease is usually rapid in these
animals, and symptomatic infections are often fatal.
Sharon
Restrepo
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Anthrax: Deadly Killer
Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by the spore forming bacterium
Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax is most common in wild and domestic herbivores (cattle,
sheep, and goats) but can also be seen in people exposed to tissue from infected
animals, to contaminated animal products, or directly to B anthracis spores under
certain conditions. B anthracis spores can remain viable in soil for many years.
During this time, they are a potential source of infection for grazing livestock but
generally do not represent a direct risk of infection for people. Grazing animals
may become infected when they ingest sufficient quantities of these spores from
the soil. Depending on the route of infection, host factors, and potentially strainspecific factors, anthrax can have several different clinical presentations. In
herbivores, anthrax commonly presents as an acute septicemia with a high fatality
rate, often accompanied by hemorrhagic lymphadenitis. In dogs, people, horses, and
pigs, it is usually less acute although still potentially fatal.
-EtiologyAnthrax is a disease of human beings and animals caused by the
encapsulated, spore-forming, large gram-positive rod Bacillus anthracis. B anthracis
has two distinct morphotypes in its life cycle, active vegetative cell and dormant
spore. This bacterium grows within the body tissues of the host, sporulation occurs
when the actively growing organism is exposed to the atmosphere. As a result, B
anthracis is found in soil as a resistant spore that may persist for years. The
bacterium grows best at temperatures ranging from about 77F to 104F thus most
birds are immune to anthrax given that their average temperature is about 107.6F.
The bacillus produces exotoxins with at least 3 active fractions: edema factor,
lethal factor, and protective antigen. In the host the actions of a combination of
these factors cause the destruction of phagocytic cells and capillary permeability,
resulting in illness. One study has shown that phagocytosis by human neutrophils is
inhibited in the presence of the protective antigen and edema factor, potentially
increasing the host's susceptibility to disease. There are areas of the world in
which anthrax is endemic in animals. This results in chronic environmental
contamination with resulting human and animal disease. Bacillus anthracis is found
most commonly in areas with neutral to mildly alkaline soil (pH 6 to 8.5), and
periods of drought and flooding. Flooding allows the bacteria to accumulate at the
ground surface in low-lying areas. Subsequent drought affords conditions for
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exposure of the spores. Anthrax has been reported in the Middle East, Africa,
Central and South America, as well as other areas of the world. In the United
States, it has been most commonly reported in the southern Mississippi River
Valley, but the disease has been reported in nearly every state.
-Clinical signs
Three forms of disease are recognized in animals: per acute,
acute/subacute, and chronic. In the per acute form of anthrax death may occur
without any warning, as animals may rapidly develop cerebral anoxia and pulmonary
edema. Ruminants, especially cattle, sheep, and goats, are the species most
commonly affected with this form of disease. Fever, depression, convulsions, and
difficulty breathing are associated with acute or subacute anthrax. Animals may
hemorrhage from the mouth, nose, and anus. Death occurs approximately 24 hours
after the initial signs of illness. Cattle, sheep, and horses are the species most
commonly affected with this form of anthrax. Typical necropsy findings of cattle
and sheep dying of acute/subacute anthrax include hemorrhage and edema in any
part of the body; splenomegaly is evident, with a "blackberry jam" appearance. This
sign is not seen in swine dying of anthrax. The blood is dark and will not clot.
Lingual and pharyngeal tissue edema causes the typical clinical signs of chronic
anthrax and discharge from the mouth. Death from asphyxia may occur. This form
of illness is reported most often in swine, but has also been seen in horses, dogs,
and rarely, cattle. Edema from chronic anthrax may also be seen in other locations
of the body. In addition, an intestinal form of chronic anthrax has been reported in
swine. Necropsy of animals dying of chronic anthrax will reveal lingual and
pharyngeal edema. Hemorrhage may be seen in the pharynx and cervical lymph
nodes.
-Diagnosis
Anthrax is often diagnosed by finding the characteristic organisms in clinical
samples or by isolating B. anthracis in culture. Using aseptic technique, a
veterinarian collects a jugular sample of venous blood and sends or delivers it to
the diagnostic laboratory in a sealed, sturdy, leak proof, iced container, with an
accompanying history identifying it as an anthrax suspect. Blood, fluid samples
from skin lesions, aspirates of lymph nodes or spleen, ascetic fluid, pleural
effusions or cerebrospinal fluid (in cases of meningitis) are stained with
polychrome methylene blue (McFadyen’s stain). Using this stain, B. anthracis
organisms are square-ended, blue-black bacilli surrounded by a pink capsule. In a
Gram stain, Bacillus anthracis is a large Gram positive rod that may occur singly, in
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pairs or in chains. Spores are not found in host tissues unless they have been
exposed to air. Necropsy is discouraged because of the potential for blood spillage
and vegetative cells to be exposed to air, resulting in large numbers of spores
being produced. Because of the rapid pH change after death and decomposition,
vegetative cells in an unopened carcass quickly die without sporulating.
-Treatment
Anthrax is highly fatal and it is difficult to treat affected animals. Long
acting penicillin is the antibiotic of choice. Response to treatment may vary; best
results are obtained when drugs are administered early during an outbreak. If
antibiotics are used, vaccination with an anthrax vaccine should be delayed for one
to two weeks. The vaccine is a modified-live bacterin and antibiotics will kill or
neutralize the vaccine. Early treatment and vigorous implementation of a
preventive program are essential to reduce losses among livestock. Livestock at
risk should be immediately treated with a long-acting antibiotic to stop all potential
incubating infections. This is followed by vaccination 7–10 days after antibiotic
treatment. Any animals becoming sick after initial treatment and/or vaccination
should be retreated immediately and revaccinated a month later. Simultaneous use
of antibiotics and vaccine is inappropriate, because available commercial vaccines
for animals in the USA are live vaccines. Animals should be moved to another
pasture away from where the bodies had lain and any possible soil contamination.
Suspected contaminated feed should be immediately removed. Domestic livestock
respond well to penicillin if treated in the early stages of the disease.
Oxytetracycline given daily in divided doses also is effective.
-Prevention
The best method of preventing future disease is to prevent the release of
the organism into the environment. Animals that have died from anthrax should be
burned or deeply buried and covered with lime. These animals should not be
necropsied in the field because exposure of the vegetative organism to the
atmosphere results in sporulation of the bacteria. "Seeding" of the area with large
numbers of spores results in an area of future infectivity. The vegetative anthrax
bacteria are destroyed in carcasses that are left unopened. If an animal is
necropsied in the field, the carcass should be destroyed. The instruments used
should be autoclaved and the surrounding soil should be removed and buried with
the animal or decontaminated with a 5% solution of lye (sodium hydroxide).
Vaccination is the method of choice for preventing future cases of anthrax on
affected farms. Contaminated soils are very difficult to completely decontaminate,
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but formaldehyde will be successful if the level is not excessive. The process
generally requires removal of soil.
-Zoonotic? Reportable?
Bacillus anthracis spores can gain access into the human body through
various methods resulting in different manifestations of the disease. The most
common disease form, cutaneous anthrax, generally develops when a penetrating
traumatic injury results in deposition of the spore under the skin. Person-to-person
transmission of anthrax is very rare and has been reported only with cutaneous
anthrax. People who work with animal-origin products from anthrax-endemic areas
are at risk of contracting the disease. Further, bites from flies may mechanically
transmit B anthracis, but reported cases are rare and sporadic, and this route of
infection is not thought to play a role in epidemics. A second common form of the
disease is caused by the inhalation of spores from contaminated dust, wool, or hair,
especially when handled in a confined space. After inhalation, the spores localize in
the mediastinal lymph nodes. A septicemic phase follows, with concomitant
pulmonary involvement. Despite treatment, death usually follows within 24 hours. A
third form of the disease is intestinal anthrax. Because spores can be found in
meat from infected animals, ingestion of raw meat, blood, or inadequately cooked
meat from such animals can result in infection. In industrialized nations, intestinal
anthrax is less common than the cutaneous or pulmonary form of disease; however,
worldwide, intestinal anthrax is much more common than inhalation anthrax. The
low prevalence in industrialized nations is presumably attributable to the stringent
laws concerning animals allowed into the food chain. Human-to-human transmission
is possible but unlikely. For animals and humans, anthrax is a reportable disease in
the United States. Anthrax is classified as a Category A Agent; pose the greatest
possible threat for a bad effect on public health. Local and state health
departments, federal animal health officials, and the CDC's National Center for
Infectious Diseases should immediately be notified of any suspected cases.
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Bibliography
 https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/resources/history/index.html
 https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/Anthrax%20i
n%20Livestock.pdf
 http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/FastFacts/pdfs/anthrax_F.pdf
 http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+conten
t/sa+health+internet/health+topics/health+conditions+preventio
n+and+treatment/infectious+diseases/anthrax
 https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/5/4/pdfs/99-0419.pdf
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2750964/pdf/12
248_2008_Article_72272.pdf
 https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/9/5/pdfs/02-0537.pdf
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3447321/pdf/cvj
_10_1123.pdf
 https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/20/2/pdfs/13-0021.pdf
 https://vetmed.iastate.edu/vdpam/FSVD/swine/indexdiseases/anthrax
 https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/14/4/07-0969_article
 https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergingissues/dow
nloads/anthrax.pdf
 Diseases and disorders, “Anthrax” by Barbra Saffer
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Alexandra Gilday
3/21/17
Dr. Dougherty
VST 111
BABESIOSIS REPORT
Introduction
Babesiosis is a wide spread illness caused by species of the intraerythrocytic tick borne
protozoan called Babesia. This protozoan infects many vertebrate animals, including bovine,
equine, canine, feline, swine, ovine, caprine, mice, and humans. The disease ranges in severity,
from a mild infection to fatality. Babesiosis is named for the scientist, Babes, who originally
discovered the piroplasm in the blood of cattle in Romania in 1888. (R.Bock) The population
most affected by the disease is cattle, as the disease can have a significant economic impact in
affected geographic areas.
“The genus Babesia belongs to the phylum Apicomplexa, class Sporozoasida, order
Eucoccidiorida, suborder Piroplasmorina and family Babesiidae.” (R.Bock) In cattle, there are
additional names for the disease, including the following: piroplasmosis, Texas fever, Redwater
fever, tick fever, and tristeza. (Sahinduran)
Etiology
Babesiosis is an infection caused by parasitic protozoan organisms of the Babesia genus.
The most likely form of transmission is through the bites of vector ticks. The major ticks
responsible for infection in cattle include the following: for B. bigemina, Rhipicephalus
microplus (formerly Boophilus microplus) and R. annulatus (formerly Boophilus annulatus; for
B. bovis, Rhipicephalus microplus and for B. divergens, Ixodes ricinus.) (University)
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There are more than 70 species of the Babesia genus, however, the majority of them are
not responsible for symptomatic disease. The disease is typically host specific, meaning there is a
particular species responsible for the disease in a specific animal.
Babesia motas and Babesia ovis affects sheep and goats. (Sahinduran). Babesia caballi, B
equi cause disease in equines. Babesia trautmanni and Babesia perroncitoi infect swine.
(C.Barros) Babesia microti infects mice. (R.L.Ord) Babesia bovis, Babesia microti, and Babesia
divergens can be found in humans. While Babesia bovis and Babesia divergens are typically
found in humans who have either been splenectomized or are immune compromised, all humans
can potentially be infected with the Babesia microti. (C.Barros)
Babesiosis is found in various places throughout the world. (University) Boophilus ticks,
now Rhipicephalus microplus are responsible for transmitting Babesia bigemina and Babesia
bovis in the following locations: North and South America, Mexico, parts of Southern Europe,
Africa, Asia, Australia and tropical and subtropical areas of the Western Hemisphere. (C.Barros)
Babesia divergens is found in the United Kingdom and northern Europe. Babesia caballi and
Babesia equi are found in the tropics and sub tropics. (C.Barros)
Regardless of animal species, the disease is almost always spread through ticks
although it has been transmitted accidentally through the following medical procedures:
dehorning, castration, and needle vaccinations. (C.Barros) The ticks acquire the Babesia
organism by feeding on an infected host. The organism is then passed onto the ovaries of the
ticks which lay the groundwork for the next generation of vector ticks. When a tick carrying
Babesia attaches to its vertebrate host animal, it stimulates the onset of active infection anywhere
from 2 to 9 days. (University) The incubation period for infection is approximately two to three
weeks, although it can vary depending on the species of Babesia.
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In climates in which the ticks live all year round, cattle build up immunity. It is found
that calves have more resistance than adult cattle as animals become infected when young and
develop immunities. In areas where tick transmission is seasonal, the tick population has been
eradicated, or animals have not become immune when young, there can be outbreaks of the
infection.
Clinical Signs
In cattle, the infection can be caused by at least one of 7 Babesia species. (C.Barros) In
bovines, B bigemina can present as acute, subacute, or chronic. There is fever and extensive
intravascular hemolysis which results in depression, anemia, paleness of mucous membranes,
and hemoglobinuria. In the subacute form, symptoms may include jaundice. When cattle have
the chronic form of the disease, they present the following characteristics: emaciation,
inadequate milk yield, and spontaneous abortion of offspring. In the acute and subacute forms,
the animals present with hemolytic anemia and their plasma has a tan-brown discoloration as a
result. (C.Barros)
B bovis infection is typically more severe and can be fatal. It can include peripheral
circulatory disturbances. Cattle with B bovis may also have significant neurological symptoms,
including: incoordination, seizures, muscle tremors, opisthothonus, hyperexcitability,
aggressiveness, blindness, head pressing, nystagmus, lateral recumbency with paddling limb
movements, and coma. (C.Barros)
In equines, there may be recovery without obvious symptoms of hemoglobinuria (too
much hemoglobin in urine) or anemia. When there are symptoms, they can include: depression,
anorexia, anemia, fever, pale mucous membranes, icterus, hepatosplenomegaly, petechial
hemorrhage of mucous membranes, and abortions. When the disease is chronic, the horses can
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have the following characteristics: weight loss, selective appetite, reduced performance,
thrombocytopenia, and hemoglobimenia (blood in plasma). (C.Barros) In sheep and goats, the
symptoms include fever, anorexia, dyspnea, hemoglobinuria, emaciation, pale mucous
membrane, jaundice, constipation and recumbency. (Y.Demessie)
Diagnosis
The disease is typically diagnosed through clinical signs and blood smears. The finding
of Babesia organisms in the blood and clinical indicators are strongly suggestive of a diagnosis
of Babesiosis. Blood should be examined using a variety of tests performed on whole blood in
anticoagulant and serum. Blood should be drawn from small caliber vessels, in the ears and the
tail where it is most likely that the protozoan will be observed. Blood smears should be stained
with Giemsa or other Romanowski dye. The ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay)
test should be used for serum and PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) assays can detect the
presence of Babesia. (Y.Demessie)
In necropsy, the following diagnostic indicators are usually determined. In B bovis, grey
matter which has been infiltrated with parasitized red blood cells, has a cherry pink color. It is
also possible to visualize capillary distention which is caused by the parasitized red blood cells.
In addition, parasitized red blood cells can also be visualized in the brain and other organs.
(C.Barros)
Treatment and Prevention
For bovines, treatment of B bigemina consists of early diagnosis and pharmacological
intervention. Early treatment usually results in successful recovery from this disease. The
following medicinal compounds are most frequently used: diminazene diaceturate, imidocarb
dipropionate, and amicarbalide. Although B bovis is more difficult to treat because it is usually
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more severe, it responds to the same medications as B bigemina. In equines, B. caballi and B.
equi respond well to imidocarb. Pigs and sheep respond well to the same medications as cattle.
(C.Barros)
A strategic approach that includes tick control, vaccination, and pharmacology is used to
manage Babesiosis. Although the most effective procedure used in the United States in the past
was to eradicate the vector tick through dipping cattle in acaricides, there are newer compounds
that are available, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, carbamates, organophosphates, and natural
and synthetic pyrethrins. (C.Barros) In addition, the occurrence of resistant ticks, the risk of
residual chemicals in cattle and environmental concerns support the use of an integrated process.
At this point in time, eradication of the tick vector is often not feasible, economically, or
practically, for most countries. However, the goal is to try to control the amount of infestation
while establishing immunity and low level infection in the animal population.
Prevention of Babesia with vaccination has been met with conflicting reports. Recent
research suggests that cattle that have been vaccinated with attenuated parasites or with antigen
extracts develop immunity. (Y.Demessie) In bovines, vaccination is suggested for calves. The
control of ovine Babesiosis is similar to that of bovine. There are no vaccines available for
equine or porcine Babesiosis.
Prognosis
When there is early detection and treatment, the prognosis for recovery is good. In young
animals, the disease is typically mild with minimal affects and development of immunity. In an
active disease, when hemoglobinuria occurs, the prognosis is guarded. By the time the disease
results in neurological disturbances, the prognosis is very poor and the animal usually succumbs.
Zoonosis
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Babesiosis in the form B microti, which infects small mammals, is the most common
form that is transmittable to humans, although other forms of Babesiosis have been discovered in
humans, such as B divergens and B bovis. Human Babesiosis caused by B. microti is found in
the Northeastern and Midwestern United States, in part of New England, New York, New Jersey,
Wisconsin, and Minnesota and by B divergens in Western Europe. (R.L.Ord)
B microti is spread by the Ixodes scapularis tick, which is commonly called blacklegged
tick or deer tick. The manner in which the parasite is spread is through the bite of a nymph or
adult tick. Because the tick is very small, infected people might not recall being bitten. People
can also become infected through receipt of a contaminated blood transfusion and transmission
from an infected mother during pregnancy or delivery. (Prevention)
Many people who are infected with Babesia microti feel fine and do not have any
symptoms. Some people develop flu-like symptoms, such as fever, chills, sweats, headache,
body aches, loss of appetite, nausea, or fatigue. Because Babesia parasites infect red blood cells,
Babesiosis can cause hemolytic anemia (from the destruction of red blood cells). In individuals
who do not have a spleen, are immunocompromised, have serious health concerns, or are elderly,
Babesiosis can be a severe, life-threatening disease. (R.L.Ord)
Summary
In conclusion, Babesiosis is a parasitic disease that affects animals as well as humans
worldwide. Its effects include economic repercussions as well as health issues throughout many
geographic locations. The management of Babesiosis requires an integrated plan that
incorporates awareness, prevention, and treatment to mitigate its risks and impact on society.
Farm animal nursing 2017
Questions
1) Which of the following is the vector of Babesia?
a. Ticks
b. Lima beans
c. Urine
d. Blood
2) Babesia can be spread through routine medical procedures.
a. True
b. False
3) Which of the following tests will NOT be able to diagnose Babesia?
a. ELISA
b. PCR
c. Fecal floatation
d. Blood smear
4) Which is a common clinical sign seen associated with Babesia infection?
a. Playful attitude
b. Anemia
c. Ravenous appetite
d. Estrus
5) There is no treatment for Babesiosis infection.
a. True
b. False
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Jessica Bolger
Dr. Dougherty
03/21/17
Blue Tongue Virus
Introduction
Blue Tongue Virus (BTV) is a non-contagious, vector-borne disease that only affects
ruminants such as cattle, sheep, deer, goats, and camelids. Though BTV can infect a variety
of species, the most severe cases are found in sheep. BTV is most commonly spread by
insects; though incidents of trans placental and iatrogenic infection have been documented.
The virus is believed to have originated in South Africa, giving rise to 27 distinct serotypes
found all over the world. This virus holds economic importance as it has the potential to
markedly interfere with milk and wool production.
Viral Characteristics
BTV belongs to the family Reoviridae and the genus Orbivirus. Like other members
of the Reoviridae family; this virus has no outer envelope, consists of seven structural
proteins, and has a genome of 10 segments of double stranded RNA. The genus Orbivirus
categorizes a group of viruses with the ability to replicate in both the vector and their
vertebrate host. In the vertebrate host, BTV attaches to erythrocytes. Due to invaginations
present on these cells, the virus has some protection against the immune system. This
allows BTV to remain active in the blood stream for long periods of time, as long as 30 days
in sheep and 60 days in cattle.
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Vector Characteristics
The vectors for BTV belong to the Culicoides family. This classification describes
insects more commonly known as “midges.” Midges are biting insects that can spread BTV
to ruminant hosts through their saliva. It is believed that midges are impregnated with BTV
by consuming blood from a diseased animal; they cannot pass the virus to their offspring.
Adult midges can fly between 2-5km each day, effectively infecting local livestock.
However, BTV is no longer isolated to a small region in South Africa; the virus has managed
to spread all over the world. In order for BTV to envelop such a wide geographic range,
these insects would have to be able to travel over much longer distances. It is postulated
that strong winds could blow midges hundreds of miles further than their normal flight
range, thus spreading BTV over a larger area. However, the most plausible explanation is
that midges were transported along with livestock that had been shipped to other
countries.
Clinical Signs
The vast majority of BTV infected animals do not present any outward signs of
disease. In animals that exhibit clinical signs, the symptoms can range from mild to severe.
Once infected, the virus takes 3-8 days to incubate. Mild cases will elicit slight edema of the
face, muzzle, lips, and ears. Mucous membranes and conjunctiva around the eyes will be
reddened, and there may be some redness around the coronary band as well. Usually these
animals will have a fever and will appear depressed. In moderate cases, the facial swelling
will progress further. Sheep will produce significant quantities of mucopurulent nasal
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discharge. The conjunctiva of the eye exhibits more advanced erythema and may produce a
clear discharge. The coronary band will become even more edematous and sheep will begin
to show signs of discomfort while standing or walking. There may be petechia and
ulceration of the oral and nasal mucosa. Severe instances are characterized by systemic
edema. Sheep will produce large quantities of mucopurulent discharge as well as advanced
ulceration of the oral and nasal cavities. Due to the systemic edema, the lungs cannot
effectively participate in gas exchange resulting in hypoxia. This causes cyanosis of the
tongue hence the name “Blue Tongue Virus.” Cattle are also known to demonstrate clinical
signs of BTV, but not in the same manner that sheep do. The symptoms are the same in
both species however; cattle will only show one or two signs whereas sheep will present
most if not all symptoms. BTV can cause the sheep to generate brittle wool and cattle to
produce less milk. Decreased milk production is a consequence of edema of the udder,
which is painful on palpation. BTV will affect reproduction in these animals as well. The
virus has teratogenic effects; it induces abortions, mummifications, and birth of dummy
calves (or lambs). These neonates do not have a fully formed brain and will not survive
long after birth. 30% of calves born to BTV positive mothers are also BTV positive. It has
been documented that these newborns have BTV antibodies acquired from colostrum.
These babies were able to successfully clear the virus from their blood and grew to be
healthy adults.
Pathology
The pathology of BTV is complex and has the potential to be deadly. The
contaminated midge will bite an animal and BTV will be transported through the skin and
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into the blood. Some replication also occurs in the skin. BTV then travels to the regional
lymph node where it further replicates. BTV penetrates the endothelial cells that line the
capillaries as well as the leukocytes found in the node. From there, BTV adheres to
erythrocytes and can quickly travel throughout the body where it will replicate in the
capillary endothelium of major organs. Due to BTV’s ability to affect leukocytes, the
immune system becomes suppressed and BTV can proliferate nearly uninhibited. Affected
endothelial cells will rupture causing excess fluid to accumulate in the interstitium, this is
one of the causes of systemic edema. Damaged capillary endothelium also manifests as
petechia and ulcerations. Given that the capillaries suffer extensive damage, their
permeability is compromised. This leads to edema of the interstitium surrounding all of the
organs, including the pericardium of the heart. Edema surrounding the lungs and trachea
results in fluid accumulation in the respiratory system. Sheep at this stage will demonstrate
breathing problems and will most certainly die. The hemorrhagic nature of this disease is
due partly to the damage of endothelial cells but it is mostly attributed to BTV’s ability to
interrupt the coagulation cascade.
Treatment and Prevention
Due to the nature of the virus and the manner in which is propagates, it is difficult to
contain. Midges are most active at dusk, which makes it prudent for farmers to bring their
animals indoors before then. Other preventative measures such as insect repellants and
screens do not provide adequate protection against BTV. Unlike highly contagious diseases,
isolating or culling sick animals is not an efficient measure against transmitting BTV.
Vaccination is the only guaranteed method of preventing BTV. There are 27 known
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serotypes for BTV, each vaccine is specific to one strain. This is effective if there is one
serotype that is prevalent in a particular region. However, if there is an outbreak of a
different serotype, the vaccine will offer no protection. There are no antibiotics effective
against BTV. The only way to combat the disease is to offer supportive care to sick animals.
Often, animals will become depressed which ultimately results in their death. Diseased
animals should have water and soft food if they are willing to eat or drink on their own.
Otherwise, they should have a stomach tube in place until they are independent again.
Animals are often reluctant to walk due to swollen limbs, so they should have adequate
shade and housing. Many diseased animals will recuperate from BTV with the proper care.
Conclusion
BTV is a non-contagious disease that is transferred via biting insects termed midges.
Though numerous species are susceptible to BTV, sheep demonstrate the most acute
symptoms. Clinical signs include edema of the face and limbs, redness of the conjunctiva
around the eyes, and ulceration of the nose and mouth. This disease is named for the
appearance of a blue tongue as a result of hypoxia. The disease progresses through the
skin, into the lymph nodes, then to the major organs. Death ultimately results from edema
of the lung tissue. Precautionary measures should be taken but the only guaranteed
method of protection is vaccination. Supportive care should be offered to animals showing
clinical signs and many will recover. BVT is not only devastating for diseased animals, but
has the potential to significantly disrupt milk and wool production.
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Works Cited
Bourne, Debra, MA VetMB PhD MRCVS. "< > Literature Reports of LIFE CYCLE AND
TRANSMISSION for Bluetongue Virus:" Bluetongue virus - Life Cycle and Transmission
(Viral Reports). Accessed March 10, 2017.
http://wildpro.twycrosszoo.org/S/virus/reoviridae/ReoviridaeBTV/ReoviridaeBTV/08BT
VTransmission.htm.
BTV transmission and pathology | Bluetongue European Union Reference Laboratory.
Accessed March 20, 2017. http://www.bluetonguevirus.org/btv-transmission-andpathology.
McDill, Lisa, and Theresa Boulineau, Dr. "Blue Tongue Virus." Blue Tongue Virus. Accessed
March 10, 2017.
https://www.addl.purdue.edu/newsletters/2002/spring/bluetongue.shtml.
"Q&A: Bluetongue disease." BBC News. September 17, 2008. Accessed March 11, 2017.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7008901.stm.
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Rao, Pavuluri Panduranga, Nagendra R. Hegde, Karam Pal Singh, Kaylani Putty, Divakar
Hemadri, Narender S. Maan, Yella Narasimha Reddy, Sushila Maan, and Peter P.C. Mertens.
"Bluetongue: Aetiology, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Control." In Emerging
and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 3-54. Springer, 2017.
Questions
True or false
1) Blue Tongue virus affects rodents. Answer: False
2) Blue tongue virus is composed of double stranded RNA. Answer: True
3) Sheep exhibit the most severe cases of Blue Tongue Virus. Answer: True
4) Blue Tongue virus causes replicates in endothelium lining capillaries. Answer: True
5) Blue Tongue Virus is highly contagious. Answer: False
Bibliography
C.Barros, R.Fighera. "Babesiosis." C.Brown, A.Torres. Foreign Animal Diseases 7th Edition. St
Joseph, Missouri: United States Animal Health Association , 2008. 147-157. electronic.
Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and. cdc.gov/parasites/babesiosis/gen_info/faqs.html. 4
February 2014. electronic. 10 March 2016.
R.Bock, L.Jackson, A.DeVos, W. Jorgensen. "Babesiosis of Cattle." Parasitology (2004): S247.
R.L.Ord, C.A.Lobo. "Human Babesiosis: Pathogens, Prevalence, Diagnosis, and Treatment."
Current Clinical Microbiology Report (2015): 173-181. electronic.
Sahinduran, S. "Protozoan Diseases in Farm Ruminants." Perez-Marin, Carlos C. A Bird's Eye
View of Veterinary Medicine. InTech, 2012. 473-478. electronic.
University, Iowa State. "Bovine Babesiosis." 1 December 2008. www.cfsph.iastate.edu/IICAB.
electronic. 1 February 2017.
Y.Demessie, S.Derso. "Tick Borne Hemoparasitic Diseases of Ruminants: A Review." Advances
In Biological Research (2015): 210-224. electronic.
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Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Brittany Carruba
Dr. Dougherty
Farm Animal Nursing (VST 111)
Due: 3/21/17
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Foot-and mouth-disease (FMD) is an extremely contagious viral disease that
could severely damage any livestock population. This disease particularly affects domestic
cloven-hoofed animals such as bovine, swine, ovine, caprine, cervid and over 70 wild species
such as bison, water buffalo, antelope, gazelles and yaks. Wild swine, moose, wildebeest,
warthogs, kudu and giraffes some are also susceptible to the disease. FMD is a zoonotic disease
but is very difficult to contract and has little effect to humans. This disease should not be
confused with Hand, Foot and Mouth disease which is a childhood illness and is caused by a
different virus. The agent of FMD was the first animal pathogen that was identified as a virus.
There is a very high morbidity rate, but most adult animals generally recover with losses of
productivity. However, there is a high mortality rate in young animals that contract the disease.
Future issues for the animal and farmer may occur such as weakness, weight loss or loss of
condition, chronic mastitis, hoof malformations, low conception rate and permanent decreased
milk and meat production. An outbreak of FMD can rapidly spread and can cause significant
economic losses which makes it a world-wide concern.
The first written description that sounded similar to the disease was recorded in
1514 in Italy. In 1897, it was discovered and demonstrated that a filterable agent caused FMD.
An outbreak of FMD has occurred in every country with a livestock population excluding New
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Zealand. The disease has disappeared from certain areas over time such as Western Europe,
Australia, New Zealand, Greenland, Iceland, Central America, Chile and North America, but can
be reintroduced if there is lack of constant precaution. The last outbreak of FMD in the United
States was in 1929 due to imported infected animals and products, but is currently endemic in
Asia, Africa, the Middle East, some parts of Europe and South America. The livestock industry
is of great value to the United States economy. In recent years, the terrorist attacks have brought
upon fear of possible biological warfare of this virus. A modern-day epidemic of FMD in the
United States could result in an economic loss of several billion dollars. Large outbreaks in
countries free of FMD for many years, such as Taiwan in 1997 and the United Kingdom in 2001,
have increased awareness. Throughout the years, there has been about 40 human cases of FMD
in several countries in Europe, Africa and South America. Transmission of the virus can occur
from direct contact, injection of the virus or consumption of infected milk. FMD is not
considered to be a public health issue.
The virus of FMD is a member of the genus Apthovirus and the family
Picornaviridae. There are seven serotypes, or strain, of the virus including O, A, C, Asia 1, SAT
1, SAT 2 and SAT 3 with over 60 subtypes. Serotype O is the most common. Some serotypes
cause large outbreaks and are susceptible to more host animals while others are rare and
restrained to certain hosts. The virus is a single-stranded RNA that rapidly replicates and spreads.
It survives in the living tissues of the host and in its breath, urine, saliva, feces, semen, milk,
vesicular fluid and any other bodily secretions and excretions. It can also live up to several
months on contaminated material and the environment depending on the conditions. The virus
will die over time, very high or low pH, low humidity and extreme temperatures.
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The most common modes of transmission of the virus is respiratory aerosols and direct
contact from the host’s excretions or secretions to the susceptible animal, especially if the
livestock densities are high. Other modes of transmission are the susceptible animal is being held
in a contaminated facility, being fed contaminated meat or animal products, drinking
contaminated water, insemination of semen from an infected animal, being in contact with
humans that are contaminated and being exposed to contaminated materials. Sheep and goats are
considered maintenance hosts with mild signs that delays diagnosis and allows the virus to
spread. Sheep can carry the virus in their pharyngeal tissue for 4 to 6 months. Pigs are considered
amplifying hosts because they can produce large quantities of aerosolized virus but are short
term carriers. Cattle are considered indicator hosts with early displays of clinical signs. Cattle
erosions progress quickly and can carry the virus in their pharyngeal tissue for 6-24 months.
Humans are considered fomites that harbor the virus in their nasal passages and throats for up to
28 hours. They also transmit the virus via clothing, shoes and vehicles. Animals that are carriers
of the virus, even if they have not had clinical signs, can also transmit the virus.
Clinical signs of FMD are severe and very painful. Usually, the incubation period
and first signs of illness appear within 2 to 14 days. How severe and fast the signs appear
depends on the viral strain, the dose of the virus, the route of infection and the species of the
animal. Some animals may not show any clinical signs at all before the virus is shed. Foot and
Mouth disease is a vesicular disease. The best-known sign is the appearance of vesicles that
rupture with discharge after about one day and cause erosions on the oral and nasal mucosa, the
feet and heels, in particular the coronary bands and interdigital spaces, and the teats. Coronitis or
sloughing could occur. In some cases, there could be erosions on the pressure points of the legs,
ruminal pillars and the vulva or prepuce. This results in lameness or reluctance to move and
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excess salivation. Depending on the species, other signs of FMD are an increase in temperature
for 2 to 3 days, thick, sticky and foamy saliva, decreased appetite or anorexia, depression, low
milk production in dairy animals, abortions and heart disease and death in young. Post mortem
lesions are also a result of FMD. Recovery generally takes 2 to 3 weeks with possible lifelong
complications. In humans, the incubation period is 2 to 6 days with clinical signs of a mild
headache, fever, fatigue, diarrhea and a tingling, burning sensation before vesicle formation.
Vesicles should rupture after 2 to 3 days but are also very painful. This limits eating and
drinking.
If there is suspicion of FMD, specific diagnostic tests are important. There are
other diseases, such as swine vesicular disease, foot rot in cattle, bluetongue, bovine viral
diarrhea, and vesicular stomatitis, that display the same clinical signs and are indistinguishable
from FMD. These tests depend on the purpose of the test and the stage of the disease. In acutely
infected animals, the nucleic acids and antigens of the virus are found in samples of vesicular
fluid, nasal and oral secretions, epithelial tissue, milk and blood, esophageal-pharyngeal fluids
and in tissues. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommended samples to take
are epithelium from unruptured or freshly ruptured vesicles or vesicular fluid. If there are no
vesicles, then it is recommended to take samples of blood, or serum, or esophageal-pharyngeal
fluid. Esophageal-pharyngeal fluid samples, by probang cups in ruminants and throat swabs in
swine, can also be taken repeatedly for virus isolation (VI) and nucleic acid detection in carrier
animals. Any of these samples must be sent under secure conditions to prevent the spread of
disease. The nucleic acids are identified by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RTPCR) and the viral antigens are identified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs).
Nucleotide sequence analysis are used to identify the strain. VI can be completed in primary
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bovine thyroid cells, primary pig, calf or lamb kidney cells, or BHK-21 or IB-RS-2 cell lines.
ELISAs and VI are generally used to test rapidly. RT-PCR are used for rapid detection, serotype
and detection in asymptomatic animals.
Serological tests are used in surveillance, to confirm suspected cases, to certify
animals for export, to monitor immunity from vaccine and for matching vaccines to strains.
ELISAs and virus neutralization tests (VNT) are serotype specific and detect antibodies to the
viral structural proteins. These tests cannot be used on vaccinated animals because the vaccine
injects the animal with antibodies to structural proteins. Nonstructural proteins (NSP) tests are
used on unvaccinated and vaccinated animals because they detect antibodies to nonstructural
proteins. This test is not specific to serotypes and they are less sensitive so detection may be
limited. These tests are usually used as herd tests.
Unfortunately, there are no specific treatments other than supportive care for FMD.
Prevention and control are very important to contain this disease although it is one of the most
difficult. Prevention includes importation restrictions of animals and animal products from
certain regions that are affected by FMD. Vaccinations are another method of disease prevention
and control. The use of vaccinations are based on scientific, economic, political, societal factors
and generally practiced in areas of outbreaks. They can prevent an outbreak or reduce spread or
prevent specific animals from becoming infected during an outbreak. FMD vaccinations are
inactivated whole virus preparations that is formulated with adjuvant before to use. Vaccines are
specific to the serotype which means that vaccinating an animal from one field strain will not
protect it from all of the others. Some countries practice routine vaccinations to domestic animals
or domestic and wild animals.
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Early recognition and a prompt notification to a veterinarian, federal or state animal
disease control officials or an agricultural agent and quarantine of the suspected animal or
animals should be immediate in a potential outbreak. If an outbreak is confirmed it is important
to follow the specific guidelines for that area. The United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) and Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) have a Foreign Animal and
Disease Response Plan for FMD. FMD outbreak response steps includes epidemiology,
surveillance, biosecurity, quarantine and movement control, and depopulation. If FMD is
positively diagnosed, the infected farms will be humanely depopulated, euthanized and disposed
of according to state and local ordinances or requirements. Neighboring farms will be evaluated
for infection and possible depopulation. Disinfection of all that was in contact with the disease is
also recommended. Successful disinfects include 2% sodium hydroxide, 4% sodium carbonate,
5.25%, sodium hypochlorite and 0.2% citric acid.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease is one of the biggest concerns to most farmers all over the
world. Strict and constant precautions should be taken at all times when dealing with a
population of livestock. Prevention is key when dealing with this disease. Once an outbreak
occurs it is very difficult to contain and must be eradicated immediately. One simple mistake
could cost the loss of many incident lives and a lifetime of hard work.
Questions
1.
What type of disease is FMD?
a. Vesicular
2.
b. Respiratory
c. Cardiac
d. Gastrointestinal
What type of animals does FMD affect?
a. Bovine
b. Swine c. Ovine d. All of the above
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3.
When was the last time the United States had an outbreak of FMD?
a. 1899 b. 1961 c. 1929
4.
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d. 1903
What is the most common serotype that causes FMD?
a. SAT 1 b. O c. Asia 1 d. SAT 3
5.
What is the treatment for FMD?
a. There is no treatment b. Antibiotics c. Fluid Therapy d. Ivermectin
Bibliography
APHIS. Foot and Mouth Disease Factsheet. July 2013.
https://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal_health/2013/fs_fmd_general.pdf.
Accessed 14 Mar. 2017.
FootandMouthDiseaseInfo.Org. 2017. http://www.fmdinfo.org/default.aspx.
Accessed 14 Mar. 2017
Grubman, Marvin J., and Barry Baxt. “Foot-and-Mouth Disease.” Clinical Microbiology
Reviews, American Society for Microbiology, Apr. 2004,
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC387408/. Accessed 14 Mar. 2017.
Prempeh, Henry, et al. “Foot and Mouth Disease: the Human Consequences : The Health
Consequences Are Slight, the Economic Ones Huge.” BMJ : British Medical
Journal, BMJ, 10 Mar. 2001, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119772/.
Accessed 14 Mar. 2017.
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Spickler, Anna Rovid. "Foot and Mouth Disease." "April 2014 (March 2015)."
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/factsheets.php. Accessed 14 Mar. 2017.
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The Rabies Virus and its Effect on Cattle
Stephanie Filazzola
Suffolk County Community College
There are many diseases that are detrimental to farm animals. Diseases in farm animals
can not only affect one animal, but end up infecting the whole herd. A prevalent and particularly
infectious example is Rabies. Although rabies is no longer common in the United States, many
undeveloped countries are affected by the virus every year. This is due to the lack of accessibility
to preventative vaccines. Transmitted by an animal bite, rabies is a virus that can and will attack
warm-blooded animals. If left untreated, rabies is often fatal. This paper will explore the types,
symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment process of the rabies virus.
Mainly, the virus attacks the nerve cells of the body; however, it enters many types of
mammal cells. When they enter these cells, it can cause them to develop into new viruses. The
bite of a rabid animal will introduce a large amount of saliva into the wound, due to the rapid
growth of the virus within the salivary gland. The virus will then make its way into the muscle
cells in the surrounding area of the wound. It will replicate within the muscle cells, and the
newly created cells will finally make way into the nerve cells. Next, they travel along with the
nerve cells until they reach the spinal cord, and eventually, the virus makes its way to the brain.
Once again, the virus will continue to replicate within the brain and mostly within the centers
that control emotions. After the virus has settled itself in the brain, it makes its way to most of
the organs of the body by traveling along the nerve cells. Finally, the rabies virus imbeds itself
into many tissues of the body which ultimately becomes fatal (Hoagstrom). This shows how fast
the virus attacks the body.
