Thesis
Social Movements against Racism
Time for a new Kerner Commission?
Evelyne Timmermans
Master Thesis
Faculty of Arts and Philosophy
Master in American Studies
Ghent University
Promotor: Professor Dario Fazzi
Academic year 2014 - 2015
Table of contents
Foreword................................................................................................... 4
Abstract .................................................................................................... 5
Introduction............................................................................................... 6
1. Racial inequality in the US................................................................... 8
2. Anti-racism social movements protecting civil rights of African American
people (1960’s) ..................................................................................... 10
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 10
2.2 The Big Five ................................................................................. 12
2.3 Other movements ......................................................................... 15
2.4 Conclusion.................................................................................... 18
3. Government’s responses ................................................................... 18
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 18
3.2 Kerner Commission ....................................................................... 19
4. Current situation - Recent racism issues ............................................. 22
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 22
4.2 The most recent racism cases ......................................................... 22
4.3 Revenge....................................................................................... 32
5. Citizens’ initiatives – A renewed rise of civil rights movements .............. 35
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 35
5.2 Social movements today ................................................................ 35
5.4 Social media ................................................................................. 43
5.3 Women opposing African American racism ........................................ 44
5.5 Conclusion: Individualism vs. collective action .................................. 45
6. Government’s responses ................................................................... 46
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 46
6.2 Obama’s response ......................................................................... 47
2
6.3 Conclusion.................................................................................... 50
7. The New Jim Crow? .......................................................................... 51
8. A new Kerner Commission ? .............................................................. 53
Conclusion ............................................................................................... 56
Bibliography ............................................................................................ 58
Books and Scientific Journals................................................................ 58
Governmental Documents .................................................................... 59
Papers, Records, Dictionary, Lectures .................................................... 59
Video: TV programs, Interviews............................................................ 59
Articles from Newspapers, Magazines and Websites ................................ 60
This thesis includes 15,095 words.
3
Foreword
The recent race riots in the United States have received international media
attention. In the context of my studies, ‘Master Program in American Studies’, I
decided to write my thesis about this topical debate. Racism is a subject that
relates to each of us, whether one lives in the United States, in Europe or in any
other part of the world. Every single person deserves a foundation for his/her
dreams. Hence, I asked myself the question, what is happening in the United
States currently and what actions can be taken to solve this burden on a society.
In my research, I was privileged to have a promotor who stood by my side with
motivation, advice and an infinite intelligence. Professor Dario Fazzi, thank you
for all the support. Furthermore, I would like to thank the Roosevelt Research
Center in Middelburg (The Netherlands) for providing sources for this thesis.
Thanks to all the Professors whose classes I had the opportunity to take this year
and whose intelligence and passion for their work I cannot explain in words. Prof.
K. Kennard, Prof. P. Codde, Prof. P. Schrijvers, Prof. I. Meuret, Prof. J.A. Dick,
Prof. R. Kroes, your lectures, knowledge and dedication to your subjects were my
motivation for writing this work piece.
Last but not least, a sincere thank you to my family for the support and patience
during the blood, sweat and tears.
Evelyne Timmermans
August 7, 2015
Ghent University
4
Abstract
The dissertation ‘Social Movements against Racism. Time for a new Kerner
Commission?’ (7th of August, 2015) was written by Evelyne Timmermans for the
‘Master Program in American Studies’ at Ghent University. Researching social
movements from the 1960’s until now, the government’s responses and what
current action should be taken provide an insight in the topical societal situation
in the United States. The thesis lends a study of the current problems and
suggests a possible road to change.
The first chapter, ‘Racial inequality in the United States’ will frame the definition
of racism and explore the paths that will guide the thesis. Chapter two, ‘Antiracism social movements protecting civil rights of African American people
(1960’s) provides a look back to the ‘Big Five’ and other civil rights movements.
The third chapter explains the government’s reaction to these protest
movements and reveals the Kerner Commission’s achievements and criticism.
Chapter four provides an overview of the recent racism cases in the US and the
revenge that was taken for the police brutalities. The following chapter, ‘5.
Citizens’ initiatives – A renewed rise of civil rights movements’ lends an
understanding of the movements which rose and are rising at the moment.
Activists argue that it is high time for change. Social media are the ideal tool for
uniting them and their individual actions. Chapter 6 clarifies the government’s
responses, in particular President Obama’s valuation and measurements. ‘The
New Jim Crow’, chapter 7, discloses the question whether the American society is
moving again towards a ‘separate but equal’ one. Lastly, the question will be
answered whether it is time for a new Kerner Commission in order to achieve
steady changes. The conclusion covers the research questions posed in the
introduction of the thesis and explains what measures must be taken if a new
Kerner Report should be found necessary.
5
Introduction
Racism has been part of American history ever since the land was discovered in
1492. Today, every twenty-eight hours, an African American man dies in a police
incident in the United States. Most victims do not even make the local news.
Although, from time to time, an African American victim gets media attention in
the state in question. But only exceptionally, the case will become national news.