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The transmission of the rabies virus is rare in well-developed countries; however, due to
lesser economies and a lack of animal control, in under-developed areas, rabies thrives. Vampire
Bat-transmitted Rabies in Latin America appears to be the most serious rabies problem in
livestock (Andrade 1). The incubation period of the virus is about three weeks. However, the
virus can remain for two weeks to several months before showing any clinical signs. The
incubation period depends on the area the animal was bitten and how much of the virus was
transmitted. In an article by Heather Smith Thomas (2012) she states, “A bite on the face (or
saliva contact with the eyes) would take less incubation time than a bite on the lower leg,
because the virus would not have to travel so far to get to the brain” (p.66). Signs and symptoms
of the virus range in every animal, but one commonality is a change in behavior. For example,
most animals immediately show signs of unprovoked aggression. Cattle is one of the two farm
animals most affected by rabies. There are two forms of rabies seen in cattle: furious and
paralytic. When infected with the former of the two, normally calm and gentle cattle will become
aggressive towards humans and other animals. Additionally, they have trouble swallowing; this
is displayed by a lack of eating and drinking. Dairy cows will no longer produce milk. The cow
will also become hypersensitive and attempt to bellow. The latter form of rabies has a differing
effect on the animal. The paralytic form first shows signs of paralysis within the cattle’s throat.
Many farmers make the mistake of thinking the animal is choking and will reach their hand
down the throat to try to remove the blockage. The farmer can become infected from the saliva if
he has open cuts or wounds for example. The cattle will also begin to drool, grind their teeth, and
extend their head. Soon the animal will also experience weakness and the loss of sensation in the
hindquarters. This will cause the animal to lay down and unfortunately, will not be able to get
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back up. Since rabies is very common in livestock in other countries, scientists have been able to
get a better understanding of the symptoms and dangers of dealing with this virus in cattle.
Due to the many different strains of the rabies virus, diagnosis can be a difficult process.
For example, there are at least forty different bat species that all have different strains of the
virus. Diagnosis for a rabid cattle can prove most difficult as the only way the animal can be
definitively diagnosed with the virus is post-mortem. A portion of the animal's brain must be
removed and taken for testing. This process, and this process alone, allows the rabies diagnosis
to be officially confirmed. Since the virus attacks the central nervous system, veterinarians have
to be careful not to confuse the signs with any other neurological disease. If rabies is confirmed,
then the rest of the herd needs to be attended to prevent contagion. Once confirmed, immediate
and drastic action must take place. Cattle that were never vaccinated for the rabies virus need to
be euthanized immediately. If the farmer chooses not to euthanize the animal, the animal should
be quarantined and observed closely for the next six months. If there are vaccinated cattle, then
these animals should be revaccinated after exposure to the original rabid animal. The herd should
be observed for about 45 days. If an animal is going to be slaughtered, food inspectors will reject
the animal if it has been exposed to rabies within the last eight months. If the animal is going to
be used for consumption, then the meat must be cooked all the way through. Unfortunately, there
are not many treatments for an animal once it has been infected, but, perhaps it has just not been
a priority. Thankfully, in humans, there is a chance to stop the onset of the virus if immediate
action is taken. The severity of the virus will depend on the area of which the wound is, the
amount of virus that entered the wound, and if the virus has reached surrounding tissues. The
immediate treatment to a bite victim to prevent the virus from entering the nervous system is
called Post-Exposure Prophylaxis, also known as PEP. The treatment must be performed
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immediately after exposure. It requires flushing and washing of the wound and administering a
vaccine. Although these steps are followed for humans, the same cannot be said for animals.
Most animals are euthanized immediately. However, in Heather Smith Thomas’s article she
states that there may be another way. "If the bitten animal has never been vaccinated or is quite
overdue for its rabies vaccination, the owner may have the option (if they don't want to euthanize
the animal) of quarantine with a three-dose series of vaccinations to provide protection”
(Thomas, 65). This varies in each state though, due to their own rules on containing this virus.
Farmers tend to make the make the most economic friendly decision, especially if the animal is
being raised for slaughter and not as a pet.
Rabies is one of the most important zoonotic viruses, meaning that it is transmitted to a
human by an animal. It is very dangerous due to the fact it is very contagious and most likely
fatal. Unfortunately the animals do not have much of a chance to survive after being infected.
According to an article, rabies is severely infectious in several undeveloped countries in Asia and
Africa. In these areas the death toll due to rabies accounts for 95% of the global statistic
(Matteucci). Not only does it threaten life, it threaten the livelihoods of people. For example,
“As the livestock sector in Ethiopia provides livelihoods to 65% of the human population
occurrence of rabies in cattle can have serious economic consequences” (Jibat). The need for
preventative vaccines globally and for both humans and animals is necessary to stop the
destruction of this virus.
Since this virus is easily spread, it is indeed reportable. In the United States, this means
that the virus should be reported to authorities such as the state's health department, the USDA
Food and Inspection if the animal will be used for consumption, and the CDC to help guide the
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farmer or veterinarian in taking the next steps. By reporting this virus, it can save both humans
and animal from becoming infected.
Unfortunately, it is clear that a human's life is seen more much more valuable than an
animal based on the steps taken after learning of a rabies outbreak. The effort will be put into
trying to save the human’s life as opposed to the lack of treatment for the animal. However, it
may be that it is just too expensive, too inaccessible in certain countries, and humans may just
look at animals such as cattle, for consumption. This destructive virus takes over the body and
the mind with only a slim chance of survival for the victim. Although the United States does not
have to worry about this as often as other countries, they should be equally concerned in helping
eradicate this virus.
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Work Cited
Andrade, F. (2016, July 7). Geographical Analysis for Detecting HighRisk Areas for
Bovine/Human Rabies Transmitted by the Common Hematophagous Bat in the Amazon
Region, Brazil. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2716/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=a17b2d39-5925-4d7296da-b5e8b4e4b6db%40sessionmgr120&vid=1&hid=103
Hoagstrom, C. W. (2017, January 1). Rabies. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2715/eds/detail/detail?sid=0ef2911b-7879-4cfd-93976245ddd4a975%40sessionmgr4009&vid=1&hid=4102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpd
mU%3d#AN=86195006&db=ers
Jibat, T. (2016, August 1). Incidence and economic impact of rabies in the cattle population of
Ethiopia. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2079/science/article/pii/S016758771630174X
Matteucci, R. (2016, June 17). Rabies: Animal Bites. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2715/eds/detail/detail?sid=c286539c-6dbe-4470-ba78922ca86197e6%40sessionmgr4009&vid=2&hid=4102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpd
mU%3D#AN=T701893&db=nup
Thomas, H. S. (2012, January 1). Rabies in Horses & Cattle. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2716/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=974f09b8c9b7-4962-8201-177dd3a1bec3%40sessionmgr104&hid=103
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Questions
1) The two forms of rabies in cattle are the paralytic form and the furious form.
True or False.
2) Which two regions accounts for 95% of the world's death toll due to rabies?
a) Latin America and United States
b) India and Africa
c) Europe and Asia
d) Asia and Africa
3) What animals are the most responsible for transmitting the virus to livestock in Latin
America?
a) Canines
b) Vampire bats
c) Raccoons
d) Foxes
4) The only definitive way to diagnosis rabies in an animal is post-mortem.
True or False
5) What percent of Ethiopians rely on livestock for their income and well-being?
a) 25%
b) 75%
c) 65%
d) 92%
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Tetanus Disease
Katarina Baker
VST 111
Dr.
Dougherty
Tetanus is an infection caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani. Clostridium tetani is a spore
forming bacteria that produces a neurotoxin tetanospasmin, which degrades the SNARE protein
required for GABA-ergic neurotransmission. This toxin also affects the brain and nervous
system, which can result in stiffness of muscles.
The bacterium Clostridium tetani can be found throughout the environment such as in
soil, dust, and manure. The bacteria enter the animal through deep puncture wounds, during
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parturition, or as a result from management procedures. When the infection occurs due to
procedures such as castration, tail docking, or mulesing of sheep, it can affect a large number of
animals resulting in a high death rate. When the bacterium Clostridium tetani enters the body,
they quickly multiply and release the neurotoxin tetanospasmin. When tetanospasmin enters the
bloodstream, it spreads along the nerves to the brain causing tetanus symptoms such as muscle
stiffness. Usually, toxin is absorbed by the motor nerves in the area and travels retrograde up the
nerve tract to the spinal cord, where it causes ascending tetanus. Tetanospasmin causes
spasmodic, tonic contractions of the voluntary muscles by interfering with the release of
inhibitory neurotransmitters from pre-synaptic nerve endings. If more tetanospasmin is released
at the site of the infection than the surrounding nerves can take up, the excess is carried off by
lymph to the bloodstream where it eventually reaches the central nervous system resulting in
descending tetanus. The bacteria multiply and produce a local infection in the absence of oxygen.
The time between infection and disease can be short or long depending on the time it takes the
affected area to develop a low level of oxygen.
Tetanus causes an increasing stiffness of muscles due to muscle spasms. Clinical signs of
tetanus can vary amongst species. Spasms of the head muscles can cause the inability to eat or
drink, which is why tetanus is also referred to as lockjaw. The animal will not be able to swallow
and have an unsteady gait. Spasms of the neck and back muscles cause extension of the head and
neck. General spasms can disturb circulation and respiration, which results in increased heart
rate, rapid breathing, and congestion of mucous membranes. The animal can eventually fall into
a tetanic spasm where its limbs become stretched out rigidly and the animal will be unable to
breathe. Horses are more susceptible to tetanus than other animals. Clinical signs in horses
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include erect ears, stiff extended tail, dilated anterior nares, and prolapse of the third eyelid.
leg muscles can cause the animal to assume a sawhorse stance. Sheep, goats and pigs often fall to
the ground and will develop abnormal posturing such as backward arching of the head, neck and
spine when startled. Consciousness is unaffected and sweating is common. Clinical signs in
cattle include stiffness and reluctance to move, lockjaw, twitching and tremors of muscles,
protruding third eyelid, bloat is common because the rumen stops working, unsteady gait with
stiff extended tail, and anxious or excited by sudden movements or handling. Larger farm
animals such as cattle can collapse and result in lying on their sides with legs stiff and extended
unable to get up. Birds are more resistant to tetanus; the lethal dose for chickens is 10,000
300,000 times greater on a body weight basis than that for horses. The clinical signs of tetanus
are usually enough to diagnose tetanus disease. In cases where the wound is clearly visible,
demonstration of the bacterium in gram-stained smears and by anaerobic culture can be
attempted. Attempting to demonstrate the presence of tetanus toxin in serum from the affected
animal can possibly diagnose tetanus as well.
Early diagnosis of tetanus allows for treatment of the disease by destroying the bacteria
using an injectable antitoxin to prevent additional production of the toxin and to neutralize the
toxin that is not bound to nerves. Once the toxin is bound to the nerve muscle junctions, the toxin
cannot be removed and its effects cannot be reversed. Mildly affected animals may recover with
treatment involving wound cleaning, to keep the area around the wound clean and prevent further
infection. Removing dead tissue from the wound to decrease reproduction of the bacteria and the
production of tetanospasmin toxin can also treat tetanus. Antibiotics that kill Clostridium species
can be used as treatment as well. Severely affected animals require more intensive care such as
I.V. fluids, feeding tubes, and assisted ventilation. Sedatives and muscle relaxants have also been
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used to keep the animals comfortable during muscle spasms. Death of animals with tetanus can
result from respiratory compromise, cardiovascular dysfunction, or uncontrollable muscle
spasms.
Tetanus Toxoid-Unconcentrated is a vaccine used to prevent tetanus in horses, cattle,
sheep, goats, and swine. Tetanus Toxoid-Unconcentrated is prepared by detoxifying tetanus
toxin with formaldehyde solution allowing the antigenic properties to remain intact. Thimerosal
is a preservative for the vaccine. For initial immunizations, two doses should be administered
subcutaneously or intramuscularly about thirty days apart. When giving the vaccine to horses, it
should be administered intramuscularly as local reactions are more likely to occur if injected
subcutaneously. Anaphylactic reactions can follow administration of the vaccine, if noted
adrenaline or equivalent can be administered. Horses and cattle can receive a 10mL dose of the
vaccine and swine, goats, and sheep can receive 1mL per 100 pounds. A single booster can be
administered annually. Meat animals should not be vaccinated 21 days prior to slaughter.
Tetanus is a zoonotic disease meaning it is a disease that normally exists in animals but can also
infect humans. Tetanus can be spread to other animals through indirect contact. This includes
contact with areas where animals live and roam or by coming in contact with objects or surfaces
that have been contaminated with germs. If an animal gets injured and Clostridium tetani enter
the wound, it produces the toxin Tetanospasmin that travels along nerves and affects the central
nervous system. Tetanus can be treated if discovered early; otherwise it can result in death of the
animal. With the proper care and treatment of animals, tetanus should be easy to prevent.
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References
Johnson, E. A., Summanen, P., & Finegold, S. M. (2007). Clostridium. In P. R.
Murray (Ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology (9th ed., pp. 889-910). Washington, D.C.:
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Ryan, J. R. (2004). Clostridium, Peptostreptococcus, Bacteroids, and other
Anaerobes. In K. J. Ryan, & C. G. Ray (Eds.), Sherris Medical Microbiology: An
Introduction to Infectious Diseases (4th ed., pp. 309-326). USA: McGraw-Hill.
Gibson, K., Bonaventure Uwineza, J., Kiviri, W., & Parlow, J. (2009). Tetanus in
developing countries: a case series and review. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia, 56(4),
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Sexton, D. J.Tetanus. www.uptodate.com
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Public Health Agency of Canada. (2007). Vaccine preventable diseases: Tetanus.
Retrieved April, 9, 2010, from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/im/vpd-mev/tetanus-eng.php
Songer, J. G. (2010). Clostridia as agents of zoonotic disease. Veterinary
Microbiology, 140(3-4), 399-404.
Campbell, J. I., Lam, T. M., Huynh, T. L., To, S. D., Tran, T. T., Nguyen, V. M.,
Le, T. S., Nguyen, V. C., Parry, C., Farrar, J. J., Tran, T. H., & Baker, S. (2009). Microbiologic
characterization and antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium tetani isolated from wounds of
patients with clinically diagnosed tetanus. American Journal of
Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 80(5), 827-831.
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American Journal of Infection Control, 24(4), 313-342.
Russel, A. D. (2001). Chemical Sporicidal and Sporostatic Agents. In S. S. Block
(Ed.), Disinfectaion, Sterilization and Preservation (5th ed., pp. 529-541). Philadelphia
PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Pflug, I. J., Holcomb, R. G., & Gomez, M. M. (2001). Principles of the thermal
destruction of microorganisms. In S. S. Block (Ed.), Disinfection, Sterilization, and
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Galanis, E., King, A. S., Varughese, P., & Halperin, S. A. (2006). Changing
epidemiology and emerging risk groups for pertussis. Canadian Medical Association
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A., Waters, V., & Kandola, K. (2009). Epidemiology of pertussis and haemophilus influenzae
type b disease in Canada with exclusive use of a diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussisinactivated poliovirus-haemophilus influenzae type b pediatric combination vaccine and an
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prevention in the United States. Pediatric Infectious Disease
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Frampton, J. E., & Keating, G. M. (2006). Reduced-antigen, combined diphtheria,
tetanus, and acellular pertussis vaccine (Boostrix): a review of its use as a single-dose booster
immunization. Biodrugs, 20(6), 371-389.
Collins, C. H., & Kennedy, D. A. (1999). Laboratory acquired infections. Laboratory
acquired infections: History, incidence, causes and prevention (4th ed., pp. 137). Woburn, MA: BH.
Agent Summary Statements:Bacterial Agents. (1999). In J. Y. Richmond, & R.
W. Mckinney (Eds.), Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL)
(4th ed., pp. 88-117). Washington, D.C.: Centres for Disease Control and Prevention.
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Human pathogens and toxins act. S.C. 2009, c. 24, Second Session, Fortieth
Parliament, 57-58 Elizabeth II, 2009. (2009).
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"Tetanus." Tetanus Infections in Animals. N.p., n.d. Web.
<https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/animal-industries/animal-health-and-diseases/a-zlist/tetanus>.
Stämpfli, Henry R. "Tetanus." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web.
<https://www.merckvetmanual.com/resourcespages/content-providers>.
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"Tetanus in Cattle." The Cattle Site. Ed. Carla Wright, Laura Elliot, and Nuria
Martinez Herráez. 5m Publishing, n.d. Web.
<http://www.thecattlesite.com/diseaseinfo/239/tetanus-in-cattle/>.
Carol Haak. ""Tetanus"." Advanced Veterinary Specialists. N.p., 24 Dec. 2014.
Web. <http://avs4pets.com/tetanus/>.
"Tetanus Toxoid-Unconcentrated for Animal Use." Drugs.com. Drugs.com, n.d.
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Web. <https://www.drugs.com/vet/tetanus-toxoid-unconcentrated.html>.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
25 Oct. 2016. Web. <https://www.cdc.gov/onehealth/basics/zoonoticdiseases.html>.
Questions:
1) Which animals can get tetanus? Answer: D
a) Cows only
b)
Horses only
c) Sheep only
d)
All of the above
2) True or false: There is no vaccine to protect against tetanus. Answer: False
3) True or false: Muscle Spasms are a symptom of tetanus. Answer: True 4) True r false: Tetanus
is not a zoonotic disease. Answer: False. 5) Which of the following is another name for
tetanus disease? Answer: B
a) Spasm Syndrome
b)
Lockjaw
c) Mad cow disease
d)
Leptospirosis
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Laura Nichols
White Muscle Disease
What is White Muscle Disease and what are its symptoms?
White Muscle Disease (WMD), also known as Nutritional Myodegeneration Disease or
Nutritional muscular dystrophy (NMD), is a muscular condition that affects foals, adult horses, calves and
primarily lambs of 6 months of age or less. WMD has two different forms that lead to degeneration
necrosis and calcification of different types of muscular tissue. The first of these being the skeletal muscle
and the second being the cardiac muscle. Lambs with the former type of WMD display symptoms of
physical weakness, problems moving, a stiff gait, and arched backs. Lambs that have the cardiac/skeletal
have all of the symptoms of the skeletal variety but have addition ones of stillbirth, cardiac issues and
highly shortened lifespans that end with the animal dying from cardiac arrest.
What it Effects Internally
Lambs autopsied that have WMD reveals what happens in the body of animals inflicted with this
disease. The hearts of these lambs are partially calcified and covered in dying tissue. This can be
identified by its chalk-white color. Lesions can be found inside the heart itself, the majority of which are
located in the right ventricle of the heart but there are occasional ones in the left ventricle as well. Fibrosis
can be seen on the endocardium of the heart. The heart tissue also contains granules of basophils where
the fibrosis is occurring. Necrosis for the skeletal muscles is localized on the gluteal, back, intercostal and
diaphragm muscles of the animals and these muscles can also contain lesions. In some rare cases necrosis
of the tongue muscles have also been identified. In animals with WMD changes in the activity of both
arginase and aspartate aminotransferase(AST) have been detected. Lambs with WMD display increased
levels of arginase in the cardiac, liver and muscular tissues, which is believed to be produced to try ad
heal muscular damage. Normally arginase is abundant in liver tissue but there is a low amount in muscle
and cardiac tissue. Decreased levels of AST in the heart were also found, this is due to the cardiac damage
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from WMD, on the other hand the amount of AST in the serum of the blood is higher when compared to a
normal animal.
Etiology of White Muscle Disease
This disease seems to be more prevalent in some countries than in others, areas that have a greater
livestock oriented system seem to have a more pronounced rate of the disease then areas where plant
agriculture is more common. Studies show the main contributors of the disease derive from both the lack
of the element Selenium (Se) in the grazing diet of the livestock as well as the lack of Vitamin E. The
exact type of soil that the grasses are growing from does not seem to matter. Cases of WMD have
happened in areas with volcanic, basaltic, sedimentary and calcareous soil, the type itself is different but
in areas where the disease is common these different soil types all have one thing in common, a lack of
Se.
In Turkey, the range of Se in the soil where the disease is endemic ranges from 0.01ppm in
Merkez to 0.08ppm in Digor with an average of 0.03ppm, while the grasses in these areas range from
containing 0.05ppm to 0.1ppm of Se, 0.07ppm being the average. Data shows that the average amount of
Se in soil is generally in the range of 0.1ppm to 2.0ppm. An average pasture for grazing animals will
contain 0.1ppm of Se in the soil. Research shows that for animals to remain healthy a certain amount of
Se is require. For sheep the required amount is 0.5mg/kg (or ppm). Beef cattle need 0.1mg/kg and dairy
cattle only need .03mg/kg of Se. So in comparison to other animals sheep need a higher amount of Se in
their diet. Se uptake into plants and grasses also differs depending on weather conditions. Se deficiency
happens when the levels in the soil are below 0.5ppm in the soil and 0.1ppm in foraging grasses. Most
Turkish pasture have significant less Se in their soil and grasses then the recommended amount. The
places in Turkey where the disease is the worst not only have low Se rates in their soil but tend to suffer
longer colder winters and wetter weather. Plants have a harder time absorbing Se with colder weather
over warmer weather and rainy weather over drier conditions. These factors build onto each other making
WMD a common occurrence in Turkish land.
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Why animals need Selenium and Vitamin E
Se is important nutrient for animals because it is an integral component of some of the more
unusual proteins, enzymes, and amino acids in the body. These being selenoproteins, selenoenzymes,
and selenocysteine (Se attached to a cysteine amino acid) and selenomethionine (Se attached to
methionine). Selenoproteins, and selenoenzymes have been associated with antioxidant properties. The
two Se amino acid combinations are cofactors to help reduce antioxidant enzymes called glutathione
peroxidases (GPx). Antioxidants are the cells’ way of preventing oxidative stress in the body and through
that myodegeneration. Oxidative stress occurs when there are more active oxygen components then
that body can handle. These come from hydrogen peroxides and certain types of nitric oxide (NO).
When it exceeds that threshold, free radicals end up forming in the body. These can cause damage to
macromolecules and decrease the function of enzymes. If the body cannot fix the problem it can lead to
lipid peroxidation. It is lipid peroxidation along with hydrogen peroxide that causes the degeneration
and necrosis of muscular tissue, it is believed that this is what GPx cancels out and for it to do so it needs
Se.
Another factor to stop myo necrosis is Vitamin E. What it does is that it helps prevent hydro
peroxides from being made because it also acts as a antioxidant. Less hydro peroxides mean less GPx is
required by the body to dispose of them. It reduces the amount of Se the body would need to fulfill the
same actions. Vitamin E also aids in this process by helping retain Se in the body and keeping it in its
active form so it can stop free radicals.
Diagnosis
Determining that a lamb has WMD early is important for the course of treatment. Once
symptoms are physically displayed damage has already been done to the cardiac and skeletal muscles of
the animal. Early detection of WMD is crucial to stopping the damage from becoming severe. WMD can
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be diagnosed by determining the amount of Se in the tissues, but there are other ways to detect it
earlier.Before physical symptoms begin in the lamb there is an increase in the levels of creatine kinase
(CK), AST, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in the blood of the animal as well
as the decrease of GPx. These are all signs of muscle death. Another way to possibly detect WMD is
determine if the animal has a high level of Homocysteine (Hcy). High level of Hcy are connected to signs
of cardiac disease and failure, this would be detected in lambs suffering from the cardiac version of
WMD. High levels of NO can also be found in animals suffering from cardiac failure. The problem with
using NO and Hcy for diagnosis is that despite the fact studies in length have been done on the
relationship with cardiac disease and the levels of Hcy and NO in humans this has not been done so with
large animals such as horses, cattle and sheep. However, the best indicator of cardiac WMD is found in
detecting if there are high levels of, cardiac troponin I (cTn I). High levels of cTn I can give an early
diagnosis for muscle degeneration from WMD and it is also a more specific than any of the other
indicators.
Treatment of the Lamb
Treating WMD seems like a simple prospect. It derives from the lack of Se and Vitamin E in the
diet so giving these supplements should cure the disease. The amount of Se one does give the animals
must be heavily controlled and monitored, Se is toxic in larger doses. In fact Se was known to be toxic
before it was discovered to be a micronutrient. In one study 150 lambs, from 2 to 6 weeks of age, were
evaluated for WMD by taking and examining their blood. The ones that were clinical for the disease
were given a dose of 1mg of sodium selenite (Na2SeO3), 60mg Vitamin E, and 40mg Vitamin B
subcutaneously at the beginning of the experiment. They were given no other nutritional supplements
and their blood was taken and evaluated again both 3 and 10 days after the dose was given. When first
taken, it showed heightened levels of CK, AST, LDH, ALP, NO, Hcy, and cTn 1 in the serum and depleted
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levels of GPx, after treatment these values had gone back to their normal levels. They were identical to
healthy lambs.
Treatment of the Ewe
Instead of treating WMD in the lamb after it is born it is possible to take preventative measures
and stop the disease from happening altogether by treating the mother instead. This can be a very
effective method. An experiment on Awassi ewes helps demonstrate this. Two groups of ewes were
used for this experiment with one being given 0.2mg/kg dose of Se enriched yeast while the other did
not get this treatment and acted as the control. Untreated 37.5% of the lambs developed WMD, while
the treated ewes only had 3.3% of their lambs develop WMD. This means that the untreated ewes were
ten times more likely to have lambs with the disease then the ones who got the Se supplement. Also,
studies show that the rate of embryonic loss was much higher in ewes that did not receive Se than in
those that did (24-26% to 2-5%). These loses however cannot be contributed to the lambs dying of
WMD. Some researchers believe that the best time to treat the ewe with a Se rich diet is when she is
lactating. This way not only the ewe will get the extra Se she may need but the lamb will as well through
mother’s milk.
The Cost of WMD
In the United States alone there are 35 states where WMD occurs. It is estimated that $545
million is lost to the livestock industry each year from WMD and other Se deficiency issues. As stated
before the cure for WMD on paper is a simple thing, provide your ewes and lambs with extra Se and
Vitamin E, however in practice things are not so refined and easy. Depending on the land and the lease
on it is illegal to give your animals Se supplements. Many sheep pastures are in remote areas that are
hard for cars to transverse so horse power is needed, and a lot of it depending on the size of the flock.
Treating for WMD is also time consuming and can be costly for the farmer. A bag of minerals for sheep
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consumption can run at $20 for a 50lb bag. About $800 of these minerals will treat a small flock of 200
ewes and their lambs. For the larger flocks of 1,000 sheep it would cost roughly $4,000 dollars to treat
them all. This all factors together to help WMD stick around to this day.
Bibliography
Lambs with White Muscle Disease and Selenium Content of Soil and Meadow Hay in the Region
of Kars, Turkey, 2002, file:///C:/Users/Laura/Desktop/White%20Muscle%20Disease/1-s2.0S1090023301906525-main.pdf
A Review on Properties of Selenium in Animal Nutrition, 2016,
file:///C:/Users/Laura/Desktop/White%20Muscle%20Disease/ContentServer%20(1).pdf
Evaluation of the Levels of Homocysteine, Troponin I, and Nitric Oxide in Lambs with Subclinical
White Muscle Disease, 2011,
file:///C:/Users/Laura/Desktop/White%20Muscle%20Disease/ContentServer%20(2).pdf
Changes in arginase activity and AST enzyme levels in the cardiac and skeletal muscle and liver of
lambs with white muscle disease, 2015,
file:///C:/Users/Laura/Desktop/White%20Muscle%20Disease/ContentServer.pdf
Effect of Selenium on the Reproductive Performance of Ewes and White Muscle Disease in
Lambs, 2014,
file:///C:/Users/Laura/Desktop/White%20Muscle%20Disease/White%20muscle%20disease%20article%
201.pdf
A Dose of Selenium that goes a Long Way, 2012,
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1129&context=usdaagresmag
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Minerals for Sheep, 2015 Cornell University,
http://smallfarms.cornell.edu/2015/07/06/minerals-for-sheep/
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Briele Edwards
Dr. Dennis Dougherty
VST 111
3/21/17
Anaplasmosis in Cattle
Anaplasmosis is a hemolytic disease in cattle that is endemic in tropical and subtropical
regions worldwide. It is also known as “yellow bag” or “yellow fever” as infected animals
usually develop jaundice. Anaplasmosis is caused by the rickettsial parasite Anaplasma
marginale, which invades the red blood cells resulting in severe anemia. The severity of this
disease is dependent on the age of the animal. Clinical bovine anaplasmosis, caused by an
infection of A. marginale, can lead to significant losses in both the dairy and beef industries.
This disease is transmitted by blood in two different ways. First, A. marginale can be
transmitted during a blood meal through its biological vector, which could include several
species of ticks. Transstadial and intrastadial are the two types of tick transmission that can take
place. Transstadial develops from stage to stage, while intrastadial occurs within a stage and is
affected by male ticks. There are studies that prove that male Dermacentor spp. ticks play a
significant role in the biological transmission of A. marginale because they repeatedly become
infected with this organism and can spread A. marginale continually when they transfer among
cattle. Infected cattle become carriers which serve as a reservoir for further transmission. Second,
A. marginale can be transmitted mechanically through direct inoculation of cattle with infected
red blood cells. This can occur through blood-contaminated fomites, such as hypodermic
needles, dehorners, ear tags, or other surgical equipment. Another method of mechanical
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transmission is through the mouthparts of biting insects, such as biting flies, after taking a blood
meal from infected animals.
Anaplasmosis can be divided into four stages: incubation, developmental, convalescent,
and carrier. The incubation stage begins at the time of infection and persists until one percent of
the animals red blood cells are parasitized. The length of this stage can vary depending on the
number of organisms in the infective dose, but it usually ranges from three to eight weeks. Once
the susceptible cattle have been infected with the organism Anaplasma, the parasitized
erythrocytes reproduce in the bloodstream. The animal does not present any clinical signs at this
stage. Calves that become infected that are less than a year old rarely show clinical signs, but
will become carriers. Calves that are one to two years of age with a subclinical anaplasmosis
diagnosis generally moderately severe prognosis. The most severe cases of anaplasmosis occur
in adult cattle over three years of age; the animals will either die or become carriers.
The developmental stage is when most of the distinguishing signs of this disease start to
appear, and it occurs for four to nine days. To fight off infection, the animal’s immune system
begins to destroy the infected red blood cells. In the process, the uninfected blood cells become
destroyed as well, resulting in anemia. Acutely infected animals lose condition rapidly and
become lethargic. They become weak and lag behind the herd. Infected cattle refuse to drink
water or eat, resulting in rapid weight loss and dehydration. Milk production is decreased in
lactating cows and pregnant cows may abort. Initially the skin around the eyes and muzzle
appear pale but then change to a yellowish color, a condition known as icterus or jaundice.
Severe anemia in combination with oxygen deprivation can result in aggressive behaviors.
Although the urine may appear brown, it is not due to hemoglobinuria because hemolysis is
extravascular occurring in the spleen and bone marrow. Chances of survival greatly increase, if
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infected cattle do not die during this stage. They will begin to recover one to four days after
initial inoculation.
Surviving cattle recover slowly over a two to three-month period until blood values
return to normal. This is known as the convalescent stage. Erythropoiesis in peripheral blood
differentiates the developmental stage from the convalescent stage. Without proper medication,
cattle that become infected with acute anaplasmosis remain reservoirs for the rest of their life.
This is known as the carrier stage.
Bovine anaplasmosis can be diagnosed tentatively based on the infected animal’s
geographic location, the time of year, signalment and presenting clinical signs and/or necropsy
findings. To obtain a definitive diagnosis, laboratory tests such as light microscopic examination
of stained blood smears or serological/molecular diagnostic procedures are required. Light
microscopy of thin blood smears are stained with Giemsa, Wright Giemsa or Diff-Quick stain
are used to identify the organism, A. marginale in the red blood cells of infected animals. This
can also be used for differential diagnosis between Babesiosis and other conditions that include
anemia and jaundice. Anaplasma spp. appear as dense, homogeneously staining blue-purple
inclusions located at the periphery of red cells in Giemsa-stained thin blood films. However, in
animals that are suffering from severe anemia this technique may be unreliable. A. marginale
inclusions may not be visible on blood smears obtained from persistently infected cattle
following recovery from acute infection.
Another test that is used to diagnose A. marginale infection is a competitive ELISA
(cELISA). The cELISA uses recombinant major surface protein 5 (mMSP5), a highly-conserved
surface protein that has been proven effective as a diagnostic antigen and is commercially
available in the United States. Although DNA-based diagnostics have been developed, a
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serologic test based on MSPs is currently the most practical method for diagnosing many cattle
for bovine anaplasmosis.
Control measures for anaplasmosis have not changed markedly over the past 60 years
and they vary with geographic location. Arthropod control is used by application of acaricides,
through antibiotics or vaccines. This method of control is not feasible in many areas and may
only partially prevent against A. marginale transmission, often cattle become infected by
mechanical transmission of infected blood by inanimate objects. In the United States,
chemotherapy is often used for prevention, but it is expensive, often not applicable to range
cattle, also it bears the risk of causing resistant strains of the organisms due to intensive use of
antibiotics. The use of vaccines, both live and killed, have been effective in partially controlling
bovine anaplasmosis by inducing protective immunity that prevents clinical disease. However,
neither type of vaccine prevents cattle from becoming persistently infected with A. marginale.
There is research continually being done to create the ideal anaplasmosis vaccine, but USDAapproved vaccine is currently not marketed in the U.S.A.
Treatment of anaplasmosis is most effective if given in the early stages of the disease.
Chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline are used to treat acutely infected cattle, and they are the
only compounds approved for use in the United States. There are several ways in which these
antibiotics can be administered and blood transfusions may be necessary during treatment.
Antibiotic treatment in cattle in the later stages of the disease can result in death due to the stress
of being handled in combination with severe anemia. It is extremely important to keep the stress
level of these infected animals to a minimum. Evidence has shown that antibiotics at this stage
are not always effective, however, research shows that carrier animals can be cleared of
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anaplasmosis with repeated injections of long-acting oxytetracycline or prolonged feeding of
chlortetracycline.
Anaplasmosis is a non-contagious, infectious disease in cattle that causes anemia,
jaundice, abortions, and often death. Adult cattle are much more susceptible to this disease and
present with severe clinical signs, whereas calves may be asymptomatic. Infected cattle, as well
as male ticks are the major reservoirs for anaplasmosis, as they are persistently infected with A.
marginale. Treatment, control, and prevention can be challenging, which is why anaplasmosis is
often detrimental to the cattle industry.
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Bibliography
Alicja E. Lew-Tabor, BSc (Hons), PhD, Principal Research Fellow, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture &
Food Innovation, The University of Queensland. Merck Veterinary Manual. 2016.
Dee Whittier, D.V.M., M.S., Extension Veterinary Specialist, Virginia Tech Nancy Currin, D.V.M.,
Veterinary Extension Publication Specialist, Virginia Tech John F. Currin, D.V.M., Extension
Veterinary Specialist, Virginia Tech. "Anaplasmosis in Beef Cattle." Virginia Cooperative
Extension (2009).
Dusty W. Nagy, DVM, PhD, DACVIM-LA. "Hemolymphatic Disease." University of Missouri College of
Veterinary Medicine. n.d.
Glenn Selk, Oklahoma State University Emeritus Extension Animal Scientist and DVM John G. Kirkpatrick.
"Prepare for anaplasmosis prevention." Drovers (April 23, 2012).
Hairgrove, Thomas B., et al. "Seroprevalence of Anaplasma marginale in Texas Cattle." Preventive
Veterinary Medicine Vol. 116, Issues 1-2 (September 2014): 188-192.
Kocan, Katherine M., et al. "Antigens and Alternatives for Control of Anaplasma marginale Infection in
Cattle." Clinical Microbiology Reviews Vol. 16, No. 4 (2003): 698-712.
Kocana, Katherine M., et al. "The natural history of Anaplasma marginale." Veterinary Parasitology
Volume 167, Issues 2-4 (February 2010): 95-107.
Ronald J. Gill, Extension Livestock Specialist. Texas Agricultural Extension Service The Texas A&M
University System. n.d.
Stokol, Dr. Tracy, et al. Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Eclinpath. 2013.
William Shulaw, Extension Veterinarian, Ohio State University. The Ohio State University. 28 November
2012.
Briele Edwards
Anaplasmosis Questions
1) Anaplasmosis is also known as:
a. Yellow bag
b. Yellow fever
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c. Both a & b*
d. None of the above
2) Anaplasmosis causes destruction of white blood cells:
a. True
b. False* (RBCs)
3) The most severe cases of anaplasmosis occur in cattle of which age?
a. < 1 Year of age
b.
1-2 YOA
c. > 3 YOA*
d. All the above
4) Clinical signs of this disease include all except for:
a. Anemia
b. Hemoglobinuria*
c. Jaundice
d. Aggression
5) Infected cattle, as well as male ticks are the major reservoirs for anaplasmosis
a. True*
b. False
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Blackleg
Etiology
Blackleg is a highly fatal, endogenous disease that affects young cattle. It is caused by the
bacteria Clostridium Chauvoei, this bacteria forms spores meaning it is resistant to many
environmental or induced factors that the bacteria may be subjected to. In some affected animals
Clostridium Feseri has been found. The bacteria may live in soil for many years, Clostridium
Chauvoei is rod shaped and also produces gas. Cattle between the age of 6 months to two years
of age are most susceptible, along with cattle who have been gaining weight at a fast pace,
commonly the beef breeds, and cattle that are in good health. Blackleg can also affect cattle that
are much younger such as 6 weeks of age, and may even affect cattle as old as 10 years of age.
Outbreaks of this disease have been found in areas where the farm may have been
flooded or the land has been recently moved or turned. Cattle contract the bacteria by ingestion,
the bacteria then enters the mucous membranes in the digestive tract by creating small pores or
punctures, the bacteria then secrete potent toxins into the membranes of the cattle. Interestingly
Blackleg is non-contagious, meaning if sick cattle has contact with healthy cattle, the cattle will
not transmit Blackleg to that cattle.
Blackleg is seen mostly in the warmer weather such as, summer and in fall, it is
uncommon to see an outbreak in the winter season. This disease may also affect sheep, the cause
of this disease in sheep is usually due to a lesion on the skin. Blackleg may also be known as
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Black Quarter or Quarter Ill. The time from diagnosis to death range from 12- 36 hours. Cattle
are found dead without clinical signs of the disease.
Some sheep and cattle may have ingested the bacteria and are not affected at all. Some
stimulants of the bacteria may be rapid growth, or muscle bruising from handling or shipping.
Clinical Signs
Blackleg may be characterized by emphysematous swelling, which is abnormal swelling
of body tissues such as the lungs due to the inelasticity of the alveoli. Other signs which are
common are lameness and depression. Some other signs you may see are loss of appetite,
swelling in the hips, shoulders, back, neck, and other parts of the body or limbs that are affected.
Crepitation or crackling may be heard in the sites of swelling. Inside of these swellings is where
the gas produced by the bacteria may be found.
Initially the affected cattle may have a fever, the affected limbs or areas of the body that
are swollen are small, but painful and hot. As the disease rapidly progresses, sings such as the
crepitation and swelling may become worse. Cattle may lay stretched out on the ground known
as prostration, and may also have tremors. Interestingly as the disease progresses the temperature
of the cattle may drop back down to normal, or even subnormal levels. Other areas that may be
affected are the heart, diaphragm, and tongue.
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Diagnosis
Swelling of heavy muscle, unwillingness to move, and depression seen in young, rapidly
growing beef cattle, Blackleg is a suggested disease. The muscles that are affected, may have a
sweetish odor to them, they become black or dark red, dry and spongy, and have little edema
(swelling). The disease may cause lesions on muscle of any type.
Lesions on sheep that are affected by this disease may be over looked because they tend
to be small, and deep. Field diagnoses are confirmed by cultures and biochemical identification
that may be sent to a laboratory. To get an accurate diagnosis, the samples should be taken as
soon after death as possible. The test for C. Chauvoei is reliable and quick.
Prevention and treatment of Blackleg range from vaccines, and revaccinating the cattle or
sheep to ensure prevention, burning the top layer of soil to eliminate spores, and in early cases of
Blackleg it is treatable with large dosages of antibiotics.
Zoonotic
Blackleg is not a zoonotic disease. Meaning that it cannot be transferred from cattle or
sheep to humans. As stated previously cattle cannot transfer the disease by mere contact, the
cattle have to ingest the spores. Blackleg is hard to catch early; most cattle are found dead before
an illness was even found. Blackleg is found mostly in cattle, and there are some cases found in
sheep. Treatment and prevention are available for this disease.
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Final Exam Questions:
1. Which one is NOT a form of prevention for Blackleg?
A. Vaccination
B. Burning the soil
C. Antibiotics
D. There is none
2. How do cattle/sheep contract Blackleg?
A. Ingestion of the bacteria
B. Insect bites
C. It’s a genetic disease
D. None of the above
3. True or False, Blackleg is contagious by mere contact:
A. True
B. False
4. True or False, Blackleg affects older animals with poor immune systems:
A. True
B. False
5. Why is Blackleg looked over in sheep?
A. The lesions are usually small and deep
B. They can’t get Blackleg
C. Symptoms are hard to see
D. The sheep are hard to examine.
Answers:
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1. D
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. A
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Bibliography:
http://cattletoday.info/blackleg.htm
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/clostridial-diseases/blackleg
http://www.cattle.com/articles/title/Blackleg.aspx
http://www.beefcattle.com/articles/blackleg-cattle/
http://www.thecattlesite.com/diseaseinfo/187/blackleg/
http://www.thedairysite.com/articles/843/blackleg-in-cattle/
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Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus
Anna Gallo
03/21/17
Farm animal nursing
Dr. Dougherty
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Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) is associated with reproductive and respiratory
issues within a herd of cattle. This virus is very economically important to many countries and
seems to be quickly increasing over time due to the virus being so easily transmitted. BVDV is
incurable and a deadly disease and many precautions should be taken to prevent transmission
within the herd. Even though BVDV is not harmful to humans it is very harmful and important
to a herd.
Etiology of Bovine Viral Diarrhea of cattle and other ruminants is caused by the Bovine
Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV.) BVDV when grown in a laboratory in a tissue culture it is
reportedly divided into cytopathic (CP) and noncytpahtic (NCP) strands. The CP strand causes
death of target cells and causes visual changes to the cells and can no longer reproduce, while the
NPC strand can reproduce without damaging the cells and causes no visual changes and is about
90 % of the BVDV.
This virus is transmitted usually by a congenital infection from the mother to the fetus in
the first four months of development. This happens before the fetus’s immune system is
functional. This congenital infection from the mother can cause abortion, stillbirth, or live-birth.
The fetuses that survive the infection in the womb are born as BVDV-infected calves, and will
continue to be infected throughout their lifetime and are considered persistently infected (PI).
The Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus is derived from the genus family Flaviviridae; a singlestranded RNA virus. This virus can be transmitted from cattle to cattle simply by contaminated
equipment including nose tongs, halters, milk bottle nipples, and balling guns.
The Clinical signs of the Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus for adult cattle can vary; one major
symptom is reproductive disease, resulting in embryonic loss and abortions. Respiratory
infections signs including, fever, depression, ocular and nasal discharge and eventually followed
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by severe diarrhea. Other important symptoms are oral lesions and the decrease of milk
production. Persistent infection (PI) results when a calf is exposed to the NPC strand of BVDV,
the strand can reproduce without death of target cells while in the womb during the first
trimester. The immune system of the fetus is codependent and therefore doesn’t have the ability
to fight off the infection.
If the animal survives in the womb they will be considered BVDV positive and will be
for the remainder of their life time. Chronic signs of BVDV show mucosal disease which occurs
when cattle are exposed to a CP strand of BVDV, the strand causes death of target cells, which
results in explosive diarrhea and ulcerations throughout the digestive tract and in most cases
causes death. An infected new born calf can show signs as early as 3 to 30 months of age; the
most common birth defect of this disease is cerebral hypoplasia. Cerebral hypoplasia’s clinical
signs include Ataxia; which is lack of coordination of muscle movement, tremors, wide stance,
stumbling, and failure to nurse.
The Diagnosis of the Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus can be accomplished in a couple of
ways; the most common method is Virus Isolation. Virus Isolation isolates specimen from the
infected cattle’s serum, Buffy coats, nasal swabs, and even tissue samples. Virus isolation is
usually followed by fluorescent antibody (FA) staining, and is used to identify NCP strands.
Although virus isolation is successful it is not reliable for a large herd of cattle, so in order to
screen large quantity of serum at a time two methods are used, one called Immunoperoxidase
Monolayer Assay (IPMA) and the other Monolayer Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (MELISA).
The technique of IPMA produces a red intracellular precipitate which is detected by the
naked eye while the technique of M-ELISA produces a yellow color and cannot be seen with the
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naked eye so the use of a spectrophotometer is necessary. Both IPMA and M-ELISA are
successful in diagnosing the BVDV, M-ELISA has a couple of advantages over IPMA. The
advantages include that the readings of M-ELISA are more objective, the technique is faster by 1
hour, and the technique works well for both CP and NCP strands. Also by setting up a software
M-ELISA can have automated readings which can be cost affected and a successful tool for
screening large herds at a time.
Antigen Detection is another method of diagnosis, this method provides antibodies that
directly detect the BVDV in cells. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is an application of antigen
detection, it identifies BVDV antigens in frozen or fixed tissues. IHC is useful when determining
a disease outbreak that involves the respiratory, gastrointestinal or reproductive system exactly
where BVDV is suspected to correlate with. The use of IHC allows BVDV to be detected within
properly fixed tissues for an extended period of time unlike virus isolation from fresh tissues
which can disappear quickly over time.
This is important because it means that there can be a long storage time of samples if they
cannot be submitted to a diagnostic lab immediately. IHC and also FA staining can be used
successfully in testing for BVDV in skin samples of cattle who are persistently infected with the
virus. This is very significant because cattle that are persistently infected with BVDV skin
biopsies are much different than those cattle’s that are undergoing an acute infection of the virus.
Unfortunately there is no specific treatment of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus, and
treatment is limited to antibacterial therapy only after the animal is diagnosed with the virus.
There is no cure for BVDV but antibiotics are given to support the cattle throughout its lifetime.
Even though there is no specific treatment for BVDV preventing is very possible.
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Prevention of BVDV simply can be provided by the mother’s colostrum depending on
the quality and quantity. Colostrum can protect calves from BVDV during the first 2 to 4 months
of life. BVDV prevention can be executed many other ways, one is to minimize the transmission
of the virus from cattle to cattle. In order to do so the antibody titer must be increase to make the
infected cattle less infectious.
Antibiotics that are given to the cattle that show acute signs of this virus do not shed the
virus a much as a PI animal would and will shed for a shorter amount of time. Isolation is also a
very successful way to limit the transmission, by identifying and removing the PI cattle and
decreasing the amount of contact. By placing infected cattle acute or PI in an individual housing
hutch with double fencing for about two weeks will help prevent the virus from spreading.
Another major prevention that can be done to decrease the losses due to BVDV is to set
up a control program. These control programs are developed to prevent fetal infections and
eliminate the reproductive losses, the actions of this program are to remove PI cattle and promote
vaccination. Treatment may not be an option for BVDV but there are successful vaccines to
prevent it.
Vaccinations for BVDV can be broken up into two categories, modified live virus (MLV)
and killed virus (KV). MLV vaccines require only one dose at the beginning the immune system
development so the cattle will have a response to BVDV; MLV must be carefully handled
because the vaccine can be deactivated by certain temperatures and chemicals. More than one
dose of KV vaccine must be given at the beginning of immune system development which
requires the herd to be gathered more than once. KV vaccines will not be deactivated due to
temperature or chemicals. The duration of these vaccines can last up to 18 months, and
revaccination is always suggested to increase protection of BVDV.
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The prognosis of Bovine Viral Diarrhea for cattle is a lifetime. When a cattle becomes
persistently infected in the first trimester way before their immune system is developed and able
to fight off the virus they will continue to carry the virus since their immune system doesn’t have
what is necessary to fight off the infection. BVDV often leads to mucosal disease which results
in explosive diarrhea and severe ulcerations throughout the digestive tract, which usually
concludes to death.
Bovine Viral Diarrhea is not zoonotic meaning that humans are not susceptible to it, but
when an animal is BVDV positive they are immunosuppressant which increases the animals
chance to be infected by other bacteria in the environment that could be important to human
health including E.coli and Salmonella. Even though BVDV is not zoonotic doesn’t mean that
this virus can’t be transmitted to other ruminants like sheep and goats. This is an important factor
to BVDV control programs. Cattles, goats, and sheep all share the same water source, pastures,
and ranges where the virus can spread easily.
Although being a very serious and contagious virus, BVDV can be prevented from
spreading very easily including isolation and vaccinations. There are many tests that can be done
to successfully diagnosis the virus allowing a decrease in transmission between herds. BVDV is
a virus that never seems to go away and is constantly affecting our herds each day.
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Works Cited
"Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus." (2005): n. pag. Web.
"Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Type 1 and Type 2 (BVD)." Zoetis US. N.p., n.d. Web. 19
Mar. 2017.
"Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD)." The Cattle Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
Holtgrew-Bohling, Kristin. Large Animal Clinical Procedures for Veterinary
Technicians. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier, 2016. Print.
Houe, Hans. "Risk Assessment." Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (n.d.): 35-64. Web.
Testman. DIAGNOSIS OF BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHEA VIRUS: (n.d.): n. pag. Web.
Farm animal nursing 2017
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Five questions about BVDV for the final.
There is a treatment for Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus.
True or False?
One prevention for Bovine Viral Diarrhea is
A.Abortion
B. Isolation
C. Allowing cattle to have contact with each other
D.Decreasing food intake
Diagnosis of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus include:
A. Obtaining a temperature
B. Virus Isolation and Antigen Detection
C. Performing a physical exam
D. Palpate the uterus
A Clinical Sign of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus is
A. Reproductive issues
B. Respiratory issues
C. Mucosal disease
D. All of the above
Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus can be transmitted as an congenital infection
True or False?
RIGHT ANSWER
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Brianna Sciara
Dr. Dougherty
VST 111
March 21, 2017
Brucellosis
Brucellosis is a highly contagious zoonotic disease that occurs from contact with
an animal that is carrying the bacterial genus Brucella. The Brucella bacteria invades
the body via the mucous membranes of the genitals, nose, eyes, or mouth and is
spread through the body by lymph and blood. Brucella can be transmitted between
animals and humans. It can be transmitted from animals to humans through ingestion of
infected and unpasteurized meat or dairy products, by direct contact with an infected
animal, or direct contact with infected body fluids and aborted materials. When it is
trasmitted between animals the bacteria is transmitted by direct contact through mucous
membranes of body fluids, ingestion of the bacteria through infected fluids and tissues,
and through infected feed and water. It can also be transmitted by venereal
transmission of the infected animal or artificial insemination.
There are many different type of Brucella organisms, each effecting different
animals. Brucella Melitensis infects goats and sheep. Brucella abortus infects cattle.
Bruceela suis infects swine. Brucella Canis infects dogs. Some types can cross infect
species. For example, Brucella melitenis, abortus and suis can also infect dogs. Another
example is Brucella melitensis and Abortus can infect goats. Brucella ovis and Brucella
Melitensis can both infect sheep. Brucella melitensis, suis, abortus, and canis can all
infect humans. Brucella abortus or suis can infect horses but that is extremely rare. The
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most common clinical sign in all species and the extreme cases in humans is abortion,
infection, and inflammation in the reproductive system. Each species will have other
clinical signs that effect them in different ways.
Brucellosis in cattle AKA “Bang’s disease” is caused by Brucella Abortus.
Brucella Abortus is very rare in the United States, but is prevalent in other parts of the
world. Brucella Abortus is spread rapidly through a heard. The bacteria is shed in milk
and uterine discharges and is in the uterus during pregnancy. Transmission occurs
easily through ingestion of the organism. For example, if a cow licks an infected cows
genitals, or if a cow gets too close to infected aborted fetuses or fetal membranes.
Other examples are if a calf is drinking an infected cows milk, or a cow eats infected
feed or drinks infected water. The bacteria can also be transmitted venereally through
artificial insemination if the infected semen is deposited in the uterus. The major clinical
sign is abortion between seven and eight months of gestation. Normally a cow will only
abort once, after that the cow will be a carrier. Carriers shed the organism in their milk,
uterine discharge, fetus, and placenta . Other clinical signs include retained placentas,
still born or weak calves, endometritis and infertility. Clinical signs in infected bulls are
infection and inflammation in the seminal vesicles, testicles, ampullae and epididymus.
In some cattle with longstanding infection, joints can become arthritic. A diagnosis of
brucellosis in cattle can be made from a blood or serum sample. A culture of the
bacteria can be taken from the placenta, from the stomach, and lungs of an aborted
fetus or from the secretions from the udder. The most common method of diagnosis is
serum agglutination tests which show the clumping of cells or blood to a specific
antibody. Other tests used for diagnosis are screening tests such as the Brucella milk
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ring test (bart). This test is run from a milk sample from individual herds. However, this
test can bring back a false positive. Sensitive screening tests may be used when the
status of the cattle is unclear or to clarify. If a calf has been vaccinated it may also give
false positive results, because the vaccine will cause calves to develop antibodies that
may persist for years. There is currently no practical treatment for Brucellosis in cattle
so testing herds and eliminating any animal that is infected is extremely important in
controlling the brucellosis disease in cattle. There is a vaccine for Brucella Abortus
strain 19 (rb51). The vaccination will increase resistance to the infection but depending
on the severity of the exposure, calves can still become infected. Heifers calves may be
vaccinated, but bull and steer calves should not be vaccinated, in order to be sure to not
cause chronic infection in reproductive organs.
Brucellosis in pigs is caused by the bacteria Brucella suis and is commonly found
in South America, Southeast Asia, and the United States. Brucella suis rarely occurs in
any domestic animals other then pigs, but there have been cases of swine brucellosis in
people. Clinical signs and transmission of brucellosis in swine is similar to cattle.
Brucella suis can be transmitted through ingestion of infected tissues or fluids. Infected
boars may also transmit the bacteria while mating because the Brucella suis bacteria
can be found in semen. Piglets that are still suckling, may also become infected from an
infected swine. The Brucella suis bacteria can be present in the blood for as long as 90
days. During and even after the bacteria is present in the blood, the bacteria may
localize in specific tissues. Clinical signs depend on where the bacteria is localized. The
most common clinical sign in swine like in cattle, is abortion early in gestation. Other
clinical signs include temporary or permanent sterility, lameness, spondylitis, unilateral
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orchitis, posterior paralysis, metritis and abscess formation. The principal way to
diagnose Brucellosis in swine is the brucellosis card test or “rose bengal test”. This is a
simple slide type agglutination test which may also be used to test for Brucellosis in
humans. Usually pigs are tested in entire herds and are rarely tested individually. Other
tests that were designed for cattle can also be used to test swine. When purchasing
individual pigs it is recommended to know the origin of the herd and that it is free of
brucellosis. It should also be isolated and retested for 3 months before being added to
your herd. Control of brucellosis in swine is based solely on test, segregation, and
slaughter. There is no vaccine against Brucella suis.
Brucellosis in goats is caused by the bacterias Brucella Melitensis, and they can
also become infected with Brucella Abortus if they come in contact with infected cattle .
This disease is most commonly found in countries where goats are a significant part of
the animal industry like the Mediterranean, Asia, Latin America, parts of Africa, and
Southern European countries. Goats are most likely to become infected from
consuming contaminated feed or water. They shed their bacteria in their urine, feces,
placenta and milk. Clinical signs of Brucellosis in goats are similar to cattle and include
abortions at approximately the fourth month of gestation, orchitis, lameness, mastitis,
diarrhea and depression, and may sometimes include arthritis. Diagnosis of Brucella
melitensis is made by examination of milk and an aborted fetus, or by serum
agglutination tests. Brucella melitensis is highly contagious for people. In countries
where it is very common, there is a vaccination with the rev. 1 strain. The Rev. 1 is the
weakened strain of Brucella melitensis, it is administered subcutaneously or by
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intraconjunctival routes. Other than the vaccine if it is available, the only way of control
for the disease is by slaughter of the herd if infected.
Brucellosis in sheep is caused by Brucella ovis but can also be caused by
Brucella melitensis as well. Sheep that are infected with Brucella melitensis will have
clinical disease similar to goats. However Brucella ovis produces a disease unique to
sheep only. The disease was first founded in New Zealand and Australia but since has
been found all over the world. The disease is transmitted through direct contact with an
infected ram that can be as young as eight weeks old. The disease can be contracted
from ram to ewe, and ewe to ram, but cannot be contracted from ewe to ewe. This is
because active infection in ewes is unusual, but it will develop after contact with a ram.
Clinical signs in the ram and ewe differ. Clinical signs in the ram are more extensive and
include; lesions on the epididymis, tunics and testis, orchitis, impair fertility, deterioration
in semen quality, and presence of inflammatory cells and organisms. Lesions on the
epididymis and scrotal tunics may be palpated, the epididymis may become enlarged
and may be unilateral or bilateral . The tunics become thickened and fibrous and
adhesions develop between them. The testes may show fibrous atrophy and the lesions
are usually permanent. Clinical signs in the ewe include placentitis and abortion,
occasionally perinatal death of lambs.If the ewe aborts she will no longer have the
disease in a few months, but if she has a lamb it will be infected. Rams can be shedding
Brucella ovis bacteria but not show any palpable abnormalities. Due to this, diagnosis
can be tricky. Diagnosis must be made by culture of semen and microscopic
examination of stained semen smears. Repeated examinations may also be helpful
before breeding season, and keeping non infected young rams away from older
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possibly infected rams. Vaccination of rams with the Rev. 1 strain may be
recommended in some countries. Losses of lambs from infected ewes can be controlled
by only vaccinating rams. There is no vaccination for sheep in the United States. There
have been cases of Brucella ovis having bacteriological cures by using two medicines
concurrently chlortetracycline and streptomycin. However even if it is treated, fertility
may still be impaired. Treatment is not worth it unless the ram is valuable.
Dogs can occasionally be infected with Brucella abortus, suis or melitensis but is
most commonly infected with Broccoli canis. Dogs are the only definitive host of this
organism. The disease is transmitted rapidly in closely confined dogs especially at time
of breeding or when abortions occur. Brucella canis is transmitted by vanereal routes,
oronasasl routes, ingestion of contaminated materials like aborted fetuses, vaginal
discharge, urine, or semen. Primary clinical signs include abortion during last trimester
of pregnancy, conception failures, prolonged vaginal discharge following abortion,
generalized lymphadenitis, epididymitis, perioechitis, and prostatits. Uncommonly
uveitis and spondylitis can occur. Non reproductive symptoms include lethargy, weight
loss, exercise intolerance. If the organism localizes in an organ it can induce
inflammation of the spine, eye, heart and skin. Bacteria will be in the blood for 18
months post exposure. The best way to diagnose Brucella canis is to get isolated
organisms from vaginal secretions, aborted pups, milk, blood or semen of infected dogs
and do a serological agglutination test by tube or slide. Other tests such as
immunofluorscence and ELISA can be used as well. There is a very high rate of false
positive test results of Brucella canis. Antibodies against antigens of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Bordetella and some type of staphylococcus can create a positive result.
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However screening tests can give a false negative if the dog is infected for less then
four weeks before testing. If a dog has a positive result on in house testing it should
most definitely be sent to the lab for further testing. A correct diagnosis of Brucella
Abortus is extremely important. Due to the fact that there is no treatment or cure for this
awful disease, euthanasia is commonly recommended for infected dogs. Neutering and
antibiotic treatment of a combination of streptomycin and gentamicin, and tetracycline
can be used to treat the animal but a persistent infection is still likely. There is no
vaccination for Brucella canis. Control of the disease is based on isolation and
elimination of infected dogs.
The burden of human brucellosis is enormous, causing more than 500,00
infections per year world wide. Although the number has dropped due to animal
vaccination programs, and pasteurization, most cases in the United States are due to
consumption of illegally imported unpasteurized dairy products from Mexico. Sixty
percent of human brucellosis cases in the United States occur in California and Texas.
A fever is the most common symptom of human brucellosis, along with relative
bradycardia, fever of unknown origin, chills, anorexia fatigue, weakness and abdominal
pain. Symptoms can be systemic or localized. Definitive diagnosis is based on
serological techniques and or culture to find out what species of Brucella the person
may be infected with. Although the type will not change, the choice of therapy it is, is
important for additional testing. In humans Brucellosis is easily curable with low risk of
chronic disease as long as treated within the first few months. However if not treated it
can cause chronic debilitating illness, like congestive heart failure due to endocarditis.
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Recurrence is not likely in people who are treated rather than people who are not
treated and or treated incorrectly.
Bibliography
Nassir, Wafa AL, MBBS. "Brucellosis." Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology.
Ed. Michael Stuart Bronze. N.p., 09 Mar. 2017. Web. 13 Mar. 2017.
Nicoletti, Paul, DVM, MS, DACVPM. "Brucellosis in Cattle." Veterinary Manual.
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, n.d. Web. 17 Feb. 2017.
Nicoletti, Paul, DVM,MS,DACVPM. "Overview of Brucellosis in Large Animals Reproductive System." Veterinary Manual. College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Florida, n.d.Web. 17 Feb. 2017.
Nicoletti, Paul, DVM,MS,DACVPM. "Brucellosis in Goats - Reproductive System."
Veterinary Manual. College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, n.d. Web. 19
Feb. 2017.
Nicoletti, Paul, DVM,MS,DACVPM. "Brucellosis in Horses - Reproductive
System." Veterinary Manual. College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, n.d.
Web. 19 Feb. 2017.
Nicoletti, Paul, DVM,MS,DACVPM. "Brucellosis in Pigs - Reproductive System."
Veterinary Manual. College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, n.d. Web. 19
Feb. 2017.
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Nicoletti, Paul, DVM,MS, DACVPM. "Brucellosis in Sheep - Reproductive
System." Veterinary Manual. College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, n.d.
Web. 19 Feb. 2017.
Nicoletti, Paul, DVM, MS, DACVPM, and Emeritus, Professor. "Overview of
Brucellosis in Dogs - Reproductive System." Veterinary Manual. College of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Florida, n.d. Web. 19 Feb. 2017.
Writers, Staff. "Brucellosis: Dog Breeders Shouldn't Skip Testing for This
Dangerous Disease." American Kennel Club. N.p., 21 Aug. 2015. Web. 19 Mar.
2017.Holtgrew-
Bohling, Kristin. Large animal clinical procedures for veterinary
technicians. 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier, 2016. Print.
Bassert, Joanna M., Oreta Samples, and Angela Beal. McCurnin's clinical
textbook for veterinary technicians. 7th ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier, 2008. Print.
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Questions
1. How many different species does Brucellosis
A. 6 B.4 C.7 D.8
2. What is the most common type of Brucellosis in humans
A. Melitensis B. Abortus C. Canis D. Suis
3. Which Symptom of Brucellosis takes place in ALL species?
A. Epidiymis enlargement B.Abortion C.Lameness D. Fever
4. Which for of Brucellosis is most common in the United States?
A. Abortus B. Canis C. Ovis D. Suis
5. True or False: Brucellosis is not as sever in goats as it is in other species
A .True B. False
Answers
1.c
2.a
3.b
4.b
5.b
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Kaleen Corbett
VST111
Dr.Dougherty
Foot Rot
Foot rot, also known as “Necrotic pododermatitis”, “Interdigital necrobacillosis”, or
“Foul foot”,is a common and contagious disease in cows, sheep, and goats. An animal becomes
infected when bacteria enters the foot, and causes an infection in the hoof. If foot rot is not
controlled the infection can affect deeper tissues and joints in the foot, potentially leading to
septic arthritis. Evidentially, there is an increase in reported cases of the disease during the wet
season.
The two primary bacteria that cause foot rot are Fusobacterium necrophorum and
Dichelobacter nodosus - formerly known as Bacteroides. Fusobacterium necrophorum is an
anaerobic bacteria that can be found in the digestive tract or fecal matter of a ruminant. This
bacterium can thrive from weeks to months in soil. It causes dermatitis between the interdigits
which can potentially provide an entry way for Dichelobacter and other bacterium into the foot.
Dichelobacter nodosus is also an anaerobic bacterium that can live in the soil for a maximum of
two weeks with the potential to damage and/or destroy keratin in the foot. Foot rot is not only
painful, but can lead to a loss in the physical mass and production capabilities of cattle. Once
multiple cattle have been infected it becomes a time consuming and costly process to eradicate
the bacteria.
Clinical signs of foot rot include lameness in one or more infected feet, followed by
visible redness. Inflammation and swelling will occur between the digits causing the claws to
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spread apart, and producing a skin fissure to appear. Necrotic tissue with a foul odor will also be
present. In the case of a deep tissue infection or if an abscess is developing a fever may also
occur. The environment must be properly managed to lessen or eliminate the risk of cattle
exposure to foot rot, especially during the wet season. The anaerobic bacteria thrive in wet or
moist soil conditions. Constant contact with moisture can cause the feet of the cattle to soften
making cattle more vulnerable to lacerations, abrasions, and punctures which may serve as an
entry way for the bacteria and cause disease. Infected animals will shed the organism into the
soil directly from the wound, increasing the probability of herd mates in a shared environment to
contract the disease.
Foot rot is usually diagnosed with clinical signs such as lameness, lesions, and foul odor
coming from an interdigital skin fissure. Staining and bacterial culture may also be done but are
not necessary if a diagnosis by clinical signs is possible. If foot rot is not detected and treated in
early stages of the disease it may further complicate treatment.
A common treatment for foot rot is debridement of the infected skin and trimming of the
hoof to remove as much necrotic tissue as possible. Next the wound must be disinfected using a
topical antibacterial agent, antibiotics, or antiseptic/astringents. The most common topical agents
used are copper sulfate, zinc sulfate and 4% or 5% formalin. Bandages may be used temporarily
after extensive debridement, however the wound needs to be exposed to air. Foot baths are
another common treatment utilized. Footbaths are most practical when there are multiple
individuals affected within a single herd, and can also aid in the long-term treatment for a herd.
Zinc sulfate is used frequently in foot baths because copper sulfate stains the hoofs, and formalin
may burn and/or irritate the tissue.
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If it is a deep infection giving an injection of antibiotics like penicillin and
oxytetracycline may also be necessary. If caught early, the recovery period is usually three to
four days. However, if the infection is deep seated it will require multiple treatments. If recovery
is not observed in adequate time it may be a more severe problem than foot rot.
Foot rot may be prevented by the proper management of cattle and their environment.
The single most effective way to prevent foot rot is to eliminate moist ground conditions. This
can be achieved via different ways. For example: putting drains near feed lots and water tanks, as
well as having dry areas on the farm during the wet season helps in reducing the moisture in the
ground.
Regular foot trimmings help decrease the crevices where the bacteria can live, and giving
foot baths will also help in preventing an infection. Isolating the effected animal will help
prevent a contagious infection from spreading. Furthermore, it is also recommended when
purchasing new animals to avoid animals exhibiting signs lameness, or other symptoms.
Managers should always keep new animals separated from the herd and observe their behavior
for about two to three weeks. During the observation period, the animal should get its feet
trimmed and be given a foot bath. This will help to dismiss the likelihood of the introduction of
foot rot to the other animals. Moving or rotating cattle and heard to different areas on a pasture
may also help by alleviating the manure build up.
Vaccinations which have been developed for Dichelobacter nodosus reports a 60-80%
success rate. The vaccine should be given before the wet season and followed up six weeks later
by a booster, then every ten to twelve weeks a booster should be given until the wet season is
over. However, the short protection period and incidence of local injection site reactions have
limited the use of the vaccine. The vaccination may help reduce incidence of foot rot but will not
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positively eradicate the infection. If an animal is chronically infected with foot rot it should be
humanely euthanized to mitigate the odds of infecting the entire heard.
Foot rot is highly contagious to cows, sheep, and goats but it is not a zoonotic disease.
Even though a human cannot contract foot rot, they are commonly affected by the costs
associated with treating and preventing the disease.
Foot rot is contagious and painful for the animal infected by the disease, and costly and
time consuming for a farmer to treat. If not treated it can cause rapid weight loss, low production,
and a deep infection that may cause septic arthritis. Knowing the clinical signs is key to
diagnosing and treating the animals right away to maintain a healthy herd.
Bibliography
1) Large Animal Clinical Procedures for Veterinary Technicians, Third Edition. By
Kristin Holtgrew-Bohling, DMV
2) “Foot Rot in Cattle and Sheep” - https://www.vet.k-state.edu/docs/vhc/farm/agpractice-updates/footrot.pdf
3) “How to Prevent Foot Rot in Cattle” - http://www.beefmagazine.com/health/howprevent-foot-rot-cattle By Heather Smith Thomas Sept.11, 2014
4) Contagious Foot Rot
http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/factsheet/AH_Sheep_07.pdf By Clell V.
Bagley, DVM Nov. 1998
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Questions about Foot Rot
(Key: Right Answers have a * symbol at the end)
1) What two primary bacteria are found in Foot Rot?
A) Fusobacterium necrophorum and Dichelobacter nodosus *
B) Dichelobacter nodous and Clostridium chauvei
C) Fusobacterium necrophorum and Bacillus anthracis
D) None of the above
2) Foot Rot mainly affects canine and feline species.
A) True
B) False *
3) What bacteria that helps cause foot rot can be found in the digestive tract of the
ruminant?
A) Dichelobacter nodous
B) Clostridium chauvei
C) Bacillus anthracis
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D) Fusobacterium necrophorum *
4) Do vaccines eliminate foot rot incidences?
A) True
B) False *
5) Is Foot Rot not a zoonotic disease?
A) True*
B) False
Page 91 of 228
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Caroline Mennella
March 21, 2017
VST 111
Dr. Dennis Dougherty
Leptospirosis
Introduction
“Leptospirosis is a disease caused by infection with Leptospira bacteria. These bacteria
can be found worldwide in soil and water. There are many strains of Leptospira bacteria that can
cause disease” (Leptospirosis, 2017). Although this infectious bacterial disease is worldwide and
affects all mammals, there are five Leptospira serovars that are the most common in North
America. They include hardjo-bovis, pomona, canicola, icterohaemorhagiae and grippotyphosa
(Saun 2017). Most farms animals are typically infected with the pomona and hardjo strains
which include: bovine, porcine, caprine, ovine, and equine (Piotr Fabijanski 2015).
Etiology
Leptospirosis is generally a spiral-shaped bacterium that is known as Leptospira
interrogans that can cause illness in many animals (Piotr Fabijanski 2015). Leptospira
interrogans are spread through the urine of animals who carry the bacterium and can survive in
standing water and soil for extended periods of time (Pelzer & Currin 2009). Without a host, the
spirochete (bacterium) cannot reproduce, but as long as it is living in a warm wet environment, it
can survive for months (Saun 2017). Leptospirosis can also be transmitted during breeding,
which is known as venereal, and to a fetus, which is known as transplacental (Saun 2017).
“Leptospira serovars are host adapted to specific species of wild or domesticated mammals
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(maintenance hosts) for the serovar” (Saun 2017). Maintenance hosts do not typically show any
signs of infection and are in a “carrier state” where the bacterium is shed through the urine of the
host (Saun 2017). This, in turn, leads to more infection of livestock and those livestock are
known as incidental hosts (Saun 2017). “Incidental hosts for leptospiral infections experience
more severe disease, generate high antibody titer, have large numbers of organisms in tissues and
do not shed leptospires in urine for any period of time” (Saun 2017). For the leptospiral
infection to be transmitted from animal to animal, it usually comes from a maintenance host
since it is not found in the urine of incidental hosts (Saun 2017).
Clinical Signs
In cattle, many of the clinical signs involve urine and milk production (Piotr Fabijanski
2015). The leptospira pomona strain causes the cattle to have hematuria, specifically in neonates
(Piotr Fabijanski 2015). They could also have “decreased activity, rapid breathing, anemia and
pale, and slightly yellow membranes lining the mouth and vagina” (Piotr Fabijanski 2015). This
bacterial infection works fast in young cattle. For example, a calf could only seem to be acting
somewhat abnormal one day and then could be experiencing a significant decline in health the
next (Piotr Fabijanski 2015). Since it is such a fast-acting infection, there may not be enough
time to see the clinical signs, diagnose, and treat the animal before this rapid decline. The other
strain of this infection, leptospira hardjo-bovis, can be the cause of mastitis which is
inflammation of the mammary glands and usually affects all four quarters of the udder (Piotr
Fabijsanski 2015). It is also common for the milk to have a yellow tint and a different
consistency than normal with this strain (Piotr Fabijsanski 2015). The pomona strain could also
affect the milk like the hardjo-bovis strain does, however, there will be blood in the milk which
will make it look more brown (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). “Cows may abort in late pregnancy due
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to either Leptospira pomona or Leptospira hardjo. Abortion may occur without … other
symptoms of leptospirosis” (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). Unfortunately, this tends to be a common
symptom of Leptospirosis in most bovine along with weak neonate calves (Pelzer & Currin
2009). Considering all the clinical signs with both serovars of the bacteria that most commonly
affect the bovine species, it can also cause a decrease in the cow’s milk production, affect its
fertility, and cause the cow to be more prone to mastitis (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). Like the
bovine, other species such as porcine, caprine, ovine, and equine all experience abortion,
stillbirths, and weak newborns because of the pomona strain (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). They will
have other symptoms of the infection: pigs will have kidney damage, sheep and goats (if
lactating) will have decreased milk production, and horses can develop periodic ophthalmia or
moon blindness (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015).
Diagnosis
When hematuria is seen in cattle, it is not initially considered an emergency and is
sometimes thought to be a result of rape, kale poisoning, post parturient hemoglobinuria, etc.
(Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). However, it does raise suspicion that it could be a symptom of
Leptospirosis (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). Diagnosing this bacterial infection can be very strenuous
because the bacteria do not grow in a culture well (Saun 2017). “Current methods either attempt
to measure amount of antibody to specific Leptospiral serovars or identify the presence of the
organism.” (Saun 2017). The most common test is the MAT or microagglutination test which
can detect antibodies (Saun 2017). Multiple serum samples are collected from the supposed
infected animal and they are tested and measured for whether the antibody concentration has
intensified or not (Saun 2017). Multiple samples are used because if the first test results in a
positive reading, it could only mean that the animal was exposed to the bacteria previously and
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will need more testing to further prove the positive result (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). If the
antibodies that are specific to Leptospirosis strains have intensified, then it is likely that the
animal does have leptospirosis (Saun 2017). However, if the first symptom of the bacterial
infection is abortion, there will be no way to tell if it was leptospirosis that caused it or not
through the MAT (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). “An interesting point here is that as leptospiral
abortion usually occurs quite some weeks after the infection, antibody levels could be falling
rather than rising at that time.” (Piotr Fabjisanki 2015). If Leptospirosis becomes a raised
suspicion within a herd, it is recommended that urine samples be taken from at least 15 of the
cows in that herd (Saun 2017). Instead of using the MAT, a fluorescent antibody test is used to
show the presence of the organism rather than antibodies in the urine (Saun 2017). A similar test
is known as a PCR test or polymerase chain reaction test which will detect leptospiral DNA
(Harkin 2003).
Treatment
It is not feasible to eliminate the cattle exposure to Leptospirosis because of its ability to
live in a carrier state (Soren Rodning, Gard, Edmondson, Lovelady, 2012) and how easily it can
be spread. The treatment for Leptospirosis is most commonly done with an antibiotic, and the
primary one for this infection is dihydrostreptomycin, however, it is not approved to be used in
the United States (Saun 2017). There are other antibiotics that have been efficient in eliminating
leptospirosis in cattle like oxytertacyclines, ceftiofur, tylosin, and tilmicosin (Saun 2017).
“When treated early and aggressively, the chances of recovery are good but is still a risk of
permanent” health issues (Leptospirosis 2017). Unfortunately, these antibiotics cannot be given
to lactating dairy cows due to strict restrictions placed by the FDA (Jones 2009). The FDA does
not accept any kind of drugs in milk because there is a small number of people who are allergic
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to antibiotics or are very sensitive to them where even the smallest dose could be fatal (Jones
2009). If this infection goes untreated, it can result in the death of the patient.
Prevention
There are ways to prevent Leptospirosis through management like “avoiding paddocks
receiving drainage directly from the milking yards, or poorly drained areas for young calves”
(Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). However, this method of prevention is not the most dependable. The
best way to protect cattle from this bacterial infection is with vaccinations (Piotr Fabijsanki
2015). Bovine should be given two vaccines for leptospirosis spaced out four to six weeks apart
when just starting the animal on them (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015). After they have received their
first round of vaccines for the infection, they will need to be administered every year typically
six to eight weeks before calving. This is to ensure that the calf will be immune long enough
before it is old enough to receive its own vaccines (Piotr Fabijsanki 2015).
Zoonosis
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial infection. It can be transmitted to humans through
direct contact with the infected urine, or soil, water, or food that have been contaminated with
the infected urine (“Infection” 2011). The human body can absorb the bacteria through the skin
or mucous membranes, however, the infection is very rarely spread between other humans
(“Infection” 2011). The type of symptoms that a human could experience are flu-like at first, but
if the condition goes untreated, there may be kidney or liver failure (“Signs and Symptoms”
2011). There have recently been three cases of leptospirosis in humans reported in the New
York City area (“New York City Investigating Three Cases of Leptospirosis” 2017). In New
York City, this infection is typically spread through rat urine (“New York City Investigating
Three Cases of Leptospirosis” 2017). The three reported cases were each experiencing kidney
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and liver failure and unfortunately, one of those cases was fatal (“New York City Investigating
Three Cases of Leptospirosis” 2017).
Summary
In summary, Leptospirosis is an epidemic that affects farmers worldwide. It causes a
decrease in the milk production, increases the likelihood of a stillbirth and abortion, and affects
the fertility of the cattle. Farmers must be aware of the clinical signs of this bacterial infection
and use proper caution when working with infected cattle. Keeping bovine vaccinated for
Leptospirosis is key to a healthy and thriving heard.
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Bibliography
Harkin, K. R., DVM, DACVIM , Roshto, Y. M., DVM, & Sullivan, J. T., DVM. (2003, May 1).
Clinical application of a polymerase chain reaction assay for diagnosis of leptospirosis in
dogs. Retrieved March 18, 2017, from
http://avmajournals.avma.org/doi/abs/10.2460/javma.2003.222.1224
Infection. (2011, June 17). Retrieved March 16, 2017, from
https://www.cdc.gov/leptospirosis/infection/index.html
Jones, G. M. (2009, May 01). Preventing Drug Residues in Milk and Cull Dairy Cows. Retrieved
March 18, 2017, from https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/404/404-403/404-403.html
Leptospirosis. (2017). Retrieved February 9, 2017, from
https://www.avma.org/public/PetCare/Pages/Leptospirosis.aspx
New York City Investigating Three Cases of Leptospirosis. (2017, February 16). Retrieved
March 16, 2017, from
http://www.pctonline.com/article/leptospirosis-new-york-cases-reported/
Pelzer, K. D., & Currin, N., DVM. (2009, May 1). Zoonotic Diseases of Cattle. Retrieved
February 8, 2017, from http://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/400/400-460/400-460.html
Piotr Fabijanski, E. (2015, July 29). Leptospirosis in cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses and
humans. Retrieved February 09, 2017, from
http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/animal-diseases/beefand-dairy-cows/leptospirosis-in-cattle-pigs-sheep-goats-horses-and-humans
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Saun, R. V., DVM, PhD, Extention Veterinarian. (2017). Leptospirosis in Cattle. Retrieved
February 9, 2017, from
http://extension.psu.edu/animals/dairy/news/2005/leptospirosis-in-cattle
Signs and Symptoms. (2011, June 17). Retrieved March 16, 2017, from
https://www.cdc.gov/leptospirosis/symptoms/index.html
Soren Rodning, S. P., Gard, J. A., Edmonson, M. A., & Lovelady, A. S. (2012, March). ACES
Publications: Leptospirosis in Cattle: ANR-0858. Retrieved March 15, 2017, from
http://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-0858/index2.tmpl
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Questions
1. What are the two main strains of Leptospirosis in bovine?
A. Canicola & Pomona
C. Pomona & Hardjo
B. Icterohaemorhagiae & Hardjo
D. Grippotyphosa & Canicola
2. What clinical signs will you see in a cow infected with Leptospirosis?
A. Mastitis & Abortion
C. Atrophy & Tachycardia
B. Bloat & Foaming at the Mouth
D. Vomiting & Stranguria
3. What does MAT stand for?
A. Morphine, Amoxicillin, Tylosin C. My Animal Talks
B. Microagglutination Test
D. It’s just something to wipe your feet on!
4. How is Leptospirosis spread to animals and humans?
A. Saliva
C. Airborne
B. Blood
D. Urine