More than fifty years after Martin Luther King’s ‘I have a dream’ speech and six
years after the election of America’s first Afro-American President, the rising
racial violence demonstrates just how sensitive the issue remains. America's
worst nightmare, mass racial violence still continues. Thousands tipped onto the
streets across the US to protest at what they see as police mistreatment of
African Americans. Racism seems to be so deeply embedded in police corpses
that it is currently seen as a basic fact of life in the US. Unequal treatment of
Afro-American civilians is indeed a daily issue. They often have to deal with
higher penalties than whites, more speeding tickets than whites and nine out of
ten cases, a police dog attacks an African American person. People of color are
systematically perceived as a threat by white cops and court officials. For
example, data from 2012-2014 shows that, in Ferguson (MO), Afro-American
people are involved in 85% of all the traffic controls, 90% of all the summonses
and 93% of all the arrests.1
Reading an article, arguing that, during his terms, Obama had to deal with
racism more than any other President before him, triggered my interest for this
subject.2 As an African American man, ruling a nation which is swarmed with
racial prejudices is a task which can only be conducted if one truly believes that
through political moves, social and racial equality can be achieved. Racism is not
an exclusively Afro-American problem, or a white problem; it is an American
problem. Furthermore, it is still deeply a problem which is dividing this ‘united’
nation.
US Department of Justice. (2015). Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department. Ferguson, Missouri: US
Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. Retrieved on March 4, 2015, from http://www.justice.gov/.
1
2
RABAEY, M., Zelfs Obama #cantbreathe. De Morgen, December 12th, 2014, p. 12-13.
6
To have a clear vision on what kind of socio-political progresses have been made
since the 1960’s, when the civil rights movements burst onto the national and
international scene, the dissertation will focus on the long term attempts made
by many American social movements, at least since Martin Luther King Jr.’s
(MLK) rising, to unite the nation and overcome its apparently structural racism.
The evolutions, shifts and changes that these movements brought and how
American society has evolved since the 1960’s onward, will be analyzed in this
thesis. Moreover, the reader will gain view on how the federal government
responded then and now.
The following research questions will guide the investigation of the evolution of
civil rights in the United States. What social actions did people take to tackle
racism in the US since MLK and what actions did governments take in response?
What are the socio-political fields in which racism is more evident in the US? Why
does, for instance, the US still have a segregated criminal justice system that
does not offer justice to African American people and certainly not if they are
poor? And how is this related to the impressive incidents and shootings that still
happen today? In order to reply to these questions, the first three chapters will
cover the development of American civil rights movements in the 1960’s, along
with the reaction of the government at that time. Chapter 4, 5 and 6 will explore
the current racism cases in the US and the following emergence of new civil right
movements and new government’s responses today. Chapter 7 explores the
question whether the American society is moving towards segregation once
again. Through the analysis of racial violence and institutionalized racism in the
US, the thesis will explore the pros and cons of launching a new Kerner
commission, in chapter 8. This Commission was a bipartisan Congressional effort
that was meant to analyze the structural causes of racism in the US; it provided
strict and clear federal rules to foster racial equality. My ultimate aim is to see
whether the experiment could be successfully replicated in today's America or
not.
7
1. Racial inequality in the US
Racism is the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another.
Racism is also treating someone differently or unfairly, simply because they
belong to a different ethnic community and because of the belief that different
races should remain segregated and apart from one another. Racism consists of
both prejudice and discrimination based in social perceptions of biological
differences between peoples. According to the American Heritage College
Dictionary, racism has two meanings. Firstly, racism is, “The belief that race
accounts for differences in human character or ability and that a particular race is
superior to others.”3 Secondly, racism is, “Discrimination or prejudice based on
race.”4 Racism may not be mistaken for white supremacy. This latter is a form of
racism which is based on the belief that white people are superior in certain
aspects to people of other races. There are many different viewpoints on the
definitions of white racism, black racism, white supremacy, etc. To avoid
confusion, in this dissertation, racism will be used as explained before, by the
American Heritage College Dictionary. In other words, racism often takes the
form of social beliefs or political systems that consider different races to be
ranked as inherently superior or inferior to one another, based on presumed
shared inheritable traits, abilities or qualities. It may also hold that members of
different races should be treated differently. Two historical examples of racism
are slavery and Nazism. Early civilizations were based on the work of slaves.
Only in 1853, America declared freedom of slaves, mostly Afro-Americans. Nazi
ideology addressed its racial discrimination mostly of Jewish people and
promoted the idea that white men were themselves superior than people of other
racial ethnicity.
In the white dominated US culture, racism towards Afro-Americans means that
people of color are treated unequally compared to whites. The historical
development of the concept of racism has unfold towards seeking and
3
N.N., Definition racism. American Heritage Dictionary. Obtained on July 21, 2015 from
https://ahdictionary.com/
4
IDEM
8
maintaining dominance through a complex system of beliefs, behaviors, actions
and practices, employment discrimination, use of language and policies. Racist
beliefs include things like ‘white people are smarter than people of color’ or
‘white people make better teachers’.