5. How can Leptospirosis be treated?
A. Antibiotics
C. Sun-bathing
B. Cannot be treated
D. Laser Therapy
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Kayla Tyler
Research Paper
VST 111
March 21, 2017
Listeriosis
Listeriosis is an infection caused by the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes. It is also called
Silage Sickness or Circling Disease. Listeriosis can infect all kinds of animals, including
humans. It is most common in ruminants, such as goats, sheep and cattle, but has also been seen
in rare cases with rabbits, guinea pigs, dogs, cats, pigs, dogs, poultry and certain birds. Listeriosis
can be found happening all over the world, but most cases occur in colder climates or during the
winter-spring months.
Listeria monocytogenes are a small, gram-positive bacterium and is a facultative
anaerobic (capable of surviving in the presence or absence of oxygen), motile rod sometimes
arranged in short chains. They can survive in many different ranges of temperatures These
bacteria are found in all different places of the environment including soil, plants, mud and
streams. It is also found in animal intestinal tracts and in spoiled silage where the pH is less
acidic than good quality silage. Most animals get this disease by the act of ingestion or
inhalation. Animals tend to spread this infection to each other through fecal matters. It is very
common in cattle that ingest moldy silage, but can also happen with grass if the cattle graze close
to the ground or eats directly off the ground.
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Each species may experience different clinical signs when infected with Listeriosis.
Central nervous system signs are experienced in ruminants such as sheep, goats and cattle. Other
animals like dogs, cats, pigs, rabbits, etc., show signs of septicemia. Septicemia is defined as
infection or poisoning of the blood and or other organs. Chickens and turkeys experience signs of
septicemia as well and damage to their heart and liver can occur. Encephalitis, inflammation of
the brain, is the most common clinical sign in ruminants. In the beginning stages of listeria
encephalitis, animals start to become depressed, disoriented and anorectic (loss of appetite,
anorexia). It is capable of affecting any animal of any age, but it is capable of killing sheep and
goats within 24-28 hours of infection. In cattle, it takes slower to kill and sometimes longer to
show clinical signs. Animals that are affected tend to start leaning their heads against objects, or
subject themselves to corners. They may also start circling towards the side that is affected;
hence the name Circling Disease. Animals may experience signs such as paralysis of the face,
flaccid lip, deviated muzzle, and lack of feeling and/or response in the side that is affected
causing things to lower. For example, the eyelid may start to lower and the ear on the affected
side will start to droop. Although encephalitis and abortion do not usually occur simultaneously,
abortion is another big sign that an animal may be suffering from Listeriosis. Most often,
abortion occurs in the last trimester causing the animals to die while still being inside the mom
which results in stillbirths. Over time, the symptoms of this disease are increasing, resulting in
more animals experiencing encephalitis, abortion, etc., simultaneously.
Diagnosis of animals can be determined by a veterinarian. Listeriosis greatly affects the
central nervous system of an animal, so by collecting cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the
lumbosacral spinal region, a diagnosis can be found. Microscopically, mononuclear cells that are
largely sized may be present and the protein concentration will be higher in the cerebrospinal
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fluid. The bacteria Listeria monocytogenes, if present, will give a diagnosis when examined.
They must be completely isolated and clearly identified. If an animal is suffering from
septicemia, a few fluids are helpful in diagnosing if an animal has Listeriosis. A couple of
examples include spinal fluid, nasal discharge, urine, feces, and milk. The best way to have a
diagnosis done is to send samples taken from the patient to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory.
Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent again Listeriosis for animals or humans.
Treatment is based on how early the infection was caught. If caught early, it is highly likely that
just the use of antibiotics will be able to help the patient, but it is also likely that relapses will
occur and a long use of the antibiotics is needed to make a complete recovery. In more severe
cases, where encephalitis is involved, a lot of the time the patient will die before or during the
treatment. The most popular drug used to treat Listeriosis is Penicillin G. According to the
Merck Veterinary Manual, “Penicillin G should be given at 44,000 U/kg body weight, IM, daily
for 1–2 weeks; the first injection should be accompanied by the same dose given IV. Supportive
therapy, including fluids and electrolytes, is required for animals having difficulty eating and
drinking. High-dose dexamethasone (1 mg/kg, IV) at first examination is considered beneficial
by some but is controversial and will cause abortion during the last two trimesters in cattle and
after day 135 in sheep.” The use of fluids is extremely important when it comes to the treatment
because many animals tend to not eat or drinking while being infected. The recovery rate is
between 50% and 75% based on how well the animal is moving and if they are eating/drinking.
Listeria monocytogenes hold a zoonotic potential. Zoonotic meaning a disease that can be
transmitted from animals to people and or a disease that normally exists in animals, but can
infect humans as well. It is important for anyone handling animals or samples that may be
infected with Listeriosis to wear gloves and proceed with extreme caution. For example, even a
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stillborn fetus can still infect you if you are not careful. It is also important to make sure that
when handling food products that have come from animals, especially meat, to make sure that it
is cooked thoroughly. When assisting an animal with birth, gloves are a very important factor in
protecting yourself against an infection like this. Being infected with Listeriosis can be extremely
life threatening to humans.
The most important thing that can be done in preventing Listeriosis is to avoid feeding
spoiled or bad silage to animals. Areas with a high pH are at risk for animals coming down with
an infection. It is best to separate animals, sick and healthy, if and when an outbreak occurs to
prevent further spreading from animal to animal. With there being no vaccine for this infection,
it is smart to plan and try to prevent this infection from occurring or spreading between animal to
animal or animal to human.
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Bibliography
"Nervous Disease in Sheep." 3. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2017.
<http://www.nadis.org.uk/bulletins/nervous-disease-in-sheep.aspx>
"F475Listeriosis (Circling Disease)." Listeriosis (Circling Disease). N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar.
2017.
"Listeriosis in Ruminants and Human Risk." Listeriosis in Ruminants and Human Risk. N.p., n.d.
Web. 21 Mar. 2017.
Journal, Farmers. "Treating Listeriosis - commonly associated with cattle eating mouldy
silage." Farming News From The Irish Farmers Journal. N.p., 25 Nov. 2014. Web. 21 Mar.
2017.
"Overview of Listeriosis - Generalized Conditions." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar.
2017.
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Listeriosis Questions
1. What is a commonly used name for Listeriosis?
a. Silage Sickness
b. Circling Disease
c. Both a & b
d. Neither
2. Listeriosis can be given to humans
a. True
b. False
3. What fluid is collected in Listeria infected patients to make a clear diagnosis?
a. Urine
b. Blood
c. Milk
d. Cerebrospinal Fluid
4. What is the most popular drug used to treat Listeriosis?
a. Penicillin G
b. Metacam
c. Depo-Medrol
d. Telazol
5. What is the recovery rate for Listeriosis?
a. 10%-15%
b. 98%
c. 50%-75%
d. 0%
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CANINE PARAINFLUENZA
DULCE BRAVO
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Canine Parainfluenza Virus (CPIV) is a single-stranded RNA virus of the virus family
Paramyxoviridae. Paramyxoviridae (PMV) comes from the Greek word para- meaning beyond
and -myxo- meaning mucus or slime. Canine parainfluenza virus (CPIV) is a highly contagious
respiratory virus and is one of the most common disease producing agent. Canine parainfluenza
virus typically causes mild respiratory tract infections. Even though the respiratory signs may
resemble to those of the canine influenza virus, they are not the same virus and require different
vaccines for protection. CPIV is restricted to the upper respiratory tract. It is capable of causing
damage to the epithelium lining the trachea (windpipe). This allows for secondary infection by
other pathogens, which can make the infection difficult to treat and can result to more serious
diseases. It may act in juxtaposition with other microbial agents for example: canine adenovirus,
Bordetella bronchiseptica and many more. This combination of viruses result in canine infectious
tracheobronchitis, also known as kennel cough. Canine parainfluenza virus can progress to be
fatal pneumonia in puppies, or to chronic bronchitis in older dogs. Sometimes when
parainfluenza virus is suspected but only sign shown on a dog is coughing, certain tests will be
required. This will help to differentiate between kennel cough and the more serious parainfluenza
virus. Chest x-ray can be taken to help determine the existence of pneumonia and what degree.
Blood work can also be recommended, this can be important to rule out other possibilities. Doing
all of these tests can give us an answer quickly to proper diagnose the patient. This can be
helpful when decide if the dog must be quarantined or to begin treatment as soon as possible.
Symptoms of parainfluenza virus include many general symptoms seen in other
infections, viruses and diseases. Canine parainfluenza virus has many symptoms which include
but not limited to: a hacking cough, coughing up mucus, sneezing, gagging, nasal discharge, high
temperature, runny eyes, eye inflammation or conjunctivitis. Coughing can be dry or moist, lack
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of energy, loss of appetite, difficulty with breathing, wheezing can accrue in some dogs with
parainfluenza. Pneumonia can even develop in some life-threatening cases of CPIV. Some dogs
may not show any signs of the condition and can pass it along to other dogs undetected. The
disease is very much contagious and spreads quickly among dogs that are housed together.
Dogs can be easily at risk to getting the canine parainfluenza virus. Dogs that are around
affected dogs and the bowls, bedding and kennels that they use. Dogs can contract parainfluenza
by means of the airborne particles from coughing and sneezing. Parainfluenza virus is easily
spread from dog to dog and causes symptoms which may become fatal. Any situation that places
dogs in close quarters with other dogs can cause the condition to spread, so contact with other
dogs in dog parks and out walking may potentially place any dog at risk. Dogs that come from
shelters, rescue centers, breeding kennels, or pet stores are mostly to have the virus. Boarding at
a kennel or doggie daycare, or engaging with other dogs on a daily basis are also some most
common risk factors. Situations such as events, shows and competitions, even visits to a canine
grooming parlor can also place healthy dogs at risk for developing the condition if the virus is
present at any of the locations. After infection and potential recovery, dogs can continue to pass
on the virus responsible for the condition for up to two weeks. Dogs especially at risk for
catching canine parainfluenza include the old, the young, and those not vaccinated against canine
parainfluenza virus and Bordetella. Stress and environmental extremes in ventilation, humidity
and temperature can increase susceptibility to disease, and can also increase the severity of
disease in an existing infection.
The prognosis for recovery from CPIV infection is good if the dog receives appropriate
treatment upon onset of disease. The Nobivac® line of 1-year combination and intranasal
vaccines for dogs provides comprehensive protection against canine parainfluenza in addition to
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other commonly spread canine diseases. Dogs should be immunized against CPIV via injection
with a modified live virus vaccine. Unfortunately there is not a vaccine that only has the
parainfluenza pathogen. Canine 1-DAPPv vaccine offers wide-ranging protection against canine
parvovirus, adenovirus type 1 (hepatitis), type 2 (respiratory disease), parainfluenza, and
distemper. Young pups should receive their first vaccination when they are 6 to 8 weeks old. The
growing pups should come back every 3 to 4 weeks until they are 12 to 14 weeks old for booster
shots. Annual revaccination is recommended if high degrees of exposure are suspected.
Sometime revaccinating every three years is often sufficient depending on exposure and form of
vaccine prevention (1yr vs 3yr vaccine).
Reference
1. Ford R. Canine infectious tracheobronchitis. In: Greene CE, ed. Infectious Diseases of
the Dog and Cat. 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2006:55.
2. Buonavoglia C, Martella V. Canine respiratory viruses. Vet Res. 2007; 38:355–373.
3. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995
by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.
4. Schultz RD, Thiel B, Mukhtar E, Sharp P, Larson LJ. Age and long-term protective
immunity in dogs and cats. J Comp Pathol. 2010; 142 Suppl 1:S102–S108.
5. Ellis JA, Krakowka GS. A review of canine parainfluenza virus infection in dogs. J Am
Vet Med Assoc. 2012 Feb 1; 240(3):273-84. doi: 10.2460/javma.240.3.273.Review.
PubMed PMID: 22256842
6. Wagener JS, Sobonya R, Minnich L, Taussig LM. Role of canine parainfluenza Virus
and Bordetella bronchiseptica in kennel cough. Am J Vet Res. 1984 Sep; 45(9):1862-6.
PubMed PMID: 6093651.
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Sarcoptic and Psoroptic Mange
Brianna Barker
Farm Animal Nursing
VST 111
March 21, 2017
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Brianna Barker
Dr. Dougherty
Farm Animal Nursing (VST111)
21 March 2017
Sarcoptic and Psoroptic Mange
There are many microscopic mites that can live on animals and affect the skin drastically.
If an animal contracts these mites, the diseases that they cause can be very aggravating and
sometimes life threatening. It is important to know the symptoms, treatment, and prevention of
these diseases to ensure that your animals are safe and healthy, especially if they will be used for
human consumption.
Sarcoptic mange is a highly contagious skin disease found in animals that is caused by
mites that burrow in skin which will cause pruritus and irritation. The intense itching and
irritation will lead to hair loss all over the animal's body. Sarcoptic mange is also more
commonly known as scabies. The specific strain of this mite in cattle is called Sarcoptes scabiei
var bovis. Sarcoptic mange is an extremely infectious disease and is spread by direct contact
from an infected animal. You would find non-burrowing mites on the skin in Psoroptic mange
cases. This mite feces is believed to cause an allergic reaction which is the cause of itchiness and
hair loss. Psoroptic mites can be transmitted, but they do not actively jump or crawl. The only
way to contract these mites is by direct contact of the infested host or environments. This disease
is caused by an abundant amount of Psoroptes ovis.
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Although these diseases may sound fairly similar, their clinical signs differ in some ways.
As mentioned above, both of these diseases cause extreme itching as well as hair loss. They also
cause thick scaly skin where the mites are living and can cause damage to the animal hide.
Sarcoptic mites are typically located around the neck and rear area by the tail. Psoroptic mites
are typically located in the neck, shoulders, and tail region. Due to the severe itching these mites
cause, it can lead to inflammation of the skin and raw open lesions which will later scab over. If
the dermatitis is severe enough it can cause the cattle to become hypothermic. Because of the
skin being raw, it can also cause bacterial infections and more active bleeding, and if the
bleeding from the lesions is intense enough it can eventually lead to the death of the cattle. These
mites can also cause decreased milk production, dehydration, and weight loss.
The way to diagnose these diseases can vary from noninvasive procedures to slightly
more invasive ones. One way to diagnose Sarcoptic and Psoroptic mites is to take a deep skin
scraping. Skin scrapings are typically done with a somewhat dulled scalpel blade coated in
mineral oil. The mineral oil should also be on the slide you have prepped and the lesion you will
be obtaining from the skin scraping. After you have performed the scraping you will look at what
you have collected under a microscope to look for any mites that might be living on or in the
skin. There is a slight difference with the appearance of these mites under the microscope. The
Sarcoptic mite appears with short legs and appear to be sac-like. The mites of the Psoroptic
family have an oval shaped body with longer legs with claws at the end of them. Another
noninvasive and very conservative way to figure out if you’re dealing with these mites is to treat
symptomatically with medications specific to the mites. If the symptoms go away than you will
get a confirmed answer as to which mite the cattle possessed. A more invasive way to diagnose
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would be a skin biopsy, which would provide a closer look than a skin scraping would, but mites
do not always appear in the biopsy.
There are several different ways to treat for these both of these mange mites. Medication
can be given topically or injected, and depending on the dose or drug they may need to be readministered over a certain amount of time. The type of treatment and frequency of
administration vary on the circumstances. For example, topical medications are better for a small
herd of animals. Some common drugs to treat the Sarcoptic mite is ivermectin, doramectin, and
eprinomectin, which can either be administered as an injectable or a topical pour-on. The
common drugs to treat the Psoroptic mange mite is injectable ivermectin, injectable doramectin,
and injectable or pour-on moxidectin. Both of these mites can be treated by hot lime sulfur dip.
This should be applied in 12 day intervals as needed, as many as 3 times. In severe cases the
injectables will need to be followed up by a topical pour-on to destroy the mites completely.
Once there is an outbreak of these types of diseases it is very easy for them to spread like
wildfire, so precautionary measures are very important. This mite is said to be more common in
the winter months because of the cattles housing, compared to the summer months when they are
out in the pastures. To prevent these diseases you should clean anything that the infected
animal(s) have been in contact with. The stall should be emptied of the old bedding, cleaned
thoroughly, and new bedding should be put down. Any of the grooming tools or restraining
equipment should be disinfected because the Psoroptic mite can live off the host for about 2
weeks in the proper conditions, if not cleaned it can cause another outbreak. To prevent the mites
from spreading further, the infected animals should be placed in quarantine and while being
treated. After treatment and before returning them to the rest of the herd, they should be
examined to make sure there are no longer mites living on them. Cattle that aren’t well-nourished
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are more susceptible to contract the diseases discussed as well as other diseases due to their
immune system becoming weak and vulnerable, so keeping up with their feed and water is
important. The infected cattle should also be treated at the same time so there is no risk of
passing the mites back and forth to one another. Sometimes it is recommended to take
precautionary measures to treat the whole herd before an outbreak is even possible.
A zoonotic disease is something that can be transferred from animals to humans and
humans to animals. Sarcoptic mange is a zoonotic disease and can be very bothersome if a
human contracts. It is typically seen in older/younger people, or people that have a poor immune
system. It is transferred by direct contact with the infected animal and causes pruritus and rashes.
If a human contracts scabies they will need to seek medical attention and be treated with
medication. On the other hand, the Psoroptic mange mite is not zoonotic.
To conclude, these diseases are serious, sometimes fatal, and should be treated as soon as
possible. All precautionary procedures should be taken to avoid an outbreak in the herd as much
as possible mainly during times of expected breakouts, such as winter. Owners should keep a
close eye on the condition of these animals and pay close attention to any changes in the
animal’s appearance, behavior, or health.
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Bibliography
Bandi, Kiran Madhusudhan, and Chitralekha Saikumar. "Sarcoptic Mange: A Zoonotic Ectoparasitic
Skin Disease." Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR. JCDR Research and
Publications (P) Limited, 12 Nov. 2012. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
Government of Alberta, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Food Safety and Technology Division,
Food Safety Branch, Agri-Food Laboratories Section, Biology Unit. "Sarcoptic Mange in Cattle."
Alberta Agriculture and Forestry. N.p., 01 Mar. 2005. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
Junquera, Written By P. "CATTLE MITES: biology, prevention and control. Cattle mange. Psoroptes,
Sarcoptes, Chorioptes, Demodex." PARASITIPEDIA.net. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
"Mange." The Cattle Site. 5m Publishing, n.d. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
Reichard, Mason V., PhD, and Jennifer E. Thomas, DVM. "Mange in Cattle - Integumentary
System." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
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Questions:
True or false:
1. The Psoroptic mite is zoonotic.
a. True
b. False
2. Sarcoptic mites are non-burrowing.
a. True
b. False
Multiple choice:
1. When is it most common to see an outbreak of mange?
a. Winter
b. Summer
c. Fall
d. Spring
2. Mange mites are transmitted by
a. Saliva
b. Fecal
c. Direct contact
d. Airborne
3. Most obvious symptom of mange is
a. Swollen eyes
b. Diarrhea
c. Drooling
d. Hair loss
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Jes Castrogiovanni
Dr. Dougherty, VST 111- Farm Animal Nursing
Shipping Fever
Shipping Fever is a respiratory disease also know as “Bovine Respiratory Disease” or
“BDR”. It can affect cattle of all ages but is seen most commonly in feedlot calves. Symptoms
are seen in young calves exposed to stresses but other clinical signs can be seen in order to
identify shipping fever. Risks of shipping fever include a decline in the meat and dairy industries
which is why it is important to notice the early signs and provide effective and proper treatments
as soon as possible. There are prevention methods and generalized treatments that could be used
to avoid the progression on this disease.
The etiology of shipping fever or a respiratory disease due to many factors that include
the introduction to infection and bacteria, specifically their lungs and airways. It targets the
respiratory tract both upper, nares, trachea, bronchioles, and lower, lungs and air ways. When it
affects the lower respiratory tract it is considered pneumonia as well. Shipping Fever is most
notably caused by the stresses and vulnerabilities of calves and feedlot cattle after they have been
weaned off a mother’s milk, castrated, introduced to a new location, handled roughly or even
after the process of being moved from one place to another. It could also be due to over
crowding or the introduction of new cattle from somewhere else. Most calves are affected by
shipping fever within 2 weeks after being weaned (Drovers).
Clinical signs need to be looked for in order to catch shipping fever in its early stages.
Although cows are good at disguising their ails around humans, detecting shipping fever before
later signs become noticeable. If one is looking at a cow with shipping fever, one may see early
signs like; depression, anxiety, dull eyes and they will present a rectal fever of 104 degrees or
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more. Symptoms progress rapidly so it is crucial to notice them earlier rather than later because
one of the later signs of shipping fever is death. Other later signs are; rapid or slow breathing,
nasal and eye discharge, coughing, droopy ears and staggering (Bagley).
These symptoms seem too general to be diagnostic for just shipping fever. Cattle with
symptoms of a respiratory disease can be further checked with a pen-checker. While this
approach is not always accurate, it can detect respiratory pathogens that will indicate something
is wrong (Timsit). Many veterinarians and cattle farmers rely on noticing symptoms and
response to medicines in order to diagnose shipping fever. Agents of this disease can be viruses
like; bovine herpesvirsus, bovine parainfluenza, viral diarrhea virus, bacteria or even parasites
such as lungworm (bovine council). An Interview with Dr. Steve Hendricks by
RealAgriculture.com explains that symptoms can often go unnoticed and some forms of
respiratory disease are sometimes caught post mortem. Tim Potter, suggests some techniques to
help diagnose such as; deep nasal swabs, ocular swabs, bronchial alveolar lavage, blood samples,
and post-mortem investigations. These techniques can be used after early symptoms appear and
can provide valuable information when trying to determine and diagnosis cattle showing
symptoms of respiratory disease.
Risk of contracting shipping fever can be caused by the environment. The shipping of the
animal from one facility to another causes stress that weakens the immune system prevents the
fight against dangerous pathogens. This environmental factor is why Bovine Respiratory Disease
is also known as Shipping Fever. Climate may also have and effect of cattle’s well being, as well
as the process of castration (Duff). It is important to note that calves who have been recently
castrated should not be allowed to lay down or get anything near the incision site in order to
avoid pathogens (Drover). Although shipping fever targets the respiratory tract, some of the
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bacteria involved, if left to fester, could cause joint swelling and heart degeneration (Drover).
Shipping fever is fast acting and hard to catch immediately but widespread among cattle in the
same environment. The main cause of shipping fever is stress and cattle are known to be high
strung. No evidence proves that shipping fever is contractible by people.
Along with environment, the cows weight and age are factors to consider when
diagnosing respiratory diseases. Bovine Respiratory disease affects more than half the cattle
population in North America alone, and has a mortality rate of about 45-75% in feedlots (Duff).
While the risks to the cattle are catastrophic, it is important to note that respiratory diseases are a
costly problem, not only for the cows to get treated but the money that will be lost for cattle that
reduce its average daily gain and efficiency (Drover). There is a growing economic loss that
concerns the cattle and cost billions of dollars to the cattle industry. Respiratory diseases affect
the quality and quantity of meat sold yearly, as well (Potter).
Prevention is easy and important in calves and cattle. Keeping a close watch on new
calves can prevent the spread of bacteria and viruses both internally and to other cattle. Isolation
of cows showing signs of illnesses is best in order to avoid the spread of any illnesses. Calves
being sold could benefit from weaning weeks prior to transportation. Vaccinations of common
bacteria and viruses and following boosters, and timing the castrations and dehorning well in
advance to the selling of calves. Nutrition may also play a role in the prevention of shipping
fever; supplementing vitamins A, D and E along with training calves to eat from bunkers rather
than relying on their mother’s milk can help to decrease the risks of respiratory diseases (Duff).
Reducing the amount of stress on calves post-weaning and post-castration can aid in the decrease
of risks that will cause a calf to contract a virus. Adding antibiotics to food and water can also
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prevent problems in these animals (Bagley). The best form of prevention is control of disease
and identification of symptoms.
Shipping fever caused by the introduction of many pathogens, so one specific treatment is
not likely. Because there are so many causes to respiratory diseases, early vaccination is a key
step in treating calves susceptible to respiratory viruses and bacteria. Antibiotics designed to treat
pneumonia are effective in most cases of shipping fever if treated at early stages (Jelinski).
Treatments usually take about 24 to 48 hours and will need follow up doses. Ancillary drugs,
such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories and immunomodulators, have been used to treat bovine
respiratory disease, along with the use of meloxicam pre castration. Most of these treatments are
given with a subcutaneous injection or added to the food and water (Duff). Treatments are
limited but therapies are being used to help the inflammatory response, ancillary therapy along
with non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs help prevent lung damage and ring down rectal
fevers (Potter).
Shipping fever, albeit the most common bovine disease, it can be easily detected,
diagnosed and treated. It is also easily prevented with the proper care and vaccinations pre and
post weaning, moving or castrating. It is logical to isolate new cattle before exposing them to
other cattle to avoid spreading symptoms and pathogens that are causing respiratory problems. It
is crucial that all bovine be monitored closely in order to catch and prevent the further loss of
cattle for the sake of both the cattle and the production.
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Works Cited
Bagley, Clell V., "Bovine Respiratory Disease" (1997). All Archived Publications. Paper 82
Dovers Cattle News Source. "Explaining "shipping Fever"." Cattle Network. Farm Journal Inc.,
23 Aug. 2011. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.
Duff GC, Gaylean ML. Recent advances in management of highly stressed, newly received
feedlot cattle. J Anim Sci 2007;85:823‐40
Jelinski, Murray, and Eugene Janzen. "Bovine Respiratory Disease." Bovine Respiratory Disease
- Beef Cattle Research Council. Beef Cattle Research Council, 10 May 2016. Web. 17
Feb. 2017.
Potter, Tim. "Bovine Respiratory Disease." Livestock (Electronic), vol. 20, no. 1, Jan/Feb2015,
pp. 14-18. EBSCOhost, doi:10.12968/live.2015.20.1.14.
Timsit, E., et al. "Diagnostic Accuracy of Clinical Illness for Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD)
Diagnosis in Beef Cattle Placed in Feedlots: A Systematic Literature Review and
Hierarchical Bayesian Latent-Class Meta-Analysis." Preventive Veterinary Medicine,
vol. 135, Dec. 2016, pp. 67-73. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.11.006.
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Questions
1. What 3 Pathogens cause shipping fever?
a. Bacteria, Viruses and Parasites.
2. Name 2 reasons a calf would contract shipping fever.
a. Stresses and Vulnerability.
i. Examples include: weaning, castration, dehorning, moving to a new
location, insensitive handling or comingling.
3. What is another name for shipping fever?
a. Bovine Respiratory Disease.
4. Why is it important to take preventative matters against Shipping Fever?
a. It is the most costly bovine disease and it affect the overall gain, performance and
efficiency of cattle.
5. Name 4 Early signs of Shipping fever
a. Depression, anorexia (lack of appetite), Dullness and rectal fever of 104 degrees
and upwards.
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Alexa Barone
VST 111
Professor Dougherty
2/13/17
Tuberculosis in Cattle
Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly contagious, bacterial disease that specifically
affects the lungs. The infectious bacterium that causes tuberculosis in cattle is called
mycobacterium bovis. Inside the lungs, tiny “tubercles” or areas of infection are
identified as lesions. These lesions can also affect other lymph nodes in the mammal’s
body, like “of the head and thorax, spleen and liver.” (CFIA, 2) These pulmonary lesions
cause sputum to accumulate in the lungs, and is what gives the mammal that retching
cough, characteristic of tuberculosis. Other clinical signs of the disease are objective
indications of medical facts. “Clinical signs of tuberculosis are weight loss, loss of
appetite, diarrhea, hacking cough and large, swollen lymph nodes.” (OIE, 3)
Fortunately, tuberculosis has been widely reduced in the bovine community, and
prevalently affects cattle in Africa, partly in Asia and less in the Americas. (OIE, 3)
Because most countries are more developed than average, the disease has already
been tracked and treated in a lot of the recorded cattle population. However, some still
remain infected that live in wildlife reservoirs. As we said before, Mycobacterium bovis
is the bacterium responsible for causing tuberculosis in cattle. “M. bovis can survive for
several months in the environment, particularly in cold, dark and moist conditions… It
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appears to survive, in natural pastures, for at most a few weeks.” (CFSPH, 2) This
explains why the bacteria is more than likely to grow in fecal matter, urine and places of
moisture on the body. The bacterium is directly related to mycobacterium tuberculosis,
the infectious bacterium that infects humans with tuberculosis. Even though they are
two separate bacteria, the disease itself is zoonotic. A zoonotic disease is one that can
be transmitted from infected animals to humans. The disease is commonly transmitted
through inhaled aerosol droplets in the air from when the animal coughs, ingestion
(important for calves), or through a break in open skin. Cattle can also spread the
infection through bodily secretions, feces or urine. “In the United States, the two most
common methods of introduction are: purchase of or exposure to infected cattle, or
exposure to infected free-range wildlife.” (APHIS, 1) Humans and calves can also get
infected with the disease by drinking an infected cow’s raw milk or eating raw or
undercooked meat of an infected animal. However, pasteurization has reduced risk to
humans immensely, and is one of the main reasons humans have avoided contracting
tuberculosis from livestock for a while now. For example, the Canadian Food Inspection
Agency says, “Currently the risk to the general population in Canada is considered to
be very low due to pasteurization of milk…” (CFIA, 1) Since tuberculosis is a slowly
progressive disease, one member of a herd can infect the entire herd before displaying
any obvious clinical signs. (APHIS, 1) This made tuberculosis very dangerous because
farmers were not able to tell if their livestock had the fatal disease before it was too
late. Then, these farmers would lose half of their livestock in a few months and suffer
economic hardship because of it. “Until the 1920’s, when control measures began in
developed countries, it (tuberculosis) was one of the major diseases of domestic
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animals throughout the world.” (OIE, 1) Today, tuberculosis remains an important
disease to be knowledgeable about, but there are effective treatments and precautions
we can take to be sure our cattle population does not become infected. A simple, but
very effective precaution we can take to ensure cattle do not contract tuberculosis is to
regularly test our cattle. (APHIS, 1) If all of a farmer’s cows are tested, and all of the
cows are negative, the risk of dealing with a tuberculosis outbreak is split in half.
Diagnosis is fairly simple with two popular methods of testing. The preferred method of
diagnosis is the tuberculin test, where the livestock is injected with a small amount of a
weakened TB antigen to create an immune response to it. Otherwise, the bacteria is
sampled from the patient and is grown in a lab for some time. This is to be sure the
bacteria is in fact tuberculosis. (OIE, 3) Some farmers might be afraid to vaccinate their
cattle because of the little knowledge they have about the vaccine itself and the
negative stigma around vaccinating animals designated for food use, so they decide to
go with the less effective preventative method. “There is also a nationwide surveillance
program in slaughter plants. If lesions consistent with bovine tuberculosis appear on a
carcass, a sample is sent to USDA’s National Veterinary Services Laboratories for
confirmation.” (APHIS, 1) This is less effective than the tuberculin skin test because if
you need to wait for first, the cattle to be slaughtered, and then the test results to come
back to find out if it is infected with tuberculosis, by the time you get the test results
back, the rest of the herd that farmer is taking care of have all already been exposed to
tuberculosis and most likely are infected without displaying any obvious clinical signs.
Interestingly enough, there has been a recorded increase of tuberculosis infections in
dairy cattle rather than beef cattle. “Dairy cows spend more time in enclosed areas or
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crowded conditions, where there is a higher risk of exposure.” (APHIS, 1) According to
the World Organization for Animal Health, “The standard control measure applied to
tuberculosis is test and slaughter.” (OIE, 4) Treatment for tuberculosis in cattle is usually
too expensive for a caretaker to afford, so the infected animal is slaughtered to prevent
further transmission of the disease. Inspection of the carcass afterwards can give
veterinarians a good idea of the disease origins, and can maybe help diagnose the rest
of the cattle in that farmer’s herd. To conclude, tuberculosis is a threatening disease for
cattle, wildlife and humans, but the disease has been so eradicated that it isn't as
commonly seen as it used to be. The treatments we have for tuberculosis make the
illness more treatable, thus making an animal's chance of dying from the disease much
smaller. Tuberculosis is still a medical illness we need to be aware of, though, as in all
medicines, the disease will never completely go away. There will always be a case of
tuberculosis and we need to know how to successfully treat the disease and more
importantly prevent it.
Citations
http://www.oie.int/animal-health-in-the-world/oie-listed-diseases-2017/
(OIE)
http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Media_Center/docs/pdf/Disease_cards/BOVINETB-EN.pdf
(OIE)
http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrialanimals/diseases/reportable/tuberculosis/factsheet/eng/1330208938232/1330209051950 (CFIA)
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https://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal_health/content/printable_version/faq_b
ovine_tb_.pdf
(APHIS)
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/bovine_tuberculosis.pdf (CFSPH)
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Katelin Sequeira
VST 111
Vibriosis
Bovine-Cattle
Vibriosis is also known as Campylobacter infection, Bovine Venereal Campylobacteriosis or BVC.
It is an important infectious bacterial disease of the genital tract in cattle. Campylobacter is a gramnegative curved or spiral polar flagellated bacterium, also known as Campylobacter fetus subspecies
venerealis or Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus. It is considered to be the leading cause of infertility
in cattle.
This disease is transmitted venereally by infected bulls to non-infected cows and heifers during
breeding. Noninfected bulls may become infected when breeding with an infected female, the female
may have a successful pregnancy with the infection, but become the source of infection for mating bulls.
Most infected bulls will remain carriers of the disease indefinitely, unless treated successfully. Nonvenereal transmission of Campylobacter fetus is unlikely, but may be contracted by contaminated
instruments, infected semen, and contaminated bedding. The infection can also be transmitted through
artificial insemination if collected from an infected bull, but most collectors treat the semen with a
series of antibiotics before insemination or freezing to prevent the transmission of any diseases.
Cattle have no immunity to this disease, so once introduced to a herd the bacterial disease
spreads quickly, causing conception rates to drop. As immunity to Vibriosis develops, the disease rate
drops, but reinfection often occurs because immunity only lasts about a year after the initial infection.
In chronically infected herds conception rates are usually between 65% and 75%, with the replacement
heifers usually being the most severely affected. The bacteria can cause early embryonic death, an
extended calving season, infertility (which can sometimes be permanent) and occasionally abortion. It
more commonly results in the loss of the developing embryo in the uterus, causing the animal to return
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to estrus, but often with irregular or prolonged cycles. In a study done in New South Wales, between
1992 and 1994, it was revealed that 46% of beef cattle with infertility had Vibriosis. With the top
economic factor in the beef industry being reproductive efficiency, calf loss due to Vibriosis can mean
the success or failure of a beef farmer.
Identifying Vibriosis is difficult in cows because of the absence of any clinical signs. The disease
is considered insidious and unrecognized in many herds. The only indications of Vibriosis may be an
extended calving season, resulting from early embryonic losses and irregular estrous cycles, uterine
infection, or through a thorough study of the herds history. Usually a large number of nonpregnant
animals or a poor calving rate is a good indication of a fertility problem. Occasionally around 6 months
of a pregnancy, abortions have been observed, such numbers of abortions are uncommon and appear at
about 3 to 5% in most herds. The development of the disease that causes these late abortions is
unknown, but Placentitis (inflammation of the placenta) is the cause of fetal death. Some cows can
carry the bacteria through the entire gestation period, deliver a normal calf, and then become the main
source of infection for breeding bulls. The bulls then become the permanent carriers after breeding
with infected females. The bulls show no clinical signs of the infection, but the organism lives in the
tissue surfaces of the penis and prepuce. It has been shown that the permanent carrier rate in bulls is
age-related and susceptibility increases with age. Most infected bulls remain carriers for life.
Although the disease is hard to detect because of absent clinical signs, the disease can be
confirmed by measuring the antibodies in the vaginal mucous, reproductive discharges in cows and
heifers, or aborted fetuses lung and stomach contents. The presence of infection can be tested in bulls
as well, by sheath aspirates, but it is not always reliable. Most cases of infertility have been limited to
replacement heifers. The diagnostic testing is more accurate and efficient in a herd than in a single
animal. It is important to eliminate Trichomoniasis (a highly contagious sexually transmitted disease,
resulting in abortions and infertility) as a possible reproductive inefficiency.
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Vaccination for Vibriosis are available, and have been reported as an effective treatment for
infected bulls, but has not been fully reliable for treating infected females. In some instances, treating
and vaccinating only the infected bulls has shown to break the transmission cycle, and cause the disease
to slowly die out in the herd. But the most effective treatment involves the vaccination of all the
breeding animals involved, including bulls, heifers and cows. The vaccine for Vibriosis is given as two
doses given about four weeks apart, the second dose should be given a month before the breeding
season. But at the time of the second vaccination it is recommended bulls receive antibiotic treatment
because the vaccination may not be able to fully cure the disease in all cases. Then the following year,
the bulls and replacement heifers are both vaccinated, and from the third year on the bulls are
vaccinated annually. It is also possible for natural immunity to eliminate the disease from the herd, but
the replacement heifers may still remain at risk.
Prevention is the most effective way of controlling Vibriosis. Vaccinating the bulls in a herd is
the best way to keeping the herd Vibriosis free. If buying a new bull and bringing it into a new herd, it is
best to treat with antibiotics and vaccinate four weeks before joining the herd, or used for breeding. It
is also best to use the new bull on a small number of cows, so that its fertility can be monitored before it
is used for breeding with the whole herd.
Ovine-Sheep
Vibriosis in ovine is also known as Campylobacteriosis or epidemic abortion of sheep, it is an
infectious disease in breeding ewes that causes abortions late in pregnancy or still births. The disease is
caused by bacteria, but not the same organism that causes infection in cattle. Vibrosis in ovine is caused
by gram-negative rods that live in the intestines of sheep, birds, and dogs, called Campylobacter jejuni
and Campylobacter fetus. The former name of this bacteria was Vibrio fetus intestinalis. It is the
number one cause of abortion in sheep in North America. The route of infection occurs orally, through
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ingestion of the organism by pregnant females, through contaminated feed, pasture, and water, or
when exposed to an aborted fetus or placenta. If abortion occurs in a cool, moist environment, the
bacteria will survive and contaminate the area, allowing for rapid spread of the disease to the rest of the
flock.
Clinical signs of Vibriosis are more prominent then that in cattle. The clinical signs include late
term abortion, stillbirth and small or weak lambs. Once infected the ewe or doe may have a fever,
diarrhea, and vaginal discharge. As the infection develops, the bacteria enters the bloodstream and
pass to the uterus, endometritis occurs (inflammation of the lining of the uterus) and the fetus then
becomes infected and dies. Most abortions occur during the last six weeks of gestation or one to three
weeks after infected, and ewes rarely show clinical signs before. After aborting there is usually a
brownish, foul smelling discharge from the vulva for up to two weeks. This discharge contains millions
of the infectious bacteria. Ewes normally recover completely without treatment after abortion, and
become immune to the effects of the disease in the following years, but up to 5% may die from blood
poisoning from infection of the uterus.
Diagnosis of Vibriosis in ovine relies on finding campylobacter organisms, that can be made from
a culture of the bacteria. It is usually based on isolating the organism from a tissue or fluid sample. The
most reliable source for diagnosis is the aborted fetus. When necropsy is done on the fetus certain
lesions or problems associated with campylobacter can often be identified. This includes but is not
limited to areas of dying tissues in the liver, evidence of pneumonia, and signs of edema (swelling).
Diagnosis can also be confirmed by samples of the placenta or maternal vaginal discharges.
A treatment for Vibriosis is not practical to prevent the abortion once it has started, because the
placenta of infected ewes have already suffered from damage. Antibiotics are beneficial in controlling
Vibriosis outbreaks, but early diagnosis is essential. Ewes that have aborted may be treated with
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antibiotics to reduce losses from uterine infection (metritis) or systemic infection. Breeding females
normally return back to normal after aborting, however feeding antibiotics during the last six weeks of
pregnancy has been shown to significantly reduce the number of abortions. They can be treated with
daily intramuscular (IM) injections of procaine penicillin G or fed tetracycline (used to treat infections
caused by bacteria). Although antibiotics can be helpful in the event of an outbreak, vaccinations are
the best prevention of Vibriosis.
Commercial vaccines are available to prevent Vibriosis, and are usually administered prior to the
breeding season. It is controlled in all female breeding animals by vaccinating and boostering. The
annual booster is required 2-4 weeks prior to breeding season for all breeding animals, unless it is the
first vaccination the booster is given mid-pregnancy and is primarily used only on high-risk herds. Other
than vaccinating a way to prevent the spread of Vibriosis would be to isolate any ewe that is aborting,
collect and burn any aborted lambs and placental membranes, and prevent contamination of feed and
water.
In my research, I have found that campylobacter fetus infection (the bacteria that causes
Vibriosis) can be found worldwide in cattle, sheep and sometimes goats. It can also infect humans likely
by direct contact or ingestion, but the means of spreading to humans is usually unknown. Cattle is
usually the main reservoir for human infection, it can be acquired by ingesting contaminated raw milk.
Infected children can transmit the infection to puppies or kittens, which can then expose other humans
and animals to the infection. The clinical manifestations in people can be diarrhea, abdominal pain,
fever, gastroenteritis (inflammation of the stomach and intestines), sepsis (life-threatening
complications from an infection), meningitis (inflammation of the meninges), endocarditis (inflammation
of the endocardium), and abscesses. Abortions, preterm births in pregnant women and neonatal sepsis
also can occur.
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References
Bovine-Cattle
1.) Large Animal Clinical Procedures for Veterinary Technicians, Kristin Holtgrew-Bohling
2.) Donald Hansen, Extension Veterinarian, Oregon State University
http://www.iowabeefcenter.org/bch/Vibriosis.pdf
3.) Dr Steven Hum, Senior Veterinary Officer, Research Operations, Menangle
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/110043/vibriosis-of-cattle.pdf
4.) TheCattleSite – Cattle Health, Welfare and Diseases News
http://www.thecattlesite.com/diseaseinfo/205/campylobacter-infection-vibriosis/
5.) Diseases of Cattle in the Tropics: Economic and Zoonotic Relevance, I. Ristic, Ian McIntyre
Ovine-Sheep
1.) Large Animal Clinical Procedures for Veterinary Technicians, Kristin Holtgrew-Bohling
2.) Livestock Biosecurity Network
http://www.lbn.org.au/vibrio-management/
3.) Department of Agriculture and Food
https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/livestock-biosecurity/ovine-campylobacteriosis-formerly-ovinevibriosis
4.) NMSU College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences
http://aces.nmsu.edu/newmexicosheep/vibriosis.html
5.) Merck Veterinary Manual
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/abortion-in-large-animals/abortion-insheep
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/public-health/zoonoses/zoonotic-diseases
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Katelin Sequeira
Disease questions
1. What is an important infectious bacterial disease in the genital tract in cattle?
a. Coccidiosis
b. Mastitis
c. Vibriosis
d. Thrombosis
2. Identifying Vibriosis is difficult because _________
a. It has too many similar clinical signs to other diseases
b. It has no clinical signs
c. It is hard to feel for it
d. It is in the nostril
3. Vibriosis in sheep is also known as __________
a. Mad sheep disease
b. Vibrant sheep skin
c. Sheep hair loss
d. Epidemic abortion of sheep
4. What is the number one cause of sheep abortion in America?
a. Vibriosis
b. Petting zoos
c. Rabies
d. Fatty liver
5. A good indicator of ________ is a large number of nonpregnant cows or a poor calving rate
a. Calf diphtheria
b. Rift valley fever
c. Vibriosis
d. Anthrax
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Michelle Wooley
Dr. Dennis Dougherty
March 15, 2017
CONTAGIOUS ECTHYMA
(Orf, Contagious pustular dermatitis, Sore Mouth)
Contagious Ecthyma is a form of dermatitis that effects mainly the oral cavity of young
sheep and goats. It is seen more in goats and is considered to be infectious. This disease is also
known to be called the following: Orf, contagious pustular dermatitis and sore mouth. (Merck
Manual pg 750-751). The name ‘Orf’ comes from an Old English word meaning “rough: or
“scabby mouth”. (source 5).
Contagious Ecthyma causes crusty, rapidly producing lesions around the mouth, lips, and
noses of lambs and kids. Similar lesions are present on the teats and udder of the ewes and does,
from being directly exposed to the virus during nursing. (McCurnins). This can primarily lead to
mastitis. The primary lesion develops on the mucocutaneous junction of the lips and around the
deciduous incisors during the eruption period. The mucocutaneous junction is the site between
the epidermis and epithelium of a mucous membrane. Sometimes lesions develop on the feet and
around the coronet which can lead to another disease, called “strawberry footrot", causing
lameness. (Merck Manual). The lesions go through a pustular stage before encrusting over and
becoming a scab. The course of this disease can last from one week to four weeks depending on
the severity, course of treatment, and methods of prevention. Scabs will eventually fall off and
the skin begins to heal. During the severely active stage of this disease, infected lambs stop
eating and lose condition. (Merck Manual).
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This contagious skin disease is found worldwide and is common in young animals
between the ages of three to six months of age, but a few mature animals may also be affected.
This disease occurs at any time of the year without relation to a particular season, but it is more
common in the spring. (source 3). The clinical signs and gross lesions identified are consistent
with an infection by Orf virus, a member of the double stranded DNA virus genus Parapoxivirus.
In goats and sheep, Orf virus causes contagious ecthyma. (source 5)
Since contagious ecthyma is considered a viral disease, there is no treatment. There is a live
virus vaccine available but it should only be administered to herds or flocks where the virus is
already present. This disease is zoonotic, meaning it can be transmitted to humans. If
administering the vaccine is a treatment of choice, wearing gloves is promitted. (McCurnins).
Vaccinated animals should be separated from the herd until clinical signs, such as scabs, have
cleared. Segregating the infected animals is a form of prevention. Keeping the disease localized
limits the amount of spreading that can take place. (Merck Manual)
The vaccine is administered by brushing the live virus over the scarifications of the skin,
usually on the inside thigh or behind the elbow. For best results, lambs should be vaccinated at
approximately one month of age and a recommended repeated vaccine at around two to three
months of age. (Merck Manual)
Even though you cannot directly treat contagious ecthyma, you can however, prevent
secondary bacterial infections of the skin lesions with parenteral and topical antibiotics. (Merck
Manual)
A clinical study was performed that evaluated different therapeutic regimens for
management of this disease. They studied 72 small ruminants (53 sheep and 19 goats) and
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concluded in their findings that the use of topical antiseptic in combination with parenteral
antibiotics is a highly effective course of treatment. (source 4)
Sheep that have naturally been infected and recovered are highly resistant to reinfection.
(Merck Manual). In uncomplicated cases, natural recovery takes three to six weeks to shed off
the infected scabs. Some infected animals become carriers and can shed the virus for a long
period of time.
This disease has a high effect on the economic aspect of raising these animals, due to
reduced growth of young from malnourishment and the ability of this viral disease to quickly
spread to an entire herd. The morbidity of disease can be very high, reaching up to 100%, but
mortality rate rarely exceeds 1%. However if the animal has an onset of a secondary bacterial
infection known as Staphylococcal infection, mortality rate can reach between 20-50%.
Mortality in young sucking lambs is usually ver high due to dehydration and starvation since the
scabs and lesions prevent proper contact with mothers teat. (source 4)
As a common disease affecting small ruminants, people are occasionally affected through
direct contact. Proper safety equipment should be worn and safety measures be taken when
handling infected animals or when administering the live virus vaccine as listed above. (Merck
Manual)
5 Questions
1. What two species are primarily effected by Contagious Ecthyma?
1. Sheep and Goats
2. Where is this disease found?
1. Worldwide
3. What happens to lambs severely effected by this disease?
1. Stop eating and lose condition
4. Contagious Ecthyma clinical signs are seen where on ewes and does?
1. Teats and Udders
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5. What is another name for Contagious Ecthyma?
1. Orf or Sore Mouth
Works Cited Page
1. Merk Manual: Overview of Contagious Ecthyma pgs: 750-751
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/contagious-ecthyma/overview-ofcontagious-ecthyma#v3278208
2. McCurnins: Clinical Textbook for Veterinary Technicians; 7th ed. By Joanna M. Bassert
and Dennis M. McCurnin
3. ”New contagious ecthyma research has been reported by T. Vikoren et al." Science Letter,
18 Mar. 2008, p. 1392. Student Resources in Context,
link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A366512384/SUIC?u=rock11032&xid=5e07bdfb. Accessed 15 Mar.
2017.
4.Dar, Khadim Hussain, et al. "Comparative therapeutic management of contagious ecthyma
in small ruminants." Intas Polivet, vol. 16, no. 2, 2015, p. 431+. Health Reference Center
Academic,
go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=HRCA&sw=w&u=nysl_li_esuff&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA450799346&i
t=r&asid=09190fcf058b9db3dbee3f5f73d03c92. Accessed 16 Mar. 2017.
5. Harvey, Stephen B., and Lisa Williamson. "Oral lesions in an adult goat." Lab Animal, vol.
37, no. 11, 2008, p. 493+. Health Reference Center Academic,
go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=HRCA&sw=w&u=nysl_li_esuff&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA190245799&i
t=r&asid=94f5c37652248e44bd9a8bd2978b1973. Accessed 16 Mar. 2017.
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Brian Hennessy
Dr. Dougherty
Farm Animal Nursing Spring 2017
Research Paper
Viral Encephalitis in Swine
Viral encephalitis is an infection in the brain that can be caused by many different
viruses and can occur in a variety of species. Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain
and spinal cord, also known as the central nervous system. In medical terms, encephalo
means brain and the suffix it is means inflammation. While there are many different strains
of viruses that can cause encephalitis in a variety of species, the main type that affects
swine is known as Japanese Encephalitis.
Japanese encephalitis primarily occurs in Asia and the western Pacific but it has
been reported in as many as 20 different countries (Center for Disease Control &
Prevention, Japanese Encephalitis). Japanese encephalitis was originally discovered and
described in 1933 and there have been major human epidemics since then in Japan, India,
Korea and Nepal (Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary
Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine). The disease is maintained in nature by ardeid
birds such as egrets and herons acting as the source, pigs being the amplifying host and
mosquitoes being the vectors. According to Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, an
amplifier is “Something which enlarges, extends, or increases the strength of an effect.”
This means that the virus will grow stronger when within the pig. Therefore, pigs are an
important factor in the continuation of the disease (Journal of Foodborne And Zoonotic
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Diseases, Japanese Encephalitis: A Veterinary Perspective). There is a high association
between areas with large numbers of infected mosquitoes and pigs and infected humans.
Etiology
Japanese encephalitis is a brain disease that is caused by a strain of virus known as a
Flavivirus, specifically arbovirus, which means they are transmitted through the bite of an
infected arthropod, mainly mosquitoes (Japanese Encephalitis, the Center for Food Security
& Public Health, Iowa State University, Jan. 2016). The main type of mosquito that
transmits the virus comes from the genus Culex. Additionally, there have been reports of
people becoming infected after being exposed to the virus in a laboratory setting. It is a
single-stranded RNA Flavivirus agent that is unstable in the environment and is very closely
related to the more widely known West Nile Virus (Iowa State University College of
Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine). Infected
mosquitoes can bite down on pigs thereby infecting the swine or they can feed on the
infected swine host and become vectors for the disease thereby spreading it when they bite
down on a human or other animals.
Clinical Signs
Japanese encephalitis can affect swine in a variety of ways. While mature pigs are
unlikely to show any symptoms, the main sign of an infected pig is shown through
reproduction. Infected swine that have no immunity to the virus will have reproductive
issues with expected losses between 50-70% (Iowa State University College of Veterinary
Medicine, Center for Food Security & Public Health, Swine Health Information Center,
Japanese Encephalitis Virus, August 2015). Although infected sows may show any
symptoms, they may give birth to stillborn piglets or mummies. Boars may have a lower
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semen count with less motility, swollen testicles and even infertility. Piglets that do survive
may have central nervous system disease, hydrocephalus, subcutaneous edema, ascites,
hemorrhages on serous membranes, congestion of lymph nodes and necrotic foci on the
liver and spleen (Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary
Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine). Infected piglets that are not born mummified
may have neurological problems such as tremors or convulsions, which are then followed
by death.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis is not a simple task due to the lack of symptoms
present in mature swine that are infected. In order to properly diagnose, the virus must be
isolated and tested with a variety of techniques (Iowa State University College of
Veterinary Medicine, Institute For International Cooperation in Animal Biologics, Japanese
Encephalitis, January 2016, p. 3). First, the virus can only be isolated from infected fetuses
or piglets because the sow has typically been cleared of the virus. The virus is typically
isolated using brain extracts that have been, “inoculated into suckling mice or cell cultures”
(Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic and
Production Animal Medicine). Another technique used to diagnose the virus is to search for
the presence of viral antigens in tissues that have been cultured from infected piglets or
fetuses. Blood tests are also used in diagnosing the virus to see whether or not they have
specific antibodies for the virus meaning that the fetus or piglet was presently infected or
had recently been infected.
Treatment
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Currently, there are no treatments once an animal becomes infected with Japanese
encephalitis virus. Infected swine are treated symptomatically or they are euthanized in
order to prevent the proliferation of the virus (Iowa State University College of Veterinary
Medicine, Institute For International Cooperation in Animal Biologics, Japanese
Encephalitis, January 2016, p.3).
Prevention
Mass vaccination of swine is the primary source of control and prevention of
Japanese encephalitis, however this is not a foolproof method of prevention due to the
propagation of the disease by infected mosquitoes and birds (Iowa State University College
of Veterinary Medicine, Institute For International Cooperation in Animal Biologics,
Japanese Encephalitis, January 2016, p.3). According to the World Health Organization,
there are four types of vaccines for Japanese encephalitis. These vaccines are “inactivated
mouse brain-derived vaccine, inactivated Vero cell-derived vaccine, live attenuated
vaccines, and live recombinant vaccines “(World Health Organization, Japanese
encephalitis. Fact sheet No 386 December 2015).
Though swine vaccinations assist in controlling the spread of the virus, it has been shown
through studies that even the absence of swine in the virus cycle can still lead to the disease
being continued. A study performed by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention
concluded that, “detection of Japanese encephalitis virus in mosquitoes after pig relocation
indicates that pig relocation did not eliminate Japanese encephalitis virus risk” (Center For
Disease Control and Prevention: Domestic Pigs and Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection,
Australia, Volume 14, Number 11 – November 2008). Another type of control attempted
was control the population of mosquitoes, however this is thought to be impractical (Iowa
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State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production
Animal Medicine). The only fairly successful type of control over the virus is to vaccinate
pigs that are located in areas where the virus is prevalent.
Zoonotic
Japanese encephalitis virus is a zoonotic disease. Although the virus is not
transmitted directly from animal to people, humans are susceptible to the virus after being
bitten by an infected mosquito (Iowa State University, Center for Food Security & Public
Health, Japanese encephalitis Fast Facts 2008). People who become infected with the virus
often do not show any signs of illness, however it can cause high fever, headache, neck
stiffness, disorientation, tremors or convulsions, paralysis and coma. The World Health
Organization recommends that people who are in areas where the disease is common
should take steps to prevent themselves from being bitten by mosquitoes and also to get
vaccinated prior to spending time in the infected areas.
Viral encephalitis, specifically Japanese encephalitis is an untreatable, vectortransmitted disease that persists in nature. It is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in
humans in Southeast Asia with greater than 50,000 annual cases (Center For Disease
Control and Prevention: Domestic Pigs and Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection, Australia,
Volume 14, Number 11 – November 2008).
Although it is typically asymptomatic in mature swine, it causes great harm to the
reproductive cycle. Besides being a serious health risk, it is also a major drain on the swine
business in infected areas. It is considered a serious zoonotic disease due to both the health
and economic drain that occurs.
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Brian Hennessy
Dr. Dougherty
Farm Animal Nursing
Research Paper
Bibliography
Center For Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Domestic Pigs and Japanese Encephalitis
Virus Infection, Australia, Volume 14, Number 11 – November 2008
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/14/11/07-1368_article
Center For Disease Control and Prevention: Japanese Encephalitis
https://www.cdc.gov/japaneseencephalitis/qa/index.html
Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Food Security & Public
Health, Swine Health Information Center, Japanese Encephalitis Virus, August 2015
Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production
Animal Medicine
https://vetmed.iastate.edu/vdpam/FSVD/swine/index-diseases/japanese-B-encephalitis
Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Institute For International
Cooperation in Animal Biologics, Japanese Encephalitis, January 2016
Iowa State University, Center for Food Security & Public Health, Japanese encephalitis Fast
Facts 2008.
Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, 12th edition, F.A. Davis
World Health Organization, Japanese encephalitis. Fact sheet No 386 December 2015
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs386/en/
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Brian Hennessy
Dr. Dougherty
Farm Animal Nursing
Research Paper
Five Questions
1. What are pigs considered within the cycle that maintains the Japanese encephalitis
virus?
A) Source
B) Amplifying Host
C) Vector
D) None of the above
Answer: B; Amplifying host
2. Boars will show which of the following symptoms from Japanese encephalitis?
A) Convulsions
B) Intense Vomiting
C) Decreased motility of sperm
D) They will stop eating
Answer: C; Decreased motility of sperm
3. Japanese encephalitis virus does NOT affect humans in any discernible way.
A) True
B) False
Answer: B; False
4. If every country infected with Japanese encephalitis virus mass vaccinated every
pig, the disease would be eradicated.
A) True
B) False
Answer: B; False
5. What is the expected rate of loss among swine giving birth to infected piglets?
A) 0%
B) 25%
C) 50-70%
D) 100%
Answer: C; 50-70%
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COLIC
Introduction
A common disorder of the digestive system that is found in equine is colic. Typically, the
word colic would mean to have abdominal pain but in equine it means to have profound
abdominal discomfort. When a horse has colic they will often show symptoms such as rolling,
pawing and changes in behavior. Sometimes colic can be hard to notice because the horse may
not always show notable signs. Colic can come in many different forms such as idiopathic,
spasmodic (gas), impacted, displacement and strangulation/torsion.
When a horse has colic it is important to have a veterinarian evaluate your horse. After
a veterinarian evaluates your horse they will come back with a diagnosis and prognosis. The
diagnosis will give you a general idea of what kind of colic your horse may have. The prognosis
will inform you on what you should do as well as what can happen before, during and after
treatment. This disorder is treatable but in some cases it can be deadly. When a horse is
diagnosed they can be treated with analgesics, laxatives, nasogastric tube and in some cases
surgery.
Etiology
In most cases colic is idiopathic which means of “unknown origin”. Though in most
cases it is idiopathic, however in some cases there is a definite root of origin. Some of these
causes are spasmodic, impaction, displacement and strangulations/torsions.
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Spasmodic colic occurs in the digestive tract due to a build up of pressure in gas or
water. It causes the bowel to contract in abnormal ways. These abnormal contractions cause
painful spasms which can be similar to an over-active gastrointestinal tract. This type of colic is
usually caused by food being over-fermented in the hindgut.
Impaction is one of the more common types of colic’s and occurs in the large intestine
or colon. It occurs when there is an accumulation of things that may be indigestible, such as
sand, dirt or a hard mass of food.
Displacement, strangulation and torsion are the more dangerous types of colic and
sometimes if a horse has displacement; strangulation or torsion can occur as a result.
Displacement is when the intestines move out of place. In most animals this may not be a
problem but in equine it can be deadly. Horses intestines are hundreds of feet long and are
badly designed (the intestines are attached in some places and loose in others) as a result it
doesn’t handle being moved out of place very well. Once a horse’s intestines are moved out of
its normal origin strangulation or torsion may occur. Strangulation is when the blood supply
gets cut off to a section of gut. Torsion is when the blood supply is cut off when the intestines
twist on itself. These types of colic can be deadly but if treated quickly they can be cured as
easily as the more common types of colic. This is why it is important to make sure to have your
horse examined by a large animal veterinarian as soon as possible if displaying any odd
behaviors.
Clinical Signs
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When you own a horse it is important to pay close attention to its behavior. By paying
close attention to these behaviors you will be able to notice slight, but important changes in its
behavior. These changes may be crucial because your horse may be unknowingly trying to give
you signs that something is wrong. If a horse begins kicking, rolling, lying on its back, has
tenderness in abdomen, pawing, grunting or has signs of depression it would be smart to
assume something is wrong. A horse may not always show signs when something is wrong.
When you do notice suspicious behavior you should immediately notify a veterinarian. Once
this is done the Veterinarian will come and do a physical exam on your horse.
Diagnosis
When the veterinarian comes to you and preforms the physical exam your horse will
under go a series of exams. A thorough physical is important if it is done carelessly something
vital may be overlooked. Some ways to identify colic during a physical exam is by heart rate,
capillary refill time, skin tent, gut sounds, rectal examination, nasogastric tube and
abdominocentesis.
When testing heart rate on a horse the normal resting heart rate would be between 3440 beats per minute. If I horse is in pain the heart rate will usually be elevated. This elevation
can determine how severe the colic may be. During a capillary refill time you are testing to see
how fast the color of the gums will return when pressure is applied. A normal CRT will only take
two seconds for the color to return. This is a good way to test the blood perfusion of the horse.
The veterinarian will test a horse’s hydration by doing a skin tent. Skin tents are not
always reliable but may still be used. Using a stethoscope is the best way to listen to the gut of
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a horse. “A veterinarian will usually listen to the upper left, lower left, upper right and lower
right section of the abdomen and determine what sort of gut sounds are present. Gut sounds
are broadly grouped into 4 categories: increasing, normal, decreased and absent” (Equine, p. 4
of 5).
The most crucial diagnostic when testing for colic is a rectal examination. During this
exam a horse will most likely be sedated so the veterinarian is able to feel the inside of the
abdomen. When doing this the vet should be able to feel for abnormality’s like impaction and
twists of the bowel.
Passing a gastric tube is done on a horse through the nose and into the stomach. This
tube can help test to see if your horse has gastric reflux which is usually caused by a blockage in
the bowel.
Lastly during the physical exam, the veterinarian may do an abdominocentesis or a belly
tap. “A abdominocentesis is a procedure that involves placing a needle into the abdomen to
see if there is any free fluid in the abdomen. If obtained, analysis of this fluid can indicate the
health of the bowel to your veterinarian” (Equine, p. 4 of 5). Other then a physical examination
an ultrasonographic evaluation of the abdomen can be preformed. This examination “may help
differentiate between diseases that can be treated medically and those that require surgery.
The technique also can be applied transrectally to clarify findings noted on rectal palpation”
(James N. Moore, Overview of colic in horses, 2016). After the diagnostic testing is over your
veterinarian will form a treatment plan for you horse.
Treatment and Prevention
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When forming a treatment plan for your horse a veterinarian will normally start by
giving the horse an Analgesic to help relive pain. Once a horse’s pain is under control it is
important to know how to treat the colic according to the specific type of colic that the horse
may have. If the horse has a lot of gas build up due to spasmodic colic a nasogastric tube will
be use to help relieve some of the pressure in the gut. A nasogastric tube can also be used to
help administer food or medication. Iv fluids may also be necessary to help make sure the
horse does not dehydrate or go into shock.
When a horse has impacted colic mineral oil or a laxative will be used to help dislodge
the impaction. You are able to test to see if a horse is still impacted by holding off feed and
waiting until the horse has defecated. When the horse has defecated that means that the
impaction is gone and everything is flowing well again.
The most severe type of colic is displacement which usually results in torsion or
strangulation. When a horse has torsion or strangulation they will most likely need to have
surgery performed. If a veterinarian does recommend doing a surgery for colic it is important
to make a fast decision due to the nature of colic. A horse may need to be rushed into surgery
depending on how long they have had colic for, but in most cases colic can be treated without
having surgery at all.
Prognosis
In most cases of colic, a horse will not die from this disorder if treated at first sights of
illness. The “overall survival rate is 60% for horses with colic and a survival rate of 50% for
those horses undergoing abdominal surgery, including those euthanized during surgery for
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inoperative conditions ” (James N. Moore, Overview of colic in horses, 2016). When a horse is
not treated or surgery is not performed within a certain period of time the horse will most likely
die. When your horse has torsion or strangulation they have a 24% and 42% survival. That’s
why getting your horse examined by a veterinarian is extremely important for the survival of
your horse when it comes to colic. If it is not treated almost immediately the likely hood of
survival will drastically drop. Simple and most common colic’s like spasmodic colic and
impacted colic may also lead to death if the gas or blockage is not taken care of. “In contrast,
horses with an undefined cause for the colic episode had a survival rate of 94%” (James N.
Moore, Overview of colic in horses, 2016). Even though the survival rate is very high for
undefined forms of colic it may still lead to death if not treated within a certain period of time.
Zoonosis
Zoonosis is a disease or disorder that can be transferred from human to animal and vise
versa. Luckily colic is not zoonotic. It is more of a physical condition that happens only in
horses and no other animal. Humans may get colic but it normally only affects newborns. It
can not be contracted by a horse from the newborn.
Summary
In most cases of colic, it is classified as idiopathic meaning of “unknown origin”. The
survival rate for this form of colic is the highest and can be treated easily. When a horse has
spasmodic or impacted colic it requires a little more effort to treat and can normally be fixed
with the use of medication, fluids, nasogastric tube or a laxative. In more severe cases like
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displacement, strangulation or torsion surgery will most likely be performed. The survival rate
for horses who under go surgery have about a fifty percent chance of survival. This is
considered one of the more dangerous methods of treatment. The most important things to do
when a horse gets colic is act quickly and notify your veterinarian. It is best when a vet can get
a hold of the colic before it worsens.
Questions
1. What is the most common form of Colic?
A. Spasmodic
B. Torsion
C. Idiopathic
D. Impaction
2. What is the survival rate of a horse who undergoes colic surgery?
A. 25%
B. 50%
C. 80%
D. 100%
3. True/False is an Analgesic used for pain?
A. True
B. False
4. True/False colic is a zoonotic disease that can possibly kill people and other animals.
A. True
B. False
5. What is the most crucial part of a physical exam for colic?
A. Palpation
B. TPR
C. Gastric tube
D. Rectal examination
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Bibliography
Equine, T. D. (n.d.). Colic Fact Sheet. (T. U. Edinburgh, Producer) Retrieved march 20, 2017, from
www.dickvetequine.com: http://www.ed.ac.uk/files/imports/fileManager/dvepfactsheetcolic.pdf
James N. Moore, D. P. (2016). Overview of colic in horses. (C. o. Department of Large Animal
Medicine, Producer, & University of Georgia) Retrieved march 20, 2017, from
www.merckvetmanual.com: http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/colic-inhorses/overview-of-colic-in-horses
James N. Moore, D. P. (2016). Overview of colic in horses. (D. o. Animal, Producer, & College of
Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia) Retrieved march 20, 2017, from
www.merckvetmanual.com: http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/colic-inhorses/overview-of-colic-in-horses
James N. Moore, D. P. (2016). Overview of colic in horses. (D. o. Medicine, Producer, & College
of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia) Retrieved march 20, 2017, from
www.merckvetmanual.com: http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/colic-inhorses/overview-of-colic-in-horses
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Sharon Lee
Contagious equine metritis (CEM) is a highly contagious equine disease caused by
bacteria. While being very difficult to detect, CEM can be treated very easily and will rarely
leave lasting repercussions. However, if this disease becomes widespread, huge losses would be
felt by the horse industries around the world. Even with many preventative measures in place to
contain CEM; cases are still found in many places due to the difficulty in diagnosing this disease.
CEM was first recorded in 1977 in England. Two Thoroughbred mares were infected by
unknown causes and were sent to be bred with stallions in the market town of Newmarket in
England. After initial exposure, many more horses were tested positive for CEM and it had
started to spread throughout the world. According to Stacy Luddy and Michelle Anne Kutzler, by
the end of the breeding season in 1977, 29 breeding farms had reported horses with CEM; 23
stallions and approximately 200 mares were infected. This resulted in the foaling rate of 72% to
drop to 42% that caused a huge loss to the horse industry in England.
This disease made its way to the United States in 1978. Two French Thoroughbred
stallions were shipped from England to Kentucky a few hours before a ban on horse shipments
had been placed. Although the horses were tested and had received negative results for CEM on
multiple occasions, a mare was found positive after being bred with one of the stallions. While
the United States now rarely sees CEM in thoroughbreds, it is seen in many other horse breeds
possibly due to poor sanitation procedures at breeding farms, inadequate testing, and the
difficulty in diagnosing.
CEM is caused by the bacteria called Taylorella equigenitalis (T. equigenitalis); a gramnegative eubacterium. Currently, there is only one known strain of T. equigenitalis but two
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different biotypes. One is resistant to streptomycin while the other is sensitive. While the
streptomycin-resistant strain was very common in the past, the strain that seems to be circulating
now is the strain that is sensitive to streptomycin. These bacteria may be transmitted when an
infected horse breeds, contaminated semen was collected from an infected stallion or even if
equipment or hands were contaminated and then used on an uncontaminated horse. Since this
bacterium is very difficult to culture, a horse may be tested and given negative results. This may
lead to spreading CEM unknowingly and is the reason that a country may not be completely
CEM-free.
For example, in 2008 a stallion in Kentucky that was born in the United States with no
history of international travelling was tested positive during a routine semen export. This horse
had been sent from Texas and with further investigation; other horses that had been sent out from
the same facility had also been tested positive for CEM. This led to roughly 722 mares and 255
stallions to have been potentially exposed to this highly contagious disease. The only states that
were considered to not have a horse that could be potentially exposed was Hawaii and Rhode
Island. However, only 47 of the horses came to have tested positive for CEM.
Detecting CEM is very difficult due to the mild clinical signs that may or not be visible.
Although stallions are the main source of infection, they show no clinical signs. Besides seeing
smegma on the external genitalia, CEM does not cause any type of immune response or other
clinical signs. Therefore, stallions can be carriers for months or years and continue to spread the
disease. It has been recorded that nearly every mare that has been bred with an infected stallion
will also become infected.
Clinical signs of CEM on the mare may vary from acute to chronic or not at all. Mares
may also stay in a carrier state where there is no sign of illness but can still be contagious. The
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only physical sign may be that the mare may return to a state of estrus more quickly than normal.
Only about 30% to 40% of mares may develop clinical signs. Acute symptoms may become
visible 10 to 14 days after breeding with an infected stallion. These symptoms include
endometritis, cervicitis, vaginitis, a grayish-white discharge from the uterus, lesions in the
endometrium, temporary infertility and abortions. Mares are usually temporarily infertile or may
experience an abortion but if the foal survives and is born, it may also be a carrier of CEM.
Chronic symptoms may include a milder case of endometritis, a less obvious discharge
and a persistent infection. After contracting CEM, there is no such immunity to the bacteria.
Horses can repeatedly by infected as early as 2 weeks after recovering. In most cases, the first
case is the most severe while later infections may be milder and the mare is more likely to
conceive.
With the symptoms being very slight or non-existent; CEM is very difficult to diagnose
without an actual test. There are several tests that are available to tell whether a horse has been
infected with CEM. The first type of test that is available is a type of bacterial culture test.
However, there are a few setbacks to this method. The samples from the horse must be delivered
to a certified laboratory that has been permitted to officially test for T equigenitalis within 48
hours. If it has not reached the laboratory within the specified time, the organisms may die and
cause a false negative result. Alongside this method, a polymerase chain reaction assay can be
used to detect the bacteria.
There are also ways to diagnose depending on the sex of the horse. For the mares, a blood
test may be done to look for an immune response to CEM. This will be able to determine
whether the mare has been exposed to the disease recently. Stallions do not develop an immune
response so this specific method would not work. For stallions, test breeding may be done in
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very certain circumstances. A stallion will breed with two mares that have been tested negative
for CEM and the mares will then be tested.
Although highly contagious, CEM is very easily treated. It is believed that mares can
become naturally cleared with no medication; but may take several months. Thankfully, all it
takes to clear a horse with CEM is with antibiotics and proper cleaning. T equigenitalis is very
sensitive to many antibiotics; a few being amikacin, ampicillin, benzylpenicillin, neomycin,
erythromycin, and many more. For mares, the clitoral fossa and sinuses must be washed and
flushed out while in the stallions, the urethral fossa and sinuses and their penis is rinsed and an
ointment may be topically applied.
There are also many ways to try to prevent CEM from spreading throughout a country.
For example, the United States requires a negative culture within 30 days before the horse enters
the country. When coming from a country known to have CEM, the horse will be examined by a
vet and put in quarantined until a negative result is acquired. Within a facility, procedures to
ensure safe and clean equipment should be placed to keep from cross contaminating. Most horse
breeders will voluntarily test for CEM before a breeding season to ensure no horse is infected
before breeding beings.
Thankfully, CEM is not a zoonotic disease. It appears for now that the horse is the only
natural host for this specific bacterium; although a similar bacterium is found in donkeys. Within
laboratory experiments, scientists have infected donkeys and a few rodents where the bacteria
lived for a brief period. There were attempts to infect other animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep
and cats; but the attempts were unsuccessful. Currently, there has been no evidence or cases to
say that T equigenitalis can affect humans.
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CEM continues to impact the horse industry with its few clinical signs and difficulty
testing methods. The bacterium is highly contagious and hard to culture, causing CEM to be
spread to countries that were thought to be CEM-free. Even with many rules on importing and
exporting, few infected horses may travel after receiving a false negative and spreading the
disease throughout the facilities. However, with proper care and preventative measures, CEM is
easily treated and eradicated from a specific area. Besides very rare cases, CEM does not cause
lasting damage but has the potential to cause massive losses during a breeding period.
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Works Cited
“Contagious Equine Metritis.” APHIS Factsheet (May 2014). Web.
https://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal_health/content/printable_version/faq_C
EM09.pdf
“Contagious Equine Metritis.” Center for Food Security & Public Health and Institute for
International Cooperation in Animal Biologics (2015): 1-5. Web.
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/contagious_equine_metritis.pdf
Erdman, Matthew M, et al. “Diagnostic and epidemiologic analysis of the 2008-2010
investigation of a multi-year outbreak of contagious equine metritis in the United States.”
Preventative Veterinary Medicine 101 (2011): 219-228. Web.
Luddy, Stacy and Michelle Anne Kutzler. “Contagious Equine Metritis Within the United States:
A Review of the 2008 Outbreak.” Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 30.8 (2010):
393-398. Web.
Matsuda, Motoo and John E. Moore. “Recent advances in molecular epidemiology and detection
of Taylorella equigenitalis associated with contagious equine metritis (CEM).”
Veterinary Microbiology 97 (2003): 111-122. Web.
Schulman, Martin Lance, Catherine Edith May, Bronwyn Keys and Alan John Guthrie.
“Contagious equine metritis: Artificial reproduction changes the epidemiologic
paradigm.” Veterinary Microbiology 167 (2013): 1-8. Web.
Timoney, P.J. “Contagious equine metritis: An insidious threat to the horse breeding industry in
the United States.” Horse Species Symposium (2014): 1552-1559. Web.
Farm animal nursing 2017
Only stallions will show the clinical signs of contagious equine metritis.
True
False
Contagious equine metritis is caused by
a. A bacterial infection
b. A viral infection
c. A fungal infection
d. All of the above
How is contagious equine metritis not transmitted?
a. Cross-contamination of equipment
b. Artificial insemination of infected semen
c. An infected horse is bred
d. Spontaneous contraction
Horses are the only species that can be affected by contagious equine metritis.
True
False
How can you test for contagious equine metritis?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Bacterial culture test
Test breeding
Blood test
All of the above
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Equine
Encephalomyelitis
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Jamie Clifton
VST 111
Eastern Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus
Eastern equine Encephalomyelitis virus (EEEV) is an extremely rare virus among Equine.
This virus causes inflammation of the brain, making it very serious and most often leading to
fatality. This virus is spread to mammals through the bite of an infected mosquito, who feed on
both birds and mammals. Humans can be infected with this virus, and those over the age of 50
and under the age of 15 are at even more risk when in the presence of this fatal virus. EEEV is a
zoonotic alphavirus and arbovirus. This virus was first recognized in 1831 in Massachusetts’
horses. The first confirmed human cases were reported in New England in 1938.
Etiology
This virus is maintained between the constant interacting between Culiseta Melanura
mosquitos and their avian hosts. Birds most susceptible to becoming a host of this virus are
species that thrive in freshwater, hardwood swamps. Humans and Equine can only contract this
disease from and infected mosquitos bite. It is not spread person-to-person, person to animal,
or animal to person. The reason we cannot be infected by a horse is because they do not
develop high enough levels in their blood to spread it to humans. The virus awakens in the
spring to summer months, much like other mosquito-spread diseases.
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Clinical Signs
Signs of EEEV are non-specific but there are several signs that can lead us to the
diagnosis of EEEV. From the time of the infected bite, to the onset of symptoms can last
anywhere between 4-10 days. The infection can be shown in very different ways. The patient
will have swelling of the brain, or some may have no symptom at all. Some symptoms include a
mild to severe fever (between 103 and 106 F) that can last 24-28 hours. The patient may have a
poor or loss of appetite, as well as stiffness in muscles.
Some cases of EEEV do not progress past this point, although, progression is nearly
certain. After these initial symptoms, an incubation period of 1-3 weeks then occurs. As EEEV
progresses, some sign may be propulsive walking (unusual or uncontrollable walking patterns),
depression, quick mood changes such as quiet somnolence to drastic changes to aggression and
excitability.
As EEEV progresses, symptoms become more serious and apparent. Some of these later
signs may include blindness, head pressing (unusual pressing of head on a wall or corner, and
not moving) increased propulsive walking, circling, head tilt, muscle fasciculation’s, paralysis of
the pharynx, larynx and/or tongue. Defecation and urination may become difficult for the
horse.
Complete paralysis and death is preceded by recumbence for 1-7days. It is possible for
final stages of EEV to occur 2-4 days after first signs appear. Horses that progress to comatose
rarely survive.
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Diagnosis
A thorough diagnosis for EEEV can be made by evaluating the CSF (cerebral spinal fluid)
of the patient. We are hoping to see normal glucose levels. Serologic testing remains the
primary method for diagnosing EEEV infection. Serology is the scientific study of serum and
other bodily fluids. This includes diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum and fluids.
Treatment
There is no cure for EEEV. At this time, there is no vaccine to protect the infected horse
or human. Though it is possible to treat the symptoms using intravenous fluids, tracheal
intubation, and antipyretics as well as corticosteroids and anticonvulsants.
Prevention
Preventing your horses and even yourself from being bitten by an infected mosquito can
be as easy as simply using bug spray while outdoors. Wearing protective clothing and covering
your horses in places prone to being bitten by owning bug nets and screens are also very simple
ways to prevent infection. Standing water is a breeding ground for mosquitos. Thoroughly
searching your barns and grazing areas is extremely important for keeping mosquitos off your
property.
Although not very common, this disease affects both humans and horses every decade.
Between five and ten cases of EEE are reported every year in the U.S., with most cases being
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reported in Florida and Massachusetts. EEEV is an extremely serious and devastating disease.
Though we can prevent most cases with proper precautions.
Bibliography

Vector Disease control international
http://www.vdci.net/vector-borne-diseases/eastern-equine-encephalitis-viruseducation-and-integrated-mosquito-management-to-protect-public-health

http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/e/eastern_equine_encephalitis/intro.htm

http://www.Animalscience.uconn.edu/extension../publications/mosquito.htm
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Cathleen Brennan
March 15, 2017
VST 111
Professor Dougherty
Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis (HYPP)
Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis is a genetic disorder that affects Quarter horses of a
specific lineage, a sire named Impressive. Offspring of this sire were often big with heavy
musculature and consequently cleaned up at shows. Later, a number of owners of offspring and
second and third generation descendants reported that some of these horses appeared to have a
muscle disease, some with muscle tremors or even paralysis. Sharon Spier, DVM, PhD, and
associate professor of Medicine and Epidemiology at the University of California, Davis, led
efforts by researchers to find out about the disease and what caused it, funded by the American
Quarter Horse Association (2001, October 10). The results of the research found that HYPP
could be traced back to Impressive. These findings were published in the September 1992 issue
of The Quarter Horse Journal without naming the sire. Due to intense widespread speculation
and concern, the December 1992 issue of the journal issued an official statement but only made
things worse by still not naming the index case. At an annual convention of the American
Association of Equine Practitioners, Spiers had answered a question where she identified
Impressive as the bloodline in question. Too little, too late however, as Impressive’s bloodline
was well into second and third generations and become commonplace in many breeding
programs. “Approximately 100,000 horses today carry the name Impressive in their pedigrees”
(2001, October 10). These include Quarter horses, Paint horses, Appaloosa’s, and Quarter horse
crossbreeds.
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Most horses have muscle tremors and general muscle weakness. Often these clinical
signs happen during episodes that can last anywhere from fifteen to sixty minutes. These
episodes usually start with “generalized weakness, muscle fasciculation, sweating, and prolapse
of the third eyelid”. These episodes can even include muscle paralysis, and can progress into
‘dog-sitting’ or collapse into lateral recumbency. If an episode is particularly aggressive the
afflicted horse may have difficulty breathing due to paralysis of the upper respiratory muscle and
can consequently die. Between these episodes the horse may behave completely normal (2017,
March 16A). Clinical signs can range from asymptomatic to daily muscle twitches and
weakness. Intermittent signs usually appear around two to three years of age with no
abnormalities present between episodes. When experiencing more mild attacks the horse may
stay standing, more severe attacks may leave the horse swaying, staggering, or even dog sitting
or recumbency within minutes. Attempts to move or stimulate the horse during an attack may
exacerbate muscle tremors. Horses may remain bright and alert despite displaying an anxious
appearance. High potassium diets or sudden dietary changes may trigger an episode. Other
triggers of clinical signs include fasting, cold, concurrent disease, anesthesia, intense exercise, or
other stress inducing activities can set off an episode (2014, October 1).
Diagnosis of HYPP is reliant on genetic testing as this disorder is a genetic disorder. This
can be done by collecting mane or tail hair and sending it in for a DNA test, if they display
clinical signs that are suggestive of HYPP (2017, March 16C). Blood may be drawn during an
episode and tested, but potassium levels may be normal in HYPP affected horses and abnormal
in non HYPP horses if they have kidney disease or are under strenuous training (2017, March
16A). Family history that includes Impressive in the pedigree is highly suggestive of the genetic
disorder. Presently five labs meet AQHA requirements for genetic testing for this disorder; UC
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Davis, Oklahoma Blood Institute, Shelterwood Labs, Mann Equitest Labs, and NWS Agriculture
(2001, October 10). Differentials include delay before sample centrifugation, acidosis,
hemolysis, acidosis, renal failure, severe rhabdomyolysis, and high intensity exercise (2014,
October 1). In the past a potassium challenge test was administered but often resulted in the
patient’s death (2017, March 16A).
Treatment options include dietary management, drugs, and emergency measures from a
veterinarian when an episode happens. Dietary adjustments include avoiding high potassium
feeds, no sudden dietary changes, feeding several times a day, and frequent exercise (2017,
March 16C). Several drugs have proven helpful for clinical sign prevention such as
acetazolamide or hydrochlorothiazide, the former at 2-4mg per kg orally every eight to twelve
hours and the latter 0.5-1mg per kg orally every twelve hours. Though they work through
different mechanisms, both cause increased renal potassium ATPase activity. Acetazolamide has
been shown to stabilize blood glucose and potassium by stimulating insulin secretion (2017,
March 16C). If an episode is severe and requires treatment for respiratory arrest a tracheostomy
can be performed (2014, October 1). To abort an episode exercise may work in mild cases or
epinephrine may be administered at 3mL of 1:1000/500kg intramuscularly or acetazolamide
orally at 3mg per kg every eight to twelve hours. In more severe cases, calcium gluconate can be
administered at 0.2 – 0.4mL per kg of a twenty-three percent solution diluted in one liter of five
percent dextrose often provides immediate improvement (2014, October 1).
While Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis is a manageable disorder even with treatment
recurrent bouts may occur and severe episodes can prove fatal. Owners of affected horses should
be advised not to breed these horses. As this is a dominant trait if bred, even with a normal horse,
the resulting offspring have a fifty percent chance of inheriting the disorder. All affected horses
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share this mutation, whether they present with clinical signs or not (2014, October 1). This is not
a disorder that can be cured, only managed, because it’s genetic in nature.
As this disorder is genetic it is not transmissible between species. It can only be inherited
among conspecifics.
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Citations
Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis (HYPP). (2001, March 16A). Retrieved March 16, 2017, from
http://infovets.com/books/equine/E/E340.htm
Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis. (2017, March 16B). Retrieved March 16, 2017, from
https://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/hypp.php
HYPP: Getting to Grips with Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis. (2014, October 1). Retrieved
March 16, 2017, from http://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2014/10/01/hypp-hyperkalemicperiodic-paralysis/#axzz4bVmQLDfH
HYPP & Muscular Health. (2017, March 16C). Retrieved March 16, 2017, from
https://www.smartpakequine.com/content/hypp-horse
HYPP: Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis. (2001, October 10). Retrieved March 15, 2017, from
http://www.thehorse.com/articles/10684/hypp-hyperkalemic-periodic-paralysis
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The Five Questions
1.) HYPP is a dominant trait.
A.) True
B.) False
2.) What is the major clinical sign of HYPP?
A.) Sweating
B.) Muscle weakness
C.) Dog sitting
D.) Decreased intestinal sounds
3.) What breed are affected by HYPP?
A.) Thoroughbreds
B.) Dutch warmbloods
C.) Belgian Draft horses
D.) Quarter horses
4.) HYPP can be cured.
A.) True
B.) False
5.) The DVM that first recognized HYPP was?
A.) Sharon J. Spier
B.) Louse J. Camuti
C.) Robert Cook
D.) Debbye Turner
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Stephanie Bonavita
VST111
Dr. Dougherty
Equine Influenza
Many species of animals can contract the influenza virus. The Etiology of Equine
Influenza A is a virus by the scientific name of Orthomyxoviridae. Equine Influenza was first
recognized in 1963 as a cause of widespread epidemics. EIV has subsequently become endemic
in many countries including China, Japan, and Australia and experienced devastating epidemics
of equine influenza affecting tens of thousands of horses in 2007. Equine influenza had not
been reported in China since 1993, in Japan since 1972, and had never been reported in
Australia (Rush, Bonnie R.).
Equine influenza is a highly contagious acute respiratory disease.
“The virus targets the lower respiratory tract and affects the epithelial
cells, particularly those of the trachea and bronchial tree. Replication of
the virus causes cellular death. The loss of epithelial cells causes
inflammation of the columnar ciliated cells, and this predisposes the
horse to secondary bacterial infections” (Holtgrew-Bohling, Kristin).
Ciliated cells are extremely important when discussing the immune system, “their job is to
sweep mucus, dust and surface organisms up out of the lung, when these cells are lost, the lung
have no way to clear themselves. They become vulnerable to the virus penetrating the tissues,
as wells as to secondary bacterial infection” (when Horses Get the Flu (Can You)). Because anti-
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biotics can’t cure viruses, the body has its own defense mechanism to get rid of the virus.
Natural Killer cells play a big part in that process. Natural killer cells are granular lymphocytes
that are able to identify and kill infected cells through a process called apoptosis. They attach to
infected cells and induce cellular changes that lead to the death of the cell. Bursting the
infected cell would release the virus and cause the virus to spread to other cells ( Colville, Thomas
P.).
Equine Influenza is spread through the inhalation of the airborne virus. When an
infected horse introduces the virus just by the act of coughing the morbidity of the equine
population in that specific area will spread rapidly, undoubtedly reaching 100%. The virus can
even be carried by the wind to affect horses a greater distance away. An outbreak commonly
occurs “where large numbers of horses from different backgrounds are gathered in a single
location, such as racetracks, sales, and shows.” (Kelley, Brent). Horses can even contact the
virus by coming in contact with an infected head halter or feed troth.
The incubation period of Equine Influenza can be anywhere between two to ten days
after exposure and presents a variety of clinical signs including a high fever that can reach up to
105 degrees Fare height followed by a harsh hacking cough which aims to free the lungs of
excess mucus and clear nasal discharge. Other clinical signs typically include decreased or no
appetite, lethargy, depression, muscular soreness, leg edema, swollen lymph nodes; more
specifically Mandibular and Retropharyngeal lymph nodes (Kelley, Brent).
There are a few different methods of ways to diagnose a horse with influenza. For some
Veterinarian’s the clinical signs may be enough for diagnosis. In a mild case, it can be confused
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with other diseases like Herpesvirus or Rhinovirus. Other veterinarians would prefer definitive
diagnostic testing.
“An accurate diagnosis of equine flu can be made by recognizing the
clinical signs and the history of rapid spread between horses, isolation of
the virus through nasal or nasopharyngeal swabs, rising antibody levels in
blood (serum) samples taken early in the course of the disease and two
to three weeks later, history of recent contact with a confirmed case of
the disease.”(Hound, Horse&)
Vaccinated horses can still show clinical signs, but they are usually milder than those
experienced by unvaccinated horses.
Once the horse is diagnosed with Influenza the veterinarian may or may not want to
administer Clenbuterol, Phenylbutazone and an antibiotic for secondary infection. Clenbuterol
is used as a decongestant and bronchodilator to help with breathing (Vogel, Colin”5”) and
Phenylbutazone is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory that is used to treat high fever and
pain(Kelley, Brent). If a secondary bacterial infection arises antibiotics will become necessary to
treat (When Horses Get the Flu (Can You?)). Once the immune system is compromised it makes it
very easy for other pathogens like bacteria to enter and further infect the horse. Because
influenza kills the cells of the respiratory tract, the filtration system doesn’t work as well and
will allow harmful pathogens in that it would normally send back out.
The rule of thumb prognosis is 1 week’s rest for every day sick. Minimizing stress is
extremely important, “if the horse is stressed before recovery is complete, the infection may
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permanently weaken the muscles of the heart” (Vogel, Colin). “Because of the effect of the virus
on the heart and lung tissue, horses which have suffered equine flu must have at least 6 weeks’
rest before starting exercise again. Failure to allow this convalescent period may result in
permanent heart and lung damage” (Vogel, Collin “5”). Coughing may last 3 to 4 weeks after
the infection. Be sure to isolate the horse during recovery in a well-ventilated stall to reduce
the risk of an epidemic. Medications to help the fever, cough and bacterial infection should
make the horse feel well enough to have an appetite.
The only measure of preventive care is the vaccination. The first 2 primary vaccinations
should be given between 21-92 days apart. The first booster should be between 150-210 days
after the primary vaccination and so on. Because Equine Influenza can be fatal in fouls and
young horses it is important that the mare should be vaccinated during her pregnancy. “the
Mare should be vaccinated in the last trimester of her pregnancy. This will give the foul
protection through the colostrum” (Kelley, Brent). Its subjective weather a foul should receive
its first vaccine at 90 days of age or 6 months of age. Either way the foul needs to be given a
booster every 3 to 4 months during an early racing career due to being in a high-risk
environment, and biannual after retired from racing (Kelley, Brent). There are 2 types of
vaccines Inactivated vaccine and Modified Live Vaccine. The Inactivated Vaccine consists of a
grown virus through a culture that has been killed which requires the 3 doses. The inactivated
vaccine is administered by IM injection. The modified live vaccine is a denatured live virus that
does not have the ability to cause disease. “It is designed to induce mucosal antibody
protection” (Rush, Bonnie R.). which requires 2 doses. The Modified Live vaccine is
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administered Intranasally and provides a longer duration of immunity(McCurnin, Dennis M). It is
recommended that foals receive the MLV(Rush, Bonnie R.).
There is still a debate on whether equine influenza is zoonotic. There is some evidence
that supports that Equine Influenza can be zoonotic, but nothing definitive.
“The earliest study of significance that the team found was published in
the Ukraine in 1959. Based on bloodwork done on affected horses, the
Ukrainian researchers determined that an influenza outbreak among race
horses may have been associated with a human flu outbreak that
occurred at the same time.”(MACVSc)
It has been seen that other animals such as donkeys, mules and dog have been able to contract
equine influenza from horses. “The first cross-species transmission of equine influenza H3N8
virus to racing greyhounds was reported in the united states in 2004, resulting in respiratory
disease and death of infected dogs” (Kennedy,Melissa).
It is evident that equine influenza is a disease not to be taken lightly. It has caused major
epidemics in the equine population in past years. Owners must keep up with vaccinations to
keep their horses, and horses they come in contact with free of the Orthomyxoviridae virus.
Work cited
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Colville, Thomas P., Joanna M. Bassert, Joann Colville, and Jennifer Schurrer. Clinical Anatomy and
Physiology for Veterinary Technicians. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier, 2016. Print.
McCurnin, Dennis M., Joanna M. Bassert, and John Alfred Thomas. McCurnin's Clinical Textbook for
Veterinary Technicians. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders, 2014. Print.
Holtgrew-Bohling, Kristin. Large Animal Clinical Procedures for Veterinary Technicians. St. Louis
(Missouri): Elsevier, 2016. Print.
Hound, Horse &., E.seventing, Rosie1998, Pinkvboots, Johnpearce, and Eventer28. "Equine Flu: What
You Need to Know." Horse & Hound. N.p., 20 Nov. 2014. Web. 19 Mar. 2017
Kelley, Brent. "Preventable Diseases." The Horse Doctor Is In: A Kentucky Veterinarian's Advice and
Wisdom on Horse Health Care. Pownal, VT: Storey, 2003. 5-8. Print.
Kennedy, Melissa and M.M Chengappa. “orthomyxovirdae”. Veterinary Microbiology.Ed. Scott McVey.
3rd.N.P: Wiley-Blackwell.n.d.pag.Print.
MACVSc, Mick McCluskey BVSc. "Can You Get the Flu from Your Horse? - The Horse Owner's
Resource." EQUUS. Cruz Bay, 15 Nov. 2016. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
Rush, Bonnie R., DVM, College of Veterinary Medicine, and Kansas State University. "Equine
Influenza." Merk Manual. Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp, 4 May 2016. Web. 19 Mar. 2017.
Vogel, Colin. "2." Horse Ailments and Health Care. New York: Arco Pub., 1982. 11-12. Print.
Vogel, Colin. "5." Horse Ailments and Health Care. New York: Arco Pub., 1982. 48-49. Print.
Vogel, Colin. "The Respiratory System." What's Wrong with My Horse? London: David & Charles, 1996.
57-58. Print.
"When Horses Get the Flu (Can You?)." Expert Advice on Horse Care and Horse Riding. Cruz Bay,
31 Oct. 2006. Web. 17 Mar. 2017.
Farm animal nursing 2017
5 questions:
What is the name of the Equine Influenza virus?
Name 3 clinical signs of equine Influenza?
Why is it important for a pregnant Mare to get vaccinated?
How is equine influenza contracted?
Why is it important to rest your horse 1 weeks for every day sick?
Page 179 of 228
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Michelle Moss
March 14th 2017
VST 111 – Farm Animal Nursing
Potomac Horse Fever
Potomac Horse Fever is a seasonal, non-contagious, non-zoonotic disease that afflicts
horses. It can affect horses of all ages; however foals seem especially resilient to it as they are
the least affected so far. Potomac Horse Fever is also often referred to a Ditch Fever, Shasta
River Crud, or simple PHF for short. PHF is said to affect the gastrointestinal tract of horses,
specifically in the intestines. The agent responsible for the disease itself is a type of bacterium
known as Neorickettsia risticii.
PHF's risk season is during late spring, summer, and early fall. Its peak season in terms of
cases and infections, however, are during the following summer months; July, August and
September. It affects all horses of varying ages but it poses a particularly strong risk to pregnant
mares due to the high likelihood of abortion.
PHF has a very specific transmission route, and the animals at risk are those with
proximity to water. The nearer horses may be to a standing body of water, the greater the risk of
transmission for those animals. Neorickettsia risticii which is responsible for Potomac Horse
Fever can be isolated to water dwelling flukes, also known as trematodes. These are associated
with snails, which are the main distributors of the bacterium carrying flukes. A horse may
transmit PHF through two currently identified ways. The first being; the horse(s) drinking
directly from water contaminated with infected flukes carrying N. risticii. This method of
transmission will require the susceptible host to be in direct contact with bodies of water for this
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to occur. However, that does not mean that PHF is exclusive to horses with direct contact to
potentially contaminated water, due to the second method of transmission. Horses may also
contract PHF through ingestion of other infection carrying creatures; a variety of fly species. For
the second method of transmission to take place, water dwelling insects or their larvae may pick
up the infected flukes and become a vector for the disease, some of the identified species
including (bug list). The infected adults then give the potential of flying away from the body of
water and a horse may ingest the infected insects (at any life stage) and contract PHF this way.
This method of transmission is what allows PHF to afflict horses that are not in direct contact
with water. It is suggested that potentially infected flies tend to be drawn into barns and other
areas due to lights, which means a horse kept in a barn is also at risk of catching PHF.
This was realized when a particular case where an outbreak of several Potomac Horse
Fever infections occurred at a 2005 Minnesota fair that was holding show horses, while not being
in any direct contact with outside water bodies. It was suggested that a large hatch of flies where
carried from the Mississippi river 5 miles to where the fairgrounds were and that the
contaminated flies were attracted by the bright festival lights. This was confirmed when
following the event, 6 horses that had attended developed symptoms 2 weeks later, and dead
mayflies that were still lingering on cobwebs were identified as carrying the N. risticii bacterium.
Once PHF has been contracted, there are several clinical signs an affected horse may
show, following an incubation period of about 10-15 days. It is suggested the initial symptom is
a biphasic fever ranging from 102-107 degrees F. Immediately following the fever spike (around
24 to 48 hours following), other symptoms will begin to show, including diarrhea which occurs
in 80% of cases, depression, appetite loss, acute colitis, as well as abortion in pregnant mares.
There is also a potential for laminitis to develop, which is a painful inflammation of the tissues
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between the hoof wall and pedal bone / coffin bone which, if severe enough, could compromise
the horses life and potentially call for euthanasia. Laminitis appears to occur in around 20-30%
of PHF cases. As for pregnancies, it was found in an experimental study that pregnant mares
stricken with PHF at 100-160 days in their gestations would abort during 190-250 days in
gestation, and was accompanied by a retained placenta.
PHF however has few symptoms and all are shared with many other illnesses and may
make it more difficult for a quick and efficient diagnosis to a time sensitive disease. The
symptoms shown are very closely related to Salmonella. With salmonella being a contagious
illness, it is said that the symptoms should be treated as though they were salmonella until a
positive PHF diagnosis proves otherwise. Caution should be taken with the horse(s) showing
symptoms being isolated to prevent the spread of what could potentially be a contagious disease,
even though PHF itself is not contagious.
As for a proper diagnosis of PHF, the main method is through a lab test for polymerase
chain reaction or a PCR, which can be done on a blood or a manure sample. Generally it takes a
week to get results on this test, but can be completed in 24hrs. A second option is to compare the
antibodies in 2 separate blood samples from the horse, taken 10 days apart. In the diagnostic of
the disease there are several factors taken into consideration to estimate the likelihood of the
animal being particularly afflicted with PHF versus an illness of similar symptoms. Some factors
consider are the animals proximity to bodies of water and the amount of water bodies in the local
area, seeing as water is required as a starting point for the responsible bacterium, it would be
easy to rule out PHF if the horses has never been anyway near bodies of water. Due to the
potential for the illness to worsen or the possibility of developing laminitis, it is not uncommon a
veterinarian will begin treatments before receiving a positive test result if PHF is a likelihood.
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This in itself can be used as a diagnostic tool, as they can monitor the improvement of the horses
following the start of treatment, though a positive lab result still remains to be a vital tool in
effective and accurate diagnosis’s.
Treatment is often incredibly effective in horses with Potomac Horse Fever. It is said that
ill horses will generally respond to treatment within 12-24 hours. PHF is treated by the admission
of the antibiotic oxytetracycline (6.6 mg/kg, Intravenous). It is also common for the horse to be
prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory if laminitis is present, to relieve pain caused by such
inflammation. While all symptoms are eradicated within a short period following treatment,
laminitis may still prevail for up to several weeks or months following. It is vital to treat PHF as
soon as is possible for the highest likelihood of patient recovery and survival.
Potomac Horse Fever was first identified in 1979 in the Potomac River valley in
Maryland. Since then, the illness has been found to be primarily moving throughout the eastern
coast of the US as well as appearing inland. There has been a case of PHF reported in 43 states.
PHF, however, is not exclusive to the United States as there have been reports of it in 3
provinces of Canada, Europe as well as India. It is suggested that there are 13 different strains of
the N. risticii bacterium, and can cause a varying severity of PHF. Whether strains can be
isolated to particular regions has not yet been determined according to my findings.
While PHF can be a potentially life threatening illness to horses, there is fortunately a
variety of ways to lower the risk of catching the illness. There is a vaccine developed for PHF,
which utilizes inactive bacterium to prepare the animal’s immune system. However, the true
effectiveness of the vaccine is unknown as of yet: it is suggested that it cannot truly prevent the
transmission and following illness of PHF but more so has an effect on reducing the severity and
likelihood of death, depending on the type of strain that the horses has caught. That being said,
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the standing opinion appears to be vaccinations for PHF are only recommended per the animals
risk of contraction. Barring the vaccine, there are also numerous methods of helping to prevent
the contraction of PHF through mindfulness.
While they will not absolutely guarantee susceptible horses will never contract PHF, but
they are known to help lower the risk. These include; keeping food and water away from or not
directly underneath barn lights so that flies attracted to the light sources are not as able to land in
the feed/water, turning off barn lights when not in use and especially so at night as to dissuade
bugs being attracted to them, considering the location of your barn and don't build them within
range of potentially harmful water bodies, disallow grazing near water bodies on a property,
fencing off water bodies on a property so as the animals don’t drink directly from them and risk
transmission through the direct method, and storing feed away from light sources to prevent bugs
from landing in or dying in the feed. A varying mixture of these preventatives will aid in the
prevention of transmission, and with a constant general mindfulness of the at risk animals health,
in case transmission does occur, will aid in quick and effective diagnosis and treatment of the
animal.
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Reference Page and Questions
Madigan, J. E. (n.d) Potomac Horse Fever - Digestive system. Retrieved Feb, Mar from URL
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/
Wilson, J. (July 1 2007.) Potomac Horse Fever: Cause and Treatment. Retrieved Feb, Mar from
URL http://www.thehorse.com/
n.a (n.d) Potomac Horse Fever. Retrieved Feb, Mar from URL
https://www.rideauvet.com/potomac-horse-fever
Nesson, L. (Aug 17) Potomac Horse Fever – What You Need to Know. Retrieved Feb, Mar from
URL http://irongateequine.com
1. What is one of the ways a susceptible horse can contract Potomac Horse Fever?
2. What life threatening and contagious disease does PHF share it’s symptoms with?
3. Name one way to aid in the prevention of PHF.
4. True or False: Potomac Horse Fever is a contagious disease.
5. Name one of the three months that PHF is its peak in terms of cases of the disease.
Farm animal nursing 2017
Kristen Schmelzle
Farm Animal Nursing
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Dr. Dougherty
Due: 3.21.17
Equine Rhinopneumonitis
Introduction:
Equine Rhinopneumonitis is a horse specific strain of herpes virus. The disease is
worldwide and can affect all domestic equine. Five separate strains of herpes exist that affect
equine (type one through five) but Rhinopneumonitis is specific to the first and fourth. There are
two heavy distinctions between the strains of Rhinopneumonitis. EVH-4 is particular to any
respiratory and surrounding lymph complications. EVH-1 is referred to as the “viral abortion”
virus. This is because the equine’s chances of an abortion greatly increase with an infection of
this strain. EVH-1 does not contain itself within the animal’s reproductive system alone. It’s
capable of impacting the respiratory and nervous system with devastating consequences.
Treatment for this is limited. The only option is a vaccination against Rhinopneumonitis around
three months of age, with boosters given yearly. Prevention is our best defense against this
disease, for there is no “simple” cure.
Symptoms:
Rhinopneumonitis is seen to commonly attack the equine’s respiratory system. This is
due to the fact this is the only system that is attacked by both strains. Nasal mucosal discharge is
the most common symptom. The mucus is thick and may be colored white with greenish tints.
Discharge of the lacrimal glands and inflamed conjunctiva are seen often. Fits of coughing are
common with Rhinopneumonitis when the virus spreads to the bifurcation of the trachea and
lower airways. Particularly in EHV-1, fevers ranging from 102-106 fahrenheit are typical.
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Normal temperature comparatively ranges from 99-101. This fever may last anywhere from one
to seven days. During this period, the equine may experience intervals of rapid breathing and
restlessness. Anorexia and lethargy along with a decrease in fitness performance could be
present. Depression has been seen on equine who have been experiencing symptoms for a
lengthy period of time.
With EHV-1, the disease may progress into the nervous system, resulting in a wobbled
gate and in some situations, hind or complete limb paralysis. These neurologic issues brought
about by Rhinopneumonitis are caused by inflammation of blood vessels surrounding the spinal
canal and brain. Early symptoms of severe CNS complications include lost sphincter muscle
control to the bladder and tail movements. If caught too late, damage to the CNS may be
irreparable and euthanization would sadly be the humane option. This however, isn’t common. In
a less serious more typical case, a loss of sensation of the epidermis in the tail and hind leg
region is noted. There is not yet a vaccination for neurologic end of Rhinopneumonitis.
Unfortunately, outbreaks of the CNS affecting form have had an an increased mortality rate since
2000, implying the strain is adaptable and evolving.
The incubation period for Rhinopneumonitis varies from 2-10 days. Abortion is likely to
occur during the final trimester if contracted around 7-11 months gestation. The window for
abortion is 2-12 weeks after the mare has been infected. Sometimes there aren’t clinical signs of
the disease before aborting, and some even carry full term. Foals may appear healthy, but shortly
will begin to display symptoms. Neonates born with the virus have low survival rates.
Rhinopneumonitis causes abortion due to the spread of infection to the uterus. The reproductive
organs no longer have the strength to carry full term and terminates.
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Treatment/ Preventative Care:
The Rhinopneumonitis vaccine comes in two forms, a modified live and dead strain. The
dead strain had the virus killed by means of heat or chemicals. The live strain has the virus but
has been altered to allow the body to build an immunity without the animal contracting the virus
itself. The live strain is given intranasally (in nose) and is effective faster. The killed version is
given IM. Vaccinations are given as young as three months of age, and the second dose is given
only a month later. These vaccines must be administered at least once a year and on some
occasions, every six months if the equine is at a higher risk. There are also optional vaccines that
can help guard against abortions in a pregnant mare.
Rhinopneumonitis can be transmitted by saliva, nasal discharge, or ingestion of fecal
matter. It is common for the caregiver to accidently spread the disease from horse to horse by not
following proper quarantine protocol. Affected aerosol droplets inhaled can also spread the
disease. Meaning the virus can spread through indirect contact. Pregnant mares should be kept
away from any equine that undergo frequent travel. When a horse is introduced into a new
facility, he or she should be kept isolated for three to four weeks to prevent any possibility of
outbreak. Temperature of foreign horses into a new environment should be taken twice daily for
the first three weeks to ensure health. The stable of an infected mare or stallion should be kept in
isolation for three weeks after the animal had stopped showing symptoms. This is due to the
ability of the virus to survive on it own for a lengthy period of time. All stable equipment that
was used for the affected equine must be disinfected. Handlers should have their boots scrubbed
and hands washed after dealing with any possible Rhinopneumonitis cases. Clothing must always
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be changed before handling healthy horses. It is recommend by some veterinarians to clean out
all hay and bedding from the stable and burn the material. Phenol based disinfectants have
become the standard for removal of virus from any and all surface areas.
Some equine can spread the virus without showing any symptoms. In most cases, the
virus will survive in the equine eternally but signs will not become apparent until the animal is
stressed. Once stressed, like most other herpes strains, the virus is “reactivated” and is able to
infect any susceptible equine.
It is difficult to diagnose Rhinopneumonitis because of its likeness to other respiratory
diseases including equine viral arteritis and influenza. Classic symptoms are usually displayed
more by weanlings than older equine. Accurate diagnosis can be determined by blood samples
and throat or nasal swabs nasopharyngeal. If a mare aborts her fetus and Rhinopneumonitis is a
suspected culprit, tissue may be extracted from the fetus and tested for the virus. Supportive care
is the best means of treatment for Rhinopneumonitis. If the animal is well rested and stress levels
are low, symptoms will start to disappear within three to five days. Once affected, there is no
known cure for Rhinopneumonitis. In order to prevent any possible secondary bacterial infection
resulting from the mucosal discharge, antibiotics are often given. Immunomodulating (immune
response increased) drugs are sometimes used and may aid to reduce inflammation. For
neurological symptoms, antiviral drugs are used on the onset. Antipyretics (which influence the
hypothalamus) are usually recommended for when fevers are persistent.
Conclusion:
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Rhinopneumonitis is not to be taken lightly considering the determinants the virus has on
the domestic equine. To vaccinate and give boosters against the ailment is the sensible option.
This is because once an infected equine undergoes any state of stress, the virus can remerge and
infect any vulnerable. Following quarantine protocol is a must. EHV-1 infected mares will likely
not be able to deliver full term a healthy foal. Along with complications of the reproductive tract,
Rhinopneumonitis may have adverse effects on the CNS and respiratory tract as well. In rare
cases, EHV-1 could paralyze equine to where euthanization is our only humane option.
Prevention is the best line of defense for this evolving, progressive and sometimes deadly virus.
Works Cited
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"Equine Rhinopneumonitis." Equimed.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2017.
http://equimed.com/diseases-and-conditions/reference/equine-rhinopneumonitis
"Equine Herpesvirus Infection - Respiratory System." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web.
16 Mar. 2017.
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/respiratory-system/respiratory-diseases-of-horses/equine
-herpesvirus-infection
"Clinic News | Articles | Blog." Equine Herpes Virus (EHV) - Infectious Diseases - Horse
Health Topics | Anoka Equine Veterinary Services. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2017.
htt
p://anokaequine.com/clinic-news/articles/past-articles/infectious-diseases-12/equine-herp
es-virus-ehv
"Fact Sheet - Equine Herpesvirus." Fact Sheet - Equine Herpesvirus. N.p., n.d. Web. 16
Mar. 2017.
nimalscience.uconn.edu/extension/publications/herpesvirus.htm
"Equine Rhinopneumonitis." Pet Health Information. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2017.
http://www.netvet.co.uk/equine/vaccination/rhinopneumonitis.htm
"PetMD, LLC." PetMD. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2017.
http://www.petmd.com/horse/conditions/reproductive/c_hr_equine_herpes_virus
Quarterh.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2017.
http://www.quarterh.com/health2.htm
http
://a
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Questions:
1.
How often are boosters for Rhinopneumonitis usually given?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Every 5 months
Every two years
Every year
Every 8 months
2. What body system(s) is EHV-1 capable of attacking?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Respiratory
CNS
Reproductive
All of the above
3. How long should a foreign horse be quarantined when introduced to a new area?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Three days
Three weeks
Three months
Three years
4. Equine Rhinopneumonitis has a specific cure.
a.
b.
True
False
5. Foals infected with Rhinopneumonitis have a low rate of survival.
a. True
b. False
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Jackie O’Brien
VST 111
Dr. Dougherty
March 2, 2017
Strangles
Streptococcus equi ssp equi (S. equi) is a highly contagious bacterial infection that causes
inflammation and abscessation of lymphoid tissue around the head and neck. S. equi is
commonly referred to as “Strangles” due to the swelling, pain, and discomfort around the throat
of equine species. Although it is rare that it is life threatening, Strangles is one of the most feared
diseases throughout the horse community. S.equi, a host adaptive parasite, is specifically
contracted by the equine species; horses, donkeys and mules. Equine species of all ages and
health status are susceptible to this disease. However, more severe symptoms of Strangles are
prevalent in horses younger than two years old, due to an underdeveloped immune system.
About 10% of horses are carriers of Strangles and can transmit the disease by direct
contact or shared environments with other horses. Transmissible contact can include; sharing of
tack or yard equipment, water troughs, handler’s clothing, or even people’s hands. The horses
that are more at risk of contracting Strangles are the horses that are in and out of auctions, and
the horses that travel to horse shows, fairs, etc. Strangles is not airborne and can only be
transmitted through the contacts previously stated. However, flies are known to be able to
transmit Strangles mechanically. S. equi can live out of a host and in an ideal environment for
about 4 weeks. S. equi cannot survive if the environment is extremely hot, humid or if it is
exposed to direct sunlight.
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The incubation period for Strangles is about 3-14 days, although abscesses may not
appear until a few weeks after incubation. Strangles can cause mild to severe clinical signs, some
of which are not typical signs. Since S. equi is a bacterial organism, hosts will experience a fever
of 103 degrees Fahrenheit to about 106 degrees Fahrenheit when infected. Hosts will also
become lethargic with a loss of appetite and they may have yellow mucus nasal discharge.
Difficulty eating, swallowing and extending their neck occurs after abscesses have formed. The
hot and painful abscesses will often rupture, or mature, releasing pus and fluid. If a healthy, adult
horse becomes affected, they may show subtle signs, including nasal discharge and a mild fever.
Although uncommon, it is possible for the abscesses to become metastatic, affecting other
lymphoid tissue around the body. This is also known as “Bastard Strangles.” However, former
hosts may still carry, and be able to transmit the bacteria for months after recovery. When
untreated, symptoms can last up to three weeks.
Culturing the mucoid discharge and/or pus from an abscess can give a definite diagnosis
of Strangles. The hosts affected by Strangles should receive attentive nursing, rest and isolation
in a warm and dry environment. Although antibiotic therapy is controversial, if caught in the
early stages, antibiotics may help prevent abscessation of the lymph tissue. However, hosts
should be monitored and treated symptomatically until when or if an abscess may form. In a host
where there is significant progression, antibiotics will prolong the course of the disease.
Maturation of abscesses can actually promote the healing process, which is why the antibiotic
treatment is controversial. Warm packs applied to the affected area will assist in the maturation
of the abscesses. When abscesses rupture, the wound can be flushed out with an antiseptic
solution.
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Trying to reduce the spread of a detected outbreak should be started by isolating the
infected horses from the healthy horses. Handlers should make sure that they disinfect
themselves along with any equipment and environments that the hosts had shared. Luckily,
S.equi can be killed with a disinfectant, such as chlorhexidine and a detergent. Although 100%
prevention to the disease is not guaranteed from a vaccine, it has been shown reduce the duration
and severity of the symptoms. Once horses have recovered symptomatically from Strangles, they
may still be a carrier of S.equi. To be sure that they do not have the bacteria in their system
anymore, hosts need to have three negative nasopharyngeal cultures in one week increments.
They should still be quarantined from healthy horses, but minimal isolation is allowed for one
month after the negative cultures. Although the horses may have recovered, it is still possible for
them to transmit the disease for months to years afterwards.
A vaccine for Strangles was developed over 100 years ago, using live and dead strains of
the bacteria. There since has been multiple variations of the vaccine to improve efficiency, some
of which are modified live vaccines. The vaccine can be administered via intramuscular injection
or intranasal, which is believed to be more effective. However, there are side effects to the
vaccine; including abscessation, from the live vaccine, and pain at the site of injection. The
vaccine should be administered in 2 doses at 2 to 3 week intervals. The vaccine however, can be
given semiannual if the horses are at a higher risk for contracting Strangles. If a mare is about to
foal, it is recommended to give a booster about a month before, so that it can improve the
colostral antibody that can then be passed to the foal.
Horse owners should be educated and stay aware of the signs and symptoms of Strangles.
Catching the onset of the disease in its early stages can make it easier to manage and treat the
horse(s). Strangles, the equine upper respiratory infection is a highly contagious disease if an
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outbreak is not isolated. It is a very common disease for horses that are in auctions or at highly
populated events. If Strangles is diagnosed in a horse, they should be quarantined immediately
from horses not exposed yet. Not all horses will develop abscesses, but they will show signs of a
fever, nasal discharge and sometimes a cough. There are preventative measures to take for
Strangles, such as vaccinations and good hygiene. Good hygiene will include cleaning tack and
yard equipment, and making sure all stalls are properly cleaned. During and after an outbreak it
is important to replace things such as; the water troughs, hay buckets, and even bucket hooks
with new ones, as these materials can harbor bacteria. It is also very important for horse’s
handlers to disinfect themselves and their boots if they are in contact with an infected horse as
they may transmit the bacteria to healthy horses. It takes an adequate amount of care and
treatment to alleviate Strangles from an affected host.
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Bibliography:
Department of animal science. University of Connecticut. Fact sheet: Vaccination for Optimizing
Health and Performance.
http://animalscience.uconn.edu/extension/documents/vacc.pdf
Conley Koontz Equine Hospital. Strangles: Signs, treatments and prevention.
http://www.ckequinehospital.com/page/195/Strangles-Signs-Treatment-and-Prevention
Horse and Hound. Strangles.
http://www.horseandhound.co.uk/tag/strangles
Merk Veterinary Manual. Strangles in horses (Distemper)
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/respiratory-system/respiratory-diseases-ofhorses/strangles-in-horses
Stable Management. Understanding Strangles vaccine.
http://stablemanagement.com/articles/understanding-strangles-vaccines
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Questions:
1. T/F- Strangles is a fungal infection. (F)
2. T/F- Strangles cannot be transmitted through the air. (T)
3. How many negative cultures are needed before the horse can be removed from
quarantine? 3 negative cultures
4. How can Strangles be transmitted? Direct contact. (Shared yard or tack equipment,
not disinfecting oneself after dealing with an infected horse, unclean stables, water
troughs..etc.)
5. T/F- Strangles in only transmissible through the equine species. (T)
Farm animal nursing 2017
Nicole Altimari
VST 111: Farm Animal Nursing
Page 199 of 228
March 14, 2017
West Nile Virus
West Nile Virus is a mosquito-borne virus that can cause encephalitis (inflammation of
the brain) and/or meningitis (inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord) in humans
and horses. It was first identified in 1937 from a woman in Uganda and until 1999 it was limited
to the Eastern Hemisphere. That fall, 25 horses in two New York counties were diagnosed with
encephalitis caused by West Nile Virus. This marked the first time West Nile Virus was
introduced to the Western Hemisphere. Despite control efforts, it became established in most of
North America and spread to Central and South Americas and the Caribbean. Since 1999, over
25,000 cases of West Nile Virus encephalitis have been reported in horses in the United States.
West Nile Virus is an arbovirus that circulates primarily between birds and mosquitoes.
It belongs to the family Falviviridae and genus Flavivirus. There are two common genetic
lineages for West Nile Virus: lineage 1 and lineage 2. Lineage 1 is common in Africa, the
Middle East, Europe and parts of Asia and it has 3 clades: 1a, 1b and 1c. The strain that entered
the United States in 1999 is related to a lineage 1a virus. Lineage 2 is isolated to the region
south of the Sahara Desert, and it co-circulates in some regions with lineage 1. Both lineages
contain strains that can cause harmfully, severe symptoms as well as strains that are
asymptomatic. Most strains do not overwinter but are reintroduced each year by migratory birds.
In horses, most West Nile Virus infections are asymptomatic. Only an estimated 10–43%
of infected horses show clinical signs. Abnormal gait, ataxia, stumbling, in-coordination, weak
limbs, partial paralysis, muscle twitching/tremors, recumbency, convulsions and/or circling are a
few of the neurological signs that can develop. Changes in attitude including hyper-excitability,
apprehension, sleepiness/drowsiness, listlessness, depression, loss of appetite, teeth grinding and
aim-less wondering can also occur. Some uncommon symptoms include fever, blindness,
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weakness of the tongue and sudden death. A few animals have been reported to die
spontaneously but many severely affected animals are euthanized for humane reasons.
Diagnosing West Nile Virus in horses is difficult due to the short duration and low level
of virus present in their blood. It is usually confirmed by serology or detecting the virus in the
brain and spinal cord at necropsy. Also, there is no pathognomonic sign that distinguish West
Nile Virus from other Central Nervous System diseases. It shares symptoms with other
infectious diseases including rabies, alphaviruses, equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM),
equine herpes virus-1, botulism, and verminous meningoencephalomyelitis. Other noninfectious
diseases it shares symptoms with include hypocalcemia, tremorigenic toxicities,
hepatoencephalopathy, and leukoencephalomalacia. This is why it is important to quarantine
infected or suspected infected animals until you can confirm the diagnosis.
Once a horse has been diagnosed, the treatment for West Nile Virus is supportive. There
is no specific antibody to counter attack the virus so there is no specific treatment available. The
goal of supportive treatment is to reduce inflammation in the Central Nervous System, prevent
self-inflicted injuries and adverse effects from recumbency. Treatments include, fluids and
antibiotics for treatment of infections in recumbent horses, slinging if horse is unable to get up
on its own, and head and leg protection. In mammals, West Nile Virus is usually cleared from
the body during illness. Many horses recover with supportive care and begin to recover within a
week after onset of clinical signs. Most horses will return to peak physical health while about
10–20% of horses are estimated to have some residual changes including weakness in 1 or more
limbs, decreased exercise tolerance, muscle atrophy or behavioral changes. The mortality rate
for West Nile Virus infected horses is estimated to be about 33% but most of those deaths result
from euthanasia.
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The best ways to prevent West Nile Virus in horses is vaccination and mosquito control.
It is important to vaccinate horses against West Nile Virus annually in the spring, before
mosquito season starts. The vaccine is two doses, 3 to 6 weeks apart. Full protection doesn’t
develop until 4 to 6 weeks after the second dose and maximum resistance develops between 7 to
12 weeks. Mosquitoes are the primary source of West Nile Virus in mammals, reptiles and
amphibians so eliminating mosquito breeding grounds and shelters is a good way to actively
limit exposure. This includes removing all standing water, drain roof gutters, and keep
swimming pools clean and free of water on covers. Areas around barns, paddocks and pastures
need to be kept free of weeds, feces and other organic material that could shelter mosquitoes. In
some cases, mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis), which eat mosquito larvae, can be put in ponds to
control mosquito populations. Stabling horses indoors during active mosquito feeding times,
from dusk to dawn, will offer more protection from mosquitoes than leaving them outdoors
overnight. Utilizing fans, barrier cloths, screens, flysheets and repellent sprays are useful for
temporary protection.
Most mammals including horses and humans are considered to be “dead-end hosts” for
West Nile Virus. This means that it is not directly contagious from horse to horse or horse to
human. West Nile Virus is transmitted primarily through mosquitoes, in particular the members
of the genus Culex, which are the main vectors of West Nile Virus worldwide. In North America
alone, over 60 species of mosquitoes have been identified as able to transmit West Nile Virus.
“Bridge vector” mosquitoes, which feed on both birds and mammals, become infected in late
summer and can transmit the virus to humans, horses and other incidental hosts. Ticks are
another vector species for West Nile Virus but very uncommon. Hippoboscid flies are suspected
to be able to transmit West Nile Virus in North America and infected lice (Philopterus species)
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have been collected from West Nile Virus infected crows. West Nile Virus outbreaks usually
occur seasonally in the northeastern region of the United States. Birds are mainly affected from
summer to late fall and horses peak in late summer to fall (May to October). However, the warm
weather in southeastern region of the United States makes West Nile Virus infections there a
concern for most of the year or all year round.
In the United States, state and/or wildlife agencies should be contacted for information
about the current programs on reporting cases of West Nile Virus. In New York State, the New
York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) collects, complies and analyzes information on
mosquito-borne diseases including West Nile Virus. During mosquito season the NYSDOH
produces a weekly report on mosquito-borne disease activity in New York State. The reports
include the activity for the year up till the specified date for all of New York State as well as by
each county.
Today, West Nile Virus is the leading cause of arbovirus encephalitis in both humans and
horses in the United States. While birds are the primary reservoir hosts of West Nile Virus,
incidental “dead-end hosts” like horses can contract it from “bridge vector” mosquitoes.
Because of this it is important to make sure horses are vaccinated prior to mosquito season and
before being exposed to West Nile Virus.
1. True or False: The first time West Nile Virus was found in the Western Hemisphere was in
New York State.
2. True or False: Most horses infected with West Nile Virus show neurologic symptoms.
3. True or False: There is no specific treatment available for West Nile Virus.
4. True or False: It is very easy to transmit West Nile Virus from horses to humans.
5. True or False: The best time to vaccinate a horse for West Nile Virus is to wait until after
mosquito season starts.
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Works Cited
AAEP. (n.d.). AAEP: West Nile Virus. Retrieved February 7, 2017, from
https://aaep.org/guidelines/vaccination-guidelines/core-vaccination-guidelines/west-nilevirus
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015, February 12). West Nile Virus:
Transmission. Retrieved February 21, 2017, from
https://www.cdc.gov/westnile/transmission/index.html
Long, M. T., Ostlund, E. N., Porter, M. B., & Crom, R. L. (2002). Equine West Nile
Encephalitis: Epidemiological and Clinical Review for Practitioners. AAEP Proceedings,
48, 1-6. Retrieved February 21, 2017, from
http://www.ivis.org/proceedings/AAEP/2002/910102000001.PDF
New York State Department of Health. (2016, November 2). NYSDOH Statewide MosquitoBorne Disease Activity Report. Retrieved March 14, 2017, from
https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/west_nile_virus/docs/weekly_arboviral_surveillance
_report.pdf
Spickler, A. R. (August 2013). West Nile Virus Infection. Retrieved February 21, 2017, from
https://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/west_nile_fever.pdf.
Trevejo, R. T., & Eidson, M. (May 1, 2008). Zoonosis Update: West Nile Virus. Vet Med Today:
Zoonosis Update, 232(No. 9), 1302-1309. Retrieved February 7, 2017, from
https://www.avma.org/News/Journals/Collections/Documents/javma_232_9_1302.pdf.
West Nile Virus - a Threat to Horses (Equine). (2015, August 31). Retrieved February 7, 2017,
from http://extension.psu.edu/animals/equine/news/2015/west-nile-virus-a-threat-tohorses
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Gabrielle Lemay
March 10, 2017
Dr. Dougherty
VST 111
Coccidiosis
Etiology
Coccidiosis is typically classified as the destruction of intestinal mucosa by an invasion of one of
two genera of protozoa: Eimeria and Isospora. Each species has their own species-specific
coccidia. There are a total of twelve different coccidia in the bovine species, but only three are
well-known and prominent: E. zuernii, E. bovis, and E. auburnensis. (Coccidiosis of Cattle) The
three coccidia associated with ovine are: E. crandallis, E. ovinoidalis, and E. ovina. (Coccidiosis
of Sheep) In caprine, the most commonly seen are: E. arloingi, E. christenseni, and E.
ovinoidalis. (Coccidiosis of Goats) Porcine typically only have I. suis, but can also have E.
debliecki, E. neodebliecki, E. scabra, and E. spinosa. (Coccidiosis of Pigs)
Clinical Signs
Regardless of the species or species-specific coccidia, the clinical signs remain the same.
Clinical signs of coccidiosis include diarrhea, inappetence, fever, emaciation (or just weight
loss), and can be fatal in some cases. These clinical signs are caused by the “destruction of
intestinal epithelium and the underlying connective tissue of the mucosa” (Overview of
Coccidiosis) Furthermore, this destruction might be accompanied by hemorrhaging into the
lumen of the intestine which might cause blood to be excreted along with the feces.
Diagnosis
Coccidiosis can be identified by testing the feces using a salt or sugar flotation method. It can be
difficult to identify, however, because the diarrhea may occur days prior to the actual
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presentation of the oocysts in the feces. Therefore, multiple fecal samples from different days
may be required to positively identify the oocysts. Blood may also be tested and an increase in
the white blood cell count is to be expected but that will only indicate a parasitic infection, not
the specific parasitic invasion.
Treatment
"The life cycles of Eimeria and Isospora are self-limiting and end spontaneously within a few
weeks unless reinfection occurs." (Overview of Coccidiosis) The use of medication may be
useful in slowing or inhibiting the development stages that could result from reinfection. This
can help in ensuring the illness ends more rapidly, hemorrhaging and diarrhea lessens, and the
opportunity for a secondary infection or fatality is drastically lessened. Infected animals should
be isolated until the infection clears. Treatments for calves include soluble sulfonamides which
are administered orally. Soluble sulfonamides are an antibacterial that is distributed to all the
body tissues and then excreted in the urine. Amprolium is also used to treat calves, as well as
sheep and goats. (Overview of Coccidiosis) A popular medication called CORID contains
amprolium and stops the coccidia in the small intestine. (CORID) It's recommended to treat
healthy animals that have an exposure to infected feces as a preventive measure to limit
morbidity. Other methods of preventive treatment include a healthy living environment as well
as healthy feeding, as well as ensuring that neonates receive colostrum from the mother.
(Overview of Coccidiosis)
Prognosis
While clinical signs can range from discomfort to painful, coccidiosis is seldom fatal. However,
calves diagnosed with acute clinical coccidiosis have a high mortality rate, approximately 8090%. (Coccidiosis of Cattle)
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Zoonosis
As demonstrated earlier, each class of livestock have their own species-specific coccidia;
therefore, there is no cross-infection between species. (Government of Alberta)
Questions
1. What are the two genera of protozoa that invade the digestive system to produce
coccidiosis?
A: Eimeria and Isospora
2. Does each species have their own species-specific coccidia?
A: Yes
3. What are some clinical signs of coccidiosis?
A: Diarrhea, weight loss, inappetence, death
4. What are the two methods of testing to determine if the animal has coccidiosis?
A: Fecal test, bloodwork to test for white blood cell count
5. Should infected animals be free to interact with healthy animals?
A: No
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Bibliography
"Coccidiosis of Cattle - Digestive System." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2017.
<http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/coccidiosis/coccidiosis-of-cattle>
"Coccidiosis of Goats - Digestive System." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2017.
<http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/coccidiosis/coccidiosis-of-goats>.
"Coccidiosis of Pigs - Digestive System." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2017.
<http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/coccidiosis/coccidiosis-of-pigs>.
"Coccidiosis of Sheep - Digestive System." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2017.
<http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/coccidiosis/coccidiosis-of-sheep>.
"CORID | Prevention and Treatment of Coccidiosis." CORID | Prevention and Treatment of
Coccidiosis. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2017. <http://www.corid.com/Pages/default.aspx>.
Government of Alberta, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Office of the Deputy Minister,
Extension and Communication Services Division, Alberta Ag-Info Centre. "Coccidiosis
in Beef Cattle - Frequently Asked Questions." Alberta Agriculture and Forestry. N.p., 18
Aug. 2015. Web. 10 Mar. 2017.
http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/faq8011
"Overview of Coccidiosis - Digestive System." Veterinary Manual. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Mar.
2017. <http://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/coccidiosis/overview-of
coccidiosis>.
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Joseph Forgione
VST 111
About Newcastle Disease
Poultry farms have a lot of things to worry about when caring for their chicken stock.
One such occurring problem are many of the infectious diseases that could potentially infect
livestock. Poultry farmers must take care when diseases do arise to isolate their spread and take
extra precaution if the disease is capable of spreading to humans. One such disease capable of
infecting chickens and other avian species is known as Newcastle disease.
The disease was identified in 1927 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, where it got its
name from. But it is thought that the virus first came into being 1898 Scotland (Macpherson
1956). Spread of the virus through populations is usually done through direct contact between a
healthy bird and an infected one or its body fluids (Animal Genetics, Inc.). Material containing
the virus can easily be transferred from one flock of birds to another if it were to stick to, say the
shoes of a farm worker. The virus itself thrives in a warm, humid environment but can even
survive being frozen (Animal Genetics, Inc.)! This spread has caused the virus to become
endemic in a multitude of countries but is believed to be eradicated from the United States in
1974 (Animal Genetics, Inc.). Clinical signs usually depend on the viral strain, which will be
discussed later. Though they generally include watery and green diarrhea from an intestinal
infection as well as sneezing, nasal discharge and general trouble breathing in the respiratory
track. Neck and head twisting as well as tremors, nervousness and even paralysis are clinical
signs of an infection in the nervous system (Animal Genetics, Inc.). Swelling around the eyes
and neck are also a common symptom. The virus is also capable of infecting the oviducts of egg
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laying hens, causing a drop in egg productivity and poor quality of the egg shells (Li, Qi, Han,
Liu, Wang, Wang, Wang, Huang 2017).
The virus itself is the avian paramyxovirus type 1 (Zhao, Sun, Sun, Li, Zhang, Pulscher,
Chai, Xing 2017). It is a nonsegmented, RNA type virus that is negative-sense that mostly
prefers avian hosts (Vigil, Park, Martinez, Chua, Xiao, Cros, Martinez-Sobrido, Woo, GarciaSastre 2007). Like many other viruses, there are different strains and variations. They are
velogenic, mesogenic, and lentogenic. Velogenic strains are again divided into two substrains of
its own; viscerotropic and neurotropic. Both substrains of the velotropic strain are the most
pathogenic, causing the infected avian to be affected by intestinal hemorrhaging from
viscerotropic strains and the neurotropic strain causing respiratory distress and neurologic
deterioration. Sudden death usually occurs with little to no symptoms becoming visible.
Mesogenic and lentogenic display similar symptoms but are usually less virulent and not as
severe (Zhao et al 2017). Velogenic strains of the virus are even capable of infecting the
reproductive tract of egg laying hens, specifically the oviduct tract.
Of course though, Newcastle disease isn't the only disease to display respiratory distress,
oviduct infections, etc. So how would you be able to distinguish Newcastle disease form any
other disease that uses the same symptoms? One thing that could be done is to test for the
disease; but not for the virus itself, rather for the antibodies that are produced to combat it. This
is known as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Developed by Peter Perlmann and Eva
Engvall in the 1960s and published in 1971, this works by looking for certain antigens of a
disease and labeling them, either with an enzyme or radioactive iodine-131 (Lequin 2005).
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Although usually associated with avian species, there is a possibility for Newcastle
disease to spread to other species. One such instance arose in a population of young mink in a
farm in China (Zhao et al 2017). In this case, those infected acquired shaking mink syndrome,
affecting their brains and lung tissues, in a similar manner to how those similar tissues were
infected in their usual avian hosts. It is possible that the disease is capable of spreading into
human populations, namely those who handle the infected poultry to begin with. When infected,
humans display symptoms of conjunctivitis, infecting the conjunctival sac of the eye (Nelson,
Pomeroy, Schrall, Park, Lindeman 1952). This includes but is not limited to redness and swelling
to the conjunctiva but the cornea is usually left alone. Edema of the lids, however is possible
(Nelson et al 1952). Some scientists might argue that conjunctivitis is a small price to pay when
it comes to cancer research. Apparently, the virus prefers to replicate itself inside of cells
forming tumors in their human hosts, especially those that are causing cancer (Vigil, et al. 2007).
With the way that viruses go about killing their host cells to replicate themselves, using them to
fight cancer is not such a bad idea.
The best way to protect your bird stock from the virus is through simple prevention
practices. This includes the quarantine of infected individuals or even birds recently purchased.
Fortunately, a vaccine for Newcastle disease does exist. Live vaccines are created from
replicating the vectors of the virus without the need of the virus itself or its cultivation, however
low-virulent and inactivated viruses are still utilized. Testing has been implemented to further
implement a vaccine against avian influenza utilizing the one for Newcastle disease thanks to the
two viruses sharing a similar tissue tropism and infecting intranasal (Kim, Paldurai, Samal 2017).
Unfortunately, no known treatments for Newcastle disease exist (Animal Genetics, Inc.).
However, there have been studies to try and find something that can aid in treatment of the
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disease. One proposed idea was to utilize a Raf kinase inhibitor compound, such as RKIV,
which works by inhibiting the intercellular interactions between the target cell and the virus
(Yin, Liu, Zhang, Chen, Xie, Ai, Xue, Qian, Bi, Chen, Sun, Stoeger, Ding 2016). Although it is
worth mentioning that these inhibitors target the cells themselves and not the virus. Fortunately,
there is little worry for toxicity to tissues when using this treatment as it does not interfere with
the rest of the cells' functions. It works but is an expensive method of treatment and is usually
reserved for ornamental birds of high value (Yin et al. 2016). Other inhibitory methods include
inhibiting cholesterol homeostasis and RNA replication. Inhibiting cholesterol homeostasis
works using a ligand of liver X receptors, namely GW3965, to over-express certain genes in
infected DF-1 cells and thus lower their cholesterol content, which the virus probably needs to
power its replication process (Sheng, Sun, Zhan, Qu, Wang, Luo 2016). Another method to
counter the virus is to interfere with the very thing that allows it to replicate in the first place, its
RNA strand. As you already know, a virus uses its genetic material to create copies of itself
once inside a host. RNA interference, or RNAi, targets the viral matrix protein gene of the
Newcastle disease virus and suppresses its transcription in infected cells (Yin, Ding, Liu, Mu,
Cong, Stoeger 2010). This in turn prevents the virus from copying itself inside host cells and
spreading to other cells.
Newcastle disease virus is capable of doing a lot of damage to commercial poultry
industries. With proper inspection and quarantine of livestock, prevention of the virus' spread
can be had. But should this still falter, there are some treatments that might be able to help
remove the disease. But bird handlers should take care not to catch the disease itself. Not that
they are in any fatal danger, but potential illnesses from the virus could still put a worker out for
some time.
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References

Kim, Shin-Hee, et al. "A novel chimeric Newcastle disease virus vectored vaccine against
highly pathogenic avian influenza virus" Virology vol. 503 (Mar 2017) 31-36 Academic
OneFile Accessed 15 Mar. 2017

Lequin, R. M. "Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA)/ Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
(ELISA)" Clinical Chemistry vol. 51(12) (Dec 2005) 2415-18 Web Accessed 15 Mar.
2017

Li, Ruiqiao, et al. "Deterioration of eggshell quality is related to calbindin in laying hens
infected with velogenic genotype VIId Newcastle disease virus" Theriogenology vol. 91
(Mar 2017) 62+ Academic OneFile Accessed 14 Mar. 2017

Macphersson, LW "Some observations on the Epizootiology of Newcastle disease"
Canadian journal of Comparative medicine and veterinary science vol. 20 (May 1956)
155-68 Web 15 Mar. 2017

Nelson, C. B., et al. "An outbreak of conjunctivitis due to Newcastle disease virus (NDV)
occurring in poultry workers." American journal of public health and the nation's health.
vol. 42 (June 1952): 672-78. Web 14 Mar 2017

"Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV)" AvianBiotech.com. Animal Genetics Inc., n.d. Web 15
Mar. 2017

Sheng, Xiang-Xiang, et al. "The LXR ligand GW3965 inhibits Newcastle disease virus
infection by affecting cholesterol homeostasis." Archives of virology vol 161:9 (Sep
2016) 2491-2501 Academic OneFile Accessed 15 Mar. 2017

Vigil, A, et al. "Use of revere genetics to enhance the oncolytic properties of Newcastle
disease virus" Cancer Research. vol 67, 2007, p. 8285-92 Web 14 Mar 2017
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Yin, Renfu, et al. "A Raf kinase inhibitor demonstrates antiviral activities both in vitro
and in vivo against different genotypes of virulent Newcastle disease virus." Antiviral
Ressearch vol. 133 (Sep 2016) 140-44 Academic OneFile Accessed 15 Mar. 2017

Yin, Renfu, et al. "Inhibition of Newcastle disease virus replication by RNA interference
targeting the matrix protein gene in chicken embryo fibroblasts" Journal of Virological
Methods vol. 167(1) (July 2010) p. 107-11 Academic OneFile Accesssed 15 Mar. 2017

Zhao, Panpan, et al. "Newcastle disease virus from domestic mink, China, 2014"
Veterinary Microbiology, vol. 198, 2017, p. 104+. Academic OneFile, Accessed 14 Mar.
2017
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5 questions
1. Which process of genetic replication does RNAi interfere with to prevent the virus from
replicating?
2. Which of all the different variations of the Newcastle disease virus is the most severe?
How so?
3. Assuming the virus was non-fatal, there is little threat to the production and quality of
eggs from infected chickens; true or false?
4. What makes Newcastle disease virus so useful in creating vaccines for totally different
diseases, like avian influenza?
5. What makes using Newcastle disease virus, or any virus for that matter, a good idea as a
way to combat cancer? What are some of the risks involved with this method?
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Katie Getz
Dr. Dougherty
Farm Animal Nursing
February 16, 2017
Cattle Bloat Disease
When one hears the term “bloat” we often think of a larger dog whose stomach has become
twisted. For cattle, however, bloat means something completely different. Cattle are ruminants,
and with a plant based diet, ferment their food within the rumen. The rumen takes up the
majority of the space in the abdominal cavity and is the main storage space for food. The rumen
contains billions of microorganisms that help cattle digest their fibrous feeds such as grass or
hay. Fermentation within the rumen also generates a large amount of gas. When cattle are not
eating or cud chewing, they are ruminating. For a typical cow, they can carry on eating their way
though hay or a pasture, but for some, their diet will result in an overproduction of gas that leads
to bloat.
Ruminants produce large amounts of gas as a result of fermentation of plant material in the
rumen or reticulum. This gas is typically lost through the cardia and esophagus by the process of
eructation, or belching. Luckily for ruminants they are able to eructate several times more gas
than what is produced in the rumen, meaning an overproduction of gas is not the cause for bloat.
The true problem is the inefficiency of the gas to exit the rumen, either because something is
interfering with eructation or the gas is trapped inside bubbles, such as foam. The gas is
composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) in very large quantities, producing about
800 liters of CO2 and about 500 liters of CH4 in 24 hours. With the massive amount of gas
production, about a quarter escapes through the bloodstream to the lungs and is exhaled. Though
helpful, it is not enough to reduce the amount of gas in the rumen.
Bloat, also known as ruminal tympany, is classified into two separate categories. The first is
gassy bloat, or free-gas bloat. This type of bloat has many possible causes such as the esophagus
or cardia being obstructed by a tumor, abscess or a foreign body, hypomotility or their
positioning in lateral recumbency. The second type of bloat is called pasture or “frothy” bloat
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from the excessive amount of bubbles and foam in the rumen. Between these two types of bloat,
frothy bloat is more common.
Frothy bloat occurs from a stable foam that develops on top of the liquid layer in the rumen,
blocking the esophagus and hindering the gas from being released. Frothy bloat can occur on any
lush forage that is low in fiber and highly digestible, but is most common on immature legume
pastures such as clover and alfalfa. The more easily available the soluble protein, the greater the
chance that it will lead to a build-up of stable foam in the rumen. Bloat is a highly seasonal issue
and occurs more during the spring and autumn. This can be further amplified if cattle graze on
high-protein legumes after a frost. Frost becomes a major contributor since it already starts the
breakdown process of the pasture by damaging the cell walls within the leaves and ice crystals
puncturing the cells and allowing the proteins to escape. Wheat pastures can also be risky after a
frost as well since the protein in the forage is more available. Typically, legumes have a higher
quality of protein when compared to different grasses. Clover and alfalfa increase the stickiness
of the rumen fluid and prevent the small bubbles of gas formed by fermentation from coming
together to form free gas that can be eructated.
Bloat is one of the most common causes of sudden death. Pastured and feedlot cattle, dry dairy
cattle and cattle that are not closely observed are typically found dead. In the cattle that are
closely observed, such as the lactating dairy cows, bloat can occur after as little as fifteen
minutes to one hour after grazing from a bloat-producing pasture. Bloat may develop on the first
day but becomes more prevalent on the second or third day. If the animal has been eating off the
pasture for the first time, they may bloat mildly and stop eating until the discomfort is eventually
relieved. However, in more serious cases, the most obvious way to tell if a cow has bloat is by
the abdomen being distended on the left side. In addition, the left flank might be so distended
that the contour of the paralumbar fossa extends above the vertebral column. As bloat progresses,
the skin oner the left flank will be extremely taught and cannot be “tented.” The animal will also
start to breathe heavily through their mouth, their tongue will be hanging out and their head will
be extended. An animal will also urinate and defecate frequently, bellow and stagger. If
immediate action is not taken the animal will die from restricted breathing and heart failure.
In gassy bloat, the excess gas is usually free on top of the solid and fluid material within the
rumen. Gassy bloat is seen intermittently, but still poses as much danger as frothy bloat. There is
usually a tympanic resonance over the dorsal left abdomen of the midline since free gas makes a
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high pitched sound. There will also be a distension to the abdomen, but with gassy bloat, it can
be detected through a rectal examination. Similar to cattle with frothy bloat, the animal will also
be dealing with pain, discomfort and will bellow.
One of the main, and most obvious ways to diagnose a cow with bloat is through observation.
Bloat is the only type of disease where the rumen will stretch and expand causing the abdomen
to distend. Another way to know if the animal has bloat is by passing a stomach tube. This
technique will tell the owner and the veterinarian if the animal has gassy of frothy bloat. If the
cause is gassy bloat, once the tube is passed to the rumen, the build-up of gas will escape through
the tube. Lastly, a cow who has a history of access to lush pastures is also more at risk of bloat.
Typically a cow who has had bloat previously could be susceptible if they continue to feed out in
pasture that is high in protein. Another thing farmers will notice is if one animal has bloat, it is
more than likely more of their cattle will have it as well.
When noticed that an animal’s left side is distended, the best thing is to calmly and slowly move
them off that pasture. Quickly moving the animal is counterproductive and will cause more
harm. If the animal is trotting or galloping, then rumen will be shaken causing the foam to
obstruct the esophagus for belching increasing the risk for fatal bloat. It is very important to walk
them slowly because their breathing is impaired from the build-up of pressure in the rumen. For
some animals, forcing them to walk can increase their ability to belch. If the bloating has not
decreased once the animal gets to the pen, several different options should be considered before
taking action.
First, if the animal is not in any immediate danger you can use a frick speculum and a stomach
tube to see if there is any excess gas to be released or to put in something to break up the froth.
For this technique to work, the animal will be to be restrained. If a frick speculum is not readily
available, the administrator will need assistance to hold the animal’s mouth partly open to avoid
the tube being chewed in half. If a stomach tube is unavailable, a garden hose with a 2.0-2.5 cm
outside diameter can be used with the metal part cut off. If the cow has frothy bloat then the
person who inserting the tube will need to blow some air into the rumen to clear the froth away
from the end of the tube to locate pockets of gas. With frothy bloat it might be impossible to
reduce the pressure, so once the tube is in place and the frothy has been moved, the administrator
should pour in a gallon of oil or one of the other products available to reduce foam in the rumen.
Usually an anti-foaming agent such as oil will reduce the surface tension and allow the stable
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foam gas bubbles to breakdown. The rate for this type of treatment is 300 - 500mL for a 450 kg
(1,000 lb) animal. After the cow is treated and the rumen is no longer distended, it is important to
monitor them to see how they are responding to the treatment and if they have any recurrences.
Oils and detergents are effective for preventing and treating pasture bloat, but only certain types
work against rumen foam. Bloat Guard, a type of detergent, has been marketed for treating
pasture bloat. Bloat Guard contains the anti-foaming detergent poloxalene. The daily dose is 4 to
8 g of Bloat Guard per 100 kg of body weight in two daily feedings. Typically, it is fed to the
animal as a mixture with a grain supplement. Nonetheless, bloat prevention cannot be guaranteed
because the product is given free-choice and animal intake is highly variable. In some countries,
Bloat Guard is marketed in salt-molasses blocks and in liquid molasses for use in a lick feeder.
These work best when placed throughout the field with one block for every ten cattle. The blocks
are not effective if placed only near water and are more effective in small fields than in large
ones. Research has shown that the anti bloat detergents are the most effective products for
preventing bloat.
When antibiotics became available, they were occasionally used to control bloat, based on the
foundation of reduced microbial activity. Penicillin was the first antibiotic used to control
legume bloat, but its use was soon discontinued because of the rapid development of microbial
resistance to the drug. More recently, the ionophore antibiotics monensin, known as Rumensin,
and laslocid, know as Bovatec, have been evaluated for bloat prevention. Ionophores alter the
permeability of microbial membranes, increase ion transport and change microbial populations in
the rumen. Rumensin is available as a bolus that reduces the prevalence of alfalfa bloat by 80
percent. Lasalocid was effective in controlling grain bloat, but not legume bloat.
As a last resort if the animal severely bloated, a trochar and canula can and should be used. A
trochar is an instrument used to puncture through the skin into the rumen to let the gas or foam
out of the rumen. A trochar should only be used if the animal is down and cannot be moved. The
distended rumen will bulging upward on the animal’s left side. In a severe case, the right side
may be distended too. If planning on using a trochar, it is important to make sure it is inserted on
the left side. If a trochar is not available, a sharp pocketknife will work just as well. Although it
will make a larger opening, it is best to call the veterinarian to come clean and stitch up the
wound. Because of the open wound when using either the trochar or a sharp knife, the animal
will need to be treated with antibiotics to avoid peritonitis.
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It is much easier to prevent bloat than to treat the affected animals. Management and planning
can significantly reduce the number of cases. Seeding cultivated pastures to grass-legume
mixtures is the most effective and least expensive method when trying to minimize pasture bloat.
This is particularly necessary for beef herds grazing over large areas under a continuous grazing
system. Another way to reduce the risk is by pulling cattle off an alfalfa pasture or some cereal
grains like winter wheat after a light frost. This is especially necessary during the fall. It is a
temporary effect so the plants have time to decrease the amount of soluble proteins accumulated
during the frost. If it was a killing frost, making the alfalfa go dormant, it is best to wait five to
seven days before putting the cattle back out to pasture. This amount of time allows the plant to
go dormant and dry out acting more like hay, which is not as risky.
Before allowing the cattle to go back out on an at-risk pasture, it is important to make sure the
cattle are not hungry. Feeding the animals before going out on the pasture helps to slow down
their eating so they do not gorging themselves. Therefore, it will also prolong the turnout until
after the dew is gone. This is a common practice and useful for when an animal is first exposed
to a legume pasture. Some people swath graze, which is where they cut the alfalfa before letting
the cattle into that portion of the pasture allowing it to wilt for at least 48 hours. This way the
pasture will not be as lush. Additionally, if the pasture is less than 50% alfalfa or clover, there is
a significant decrease in the likelihood of bloat. The other non-bloating forages decrease the total
amount of ingested soluble protein. They also contain anti-bloat compounds such as condensed
tannins which decrease foam buildup.
Although bloat is considered a disease, it is not considered zoonotic. This is because the excess
gas that builds up in the rumen is a result of the bloat causing legumes cattle eat.
Bloat continues to be a high risk issue for cattle that graze on alfalfa and clover pastures. In more
serious cases, and for the cattle that are more susceptible, bloat can occur in as little as an hour
and if unnoticed will result in death. Although you can treat bloat by releasing the excess gas
with a stomach tube or a trocar and canula and antibiotics, it is easier to help prevent bloat than
to treat it. Not only is it easier, but it is also most cost effective to manage cattle to prevent frothy
and gassy bloat.Prevention involves understanding the causes and development of a management
plan to reduce the frequency of bloat from happening. Furthermore, though helpful to prevent the
incidence it is also important to be prepared to treat an occasional animal that does develop
symptoms.
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References
1. Frothy bloat in ruminants: Cause, occurence, and mitigation strategies
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2079/science/article/pii/
2. Bloat in Cattle: Alberta Agriculture and Forestry
http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca
3. Bloat: NADIS Animal Health Skills
http://www.nadis.org.uk/bulletins/bloat.aspx
4. Spring Pastures-Grass Tetany and Bloat: Purdue University
http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/beef/articles
5. Busting Bloat
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2715/eds/pdfviewer
6. Bloat: University of Wisconsin-Extension Cooperative Extension
http://www.uwex.edu/ces/forage/pubs/bloat.htm
7. Common Weeds can be Killers
http://lib1.lib.sunysuffolk.edu:2715/eds/detail
8. Texas A&M AgriLife Communications; AgriLife Research animal nutritionist: Added
enzymes reduce costly bloat losses
http://qa3nq3jm4u.search.serialssolutions.com
9. Alfalfa bloat remedy a step closer: University of Maine
http://bi.galegroup.com.une.idm.oclc.org/essentials/article
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5 Questions About Bloat
1. True or False, Bloat is one of the most common causes of sudden death.
Answer: True
2. What is one of the most obvious ways to tell if a cow has Bloat?
A. They stop eating
B. The animal becomes excited and will run around the pasture
C. Their left side will be distended
D. It is not obvious to tell if the animal has bloat
Answer: C
3. If an animal has bloat and they are in serious trouble, what is the fastest way to relieve
pressure in the rumen?
A. Frick speculum and stomach tube
B. Trocar and canula
C. Antibiotics
D. Essential oils
Answer: B
4. True or False, Bloat is a zoonotic disease.
Answer: False
5. True or False, it is much easier to prevent bloat than to treat it
Answer: True
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Gerard F. Schafhautle
Dr. Dougherty, DVM
3/16/17
VST-111
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy/Mad Cow Disease; an illness with no environmental
cause, external intrusion into the body by pathogens, or internal trauma, and yet it still the name
gets around as a biological illness as if their were a living entity causing the disruption in a
cattle's central nervous system yet to be discovered. BSE is a disease, and there is an organic
factor. Unfortunately, the cause of the disease is the victim itself.
Unfortunately, the disease of BSE is technically not one hundred percent confirmed to be
caused by the misaligned organic protein structure known as a prion (Pronounced preeon), but
research today puts it at an extremely high likelihood given research on other prions and such
done on Mad Cow itself. A prion works in a very simple way in regards to its structure, but on
the nanoscopic level that it exists at the procedure is quite complicated. Simply put, a protein that
holds Shape A, in regards to α-helices and ß-pleated sheets, essentially is generated incorrectly
into a new shape which holds a detrimental function; it recruits proteins en masse and hoarding
in pre-synaptic spaces, interfering with proper nutrient absorption and waste removal, and
ultimately just taking up space necessary for proper brain function. Over time the brain begins to
become damaged and decay, allowing the steady growth of prions to further grow until the
victim dies. As it turns out, the illness of BSE is technically caused by the bovine itself, even if
without its own knowing.
Clinical signs are generally few in regards to specifics, and most infected cattle do not
survive the illness or symptoms long enough to go through much. Several of the signs are
general, such as lethargy, unwillingness to intake food or water...but some are distinguishable
enough that preliminary treatments such as isolation from the herd and immediate medical care
are required, especially for such large animals. These may include weakness in gait or standing,
emaciation, and even apparent delirium, all due to neurological damage. BSE has a dilemma for
diagnosis. Before the animal has died, there is no current method of testing for it. The disease
exists in brain tissue, so only once an animal has died can it be given a necropsy to determine the
cause of death. A section of brain tissue is cut out, placed under a microscope, and if it appears
dense and full it is healthy. If there are gaps in the tissue that look like bubbles, this is considered
a porous spongy appearance which confirms a BSE diagnosis. This post-mortem approach may
be effective at detecting the disease, but it does not save lives in any preventative manner.
Just as deranged as it seems to feed bacon to a pig, so might some observe the reverse
connection between the cattle farming and slaughter industries at one time before mid-1997. As
most would already know, the cattle farm raises steer to be sold from lots where they are shipped
to slaughter facilities to be stripped of edible parts with non-edible disposed of. As it turns out,
again pre-1997, most of the waste does not go straight into a bauernwurst or knackwurst. Parts
such as bones, hide and remaining once-internal excrement are often reused by crushing them
into what is basically a land form of chum, and then spread like fresh manure or compost over
crop fields for feed corn; the most common form of silage. If the disposed and intact skull of a
BSE infected steer is used as compost, the rain washes smaller nutrients into the soil where the
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water is drawn up into the stalk. Proteins are easily small enough to fit through plant vessels, and
the polar regions aide in entry into the plant by clinging to water by adhesion. This means that
when the crop is ripped from the soil, roots and all, and is crush into silage, the prion for BSE
goes with it. The next cattle to graze that silage, and potentially many, may contract the disease
and start the process over with even more future victims. This has been halted as a major cause
by the FDA, however, since in August of 1997 they declared that certain hazardous body parts of
cattle may not be in any way processed into food, or fertilizer directly headed for cattle feed
growing sites. This mandate was reinforced in April of 2009 when greater strides were made by
disallowing such usages in all foods and fertilizers of any kind and for any reason, including pet
food for all species.
This infection pattern is as cyclical as the life-cycle of a mosquito, but there is a way to
halt the process. If one cattle is shown to have BSE, all cattle that feed from the same lot should
be euthanized and disposed of in a way that denatures the prion. Heat denatures proteins, so a
burning would work. Unfortunately, BSE has a long incubation period between self-propagation
of the prion or ingestion into the animal's body, to showing clinical signs and either dying or
being put down. This is not dissimilar to a disease indicative to deer called Chronic Wasting
Disease. Although this may not be a prion disease, it shows similar symptoms and must be
contained in the same way, without the convenience of an appropriately fenced in enclosure.
In regards to zoonosis, a human can most likely catch BSE by ingesting meat or meat
products tainted by the prion, although Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy is not the term used.
Once a human has contracted the prion and succumb to its symptoms and potential fatal
outcome, the disease is known as variant Creudtzfeld-Jakob Disease (vCJD). As of August 8th,
2016, 231 people have contracted the disease, and what's worse is how one might find out via a
doctor what they are truly going through. In short, vCJD presents as rapidly progressing
Alzheimer's disease, clinical depression, and various other legitimate neurological or
psychological disorders and diseases in regards to human behavior. Again, their are no real
countermeasures an individual can utilize, nor any immediate testing techniques to isolate a
diagnosis. Ruling out treatable versions such as Encephalitis or Chronic Meningitis are the only
way to narrow the scope as to diagnosis and treatment, and in all cases, their is no cure or longterm treatment to halt or reverse the disease. Alleviating symptoms for patient comfort is the
extent of current medical care.
A prion is a very interesting protein molecule. It seemingly generates itself by slight
mishap, passes by the immune system without issue, mass produces by converting healthy
proteins to its damaging state, and then does to the outside of brain cells what a virus would do
within. It is this set of fascinating features that makes the diseases caused a revolutionary step in
causing a horrifying death to any and all infected. Given the process, the lack of diagnostic
understanding or available treatments, and the idea of an imminent fatality with an unseen clock
counting down, I think any would agree that such is enough to drive a person mad themselves.
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Bibliography

https://www.cdc.gov/prions/

http://www.prion.ucl.ac.uk/clinic-services/information/prion-disease/

https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/ResourcesforYou/AnimalHealthLiteracy/ucm136
222.htm

https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/FactSheets/Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Disease-Fact-Sheet
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Parainfluenza-3 virus (PI-3) is classified in the Paramyxovirus family. Occurrences of the
disease is usually thought to be due to stress such as mixing of animals of different age groups,
transport and winter housing. It is mentioned that poor hygiene also contributes to the spread of
Parainfluenza-3. Since parainfluenza is a respiratory disease it can affect greatly. Cattle are the
primary hosts of this virus but sheep, goats and wild ruminants can also become infected as well
and spread the disease. There is no known recorded as to when PI-3 was first discovered in the
bovine but it is one of the eldest strands. Like the bovine there is no known history of when the
PI-3 was first noticed in the goats. The first strand of parainfluenza-3 found in sheep was in the
1970s. Parainfluenza virus type 3 infection has a 24-36 hour incubation period followed by
clinical signs.
Although Parainfluenza-3 is capable of causing disease, it is usually associated with mild
to subclinical infections. The most important role of Parainfluenza-3 is to serve as an initiator
that can lead to development of secondary bacterial pneumonia. These viral pneumonias most
often affect lambs, kids and calves. The virus revealed symptoms like mild pyrexia, increased
breath sounds, fever (104°–106°F). Coughing (Wet or dry), nasal and/or ocular discharge for
several days. Necropsy on ruminates have shown area of pneumonia, particularly in ventral parts
of the apical lobe. Lesions include cranioventral lung association, bronchiolitis, and alveolitis
with marked congestion and hemorrhage. Most fatal cases have a concurrent bacterial
bronchopneumonia.
Diagnosis may be made on clinical signs on cattle, sheep and goats. Tests that can be
done to diagnose parainfluenza-3 are nasal swabs from affected animals. Detection is usually
based on an antibodies. Enzyme immunoassay used to detect if there are antibodies in the animal
to the virus. Two samples are needed for diagnosis. One sample is taken when animal at its
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severe state and the other a week later (convalescent), can be used to make a diagnosis. It may
not be helpful because the antibody response is rapid and antibody levels may be reduced by the
time the convalescent sample is taken. What may be useful in diagnosis is high antibodies for
parainfluenza-3 in many individuals during a respiratory disease outbreak combined with clinical
signs.
Treatment is usually not necessary in mildly affected animals. In severely affected
animals in which secondary pathogens are suspected, antimicrobial therapy is recommended
using drugs with efficacy against the most likely organisms. NSAIDs are also a therapeutic
consideration. Parainfluenza-3 vaccines are available and are almost always combined with
bovine herpesvirus 1 (infectious bovine rhinotracheitis). Modified-live and inactivated vaccines
are available for intramuscular (IM) administration. Vaccines used for intranasal (IN)
administration are also available, this IN vaccine contains temperature sensitive mutant strains.
Bovine must have two doses each 3 to 4 weeks apart from each other. Once the series is
completed it is recommended to vaccinate annually. There are no Parainfluenza-3 vaccines
specifically designed for use in sheep and goats. The cattle intranasal parainfluenza virus type 3
vaccine has been used off-licence for vaccinating small ruminants in experimental studies.
Studies carried out using a killed intranasal vaccine have encountered hypersensitivity reactions
in treated sheep but was found highly effective against PI-3 infection. The intramuscular
injection (IM) of live Parainfluenza-3 on the other hand appeared ineffective for protection.
Zoonotic means a disease that can be transmitted from animals to people. Specifically a
disease that normally exists in animals but that can infect humans. Groups with greater exposure
to cattle, sheep, goats and their products have increased risk of contracting zoonotic infections.
These groups include those that handle the animals like: livestock handlers, veterinarians,
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abattoir workers, meat inspectors, and laboratory staff handling biological samples from infected
animals. People consuming unpasteurized milk or other dairy products and improperly prepared
meats can be infected as well. In the case of parainfluenza-3 there is no transmission of the
disease from animal to human. So parainfluenza-3 is not zoonotic. Parainfluenza-3 does affect
within species such as sheep, goats and cattle. These species can spread the disease to one
another, cattle to sheep to goat and vice versa. It can be easily spread through airborne particles
of the disease.
References
-Ellis JA. Bovine parainfluenza-3 virus. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2010
Nov;26(3):575-93. Review. PubMed
-Elizabeth, J.H., G. Paul and W. Richard, 1997. The bovine PI-3 haemagglutinin, neuraminadase,
glycoprotein expressed in baculovirus protect against experimental BPIV-3 challenge. Vaccine,
15: 730-738.
-Hore, D.E. and R.G. Stevenson, 1967. Experimental virus pneumonia in lambs. Vet. Rec., 80:
26-27.
-Lyon, M., C. Leroux, T. Greenland, J. Chastang, J. Patet and J.F. Mornex, 1997. Presence of
unique PI-3 strain identified by RT-PCR in visna-maedi virus infected sheep. Vet. Microbiol.,
51: 95-104.
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Rosing for WCVM class project
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