During the 1787 Philadelphia Convention, it was agreed that slaves were to be
considered three-fifths people for purposes of taxation and representation. In a
time during which slavery was commonly accepted, black people were deemed
intellectually inferior to whites. White supremacy was therefore entrenched in US
society since the very beginning. Although American society gradually progressed
towards a less racist one, the notion of whites feeling superior persists in
modern-day America in many fields. White police misconduct towards African
Americans is just one example of those racist remains. The groups against which
racism is focused are often accused of causing the problems occurring in a
certain region or land, like unemployment, overpopulation and inflation. But the
reflection of such a systematic failure is visible in many other parts of society:
health care, workplace, housing, life expectancy and poverty. Even in movies and
newspapers, discriminatory associations are still present today. The use of
negative connotations when speaking of ‘African-Americans’ is indeed striking.
No field is perhaps more affected by racism than education. Surveys by the US
Education Department (2011-2012 Civil Rights Data Collection)5 demonstrate
that public school students of color get more punishments and less access to
veteran teachers than their white peers. The surveys include data from every US
school district. Black students are suspended or expelled at triple the rate of
white students. Annually, five percent of white students were suspended,
compared with 16 percent of black students.6 Equal opportunity for education,
which should be one of the basic instruments to extrude racism from a society, is
therefore far from being accomplished. Data prove that the contradiction
between the country of ‘freedom and opportunity’ and its structural racism can
US Department of Education. (2011-2012). Civil Rights Data Collection. Retrieved on July 15th, 2015, from
http://ocrdata.ed.gov/
5
6
IDEM
9
be interpreted as a systemic failure and it is therefore important to look at its
inmost socio-political causes.
2. Anti-racism social movements protecting civil rights
of African American people (1960’s)
2.1 Introduction
It looks like history is repeating itself. Did the abolition of the Jim Crow Laws and
the struggle of anti-racism advocates and movements, like Malcolm X, Martin
Luther King, Marcus Garvey and African American feminists mean anything? Do
anti-racism social movements, in the guise of those that emerged since the
1960’s onward, still mean something for the Afro-American population in the US
today? A look back.
Despite the obstacles to obtain equality before the law, African Americans have
set a determined path to make the words of the Declaration of Independence a
reality for themselves and others. The Unites States has a long tradition of social
movements demanding civil rights and equal opportunity. But the 1960’s deeply
changed the situation in the US. For at least a couple of reasons. On the one
hand, widespread exposure in mass media was possible. Television helped
galvanize public opinion in favor of integration and against the violent resistance
of white supremacists. “What mattered hugely was that in 1963 everyone had a
television and in 1953 almost nobody did. I think it’s very possible that the Civil
Rights Movement plays out very differently had it not been for television,” author
Michael Klarman argues.7 On the other hand, a new generation of leaders paved
the way for a successful struggle against racism. In 1963, Martin Luther King
held his famous ‘I Have a Dream’ speech. The civil rights activist was bugged,
harassed, smeared and attacked by the same country that now celebrates him
on ‘Martin Luther King Jr. day’ and names streets, all across the country, after
him. MLK had not only the courage to condemn the violence against African
KLARMAN, M. Unfinished Business: Racial Equality in American History. England, Oxford University Press,
2007, 272 p.
7
10
Americans and the actions of the Ku Klux Klan but also the bravery to criticize
the violence of the American government itself. As Barack Obama publicly
acknowledged, “MLK had hope, but it was rooted in years of study and struggle,
not in looking the other way. Hope is not magical. Hope is earned.”8 Civil rights
movements peaked during the 1960’s. Out of feelings of oppression, African
American citizens campaigned through nonviolent protests for equality before the
law. The African American Civil Rights Movement aimed at ensuring equal
protection by the law of the rights of all people. The Black Power movement
aimed at political and economic self-sufficiency. Until 1965, the Jim Crow Laws
obliged racial segregation in all public facilities;
schools, transportation,
restaurants, in the South. The ‘separate but equal’ status for African Americans
marked them as an inferior race. Numerous court rulings, the Civil Rights Act of
1964 and the Voting Right Act of 1965 were needed to finally put an end to the
racial segregation, in theory of course. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited
racial discrimination in voting. The passing of this Act, signed by President L.B.
Johnson, was a major turning point for African American citizens in the US.9
These progresses were relevant and much needed but they were not enough and
segregation de facto continued in many subtle ways. Whites altered their house
prices and attitudes according to the race of the person renting/buying. That
way,
African
Discrimination
Americans
was
even
would
a
be
common
excluded
practice
from
in
their
services
neighborhoods.
like
banking,
supermarkets, job opportunities and health care. It may be not so outspoken but
this phenomenon, called ‘redlining’10, continues even today.
Moreover, throughout the Cold War, American racism the persistence of mass
violence and lynching became a major concern for many of the US allies. This
issue harmed foreign relations, undermined US’s reputation and public image
abroad was inconsistent with its claimed hegemony and eventually made out of
8
COATES, T. Barack Obama, Ferguson, and the Evidence of Things Unsaid. The Atlantic, November 26, 2014.
LESTER, R. A Guide to Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969: Records of the White House
Conference on Civil Rights 965-1966. USA, University Publications of America Inc, 1985, 68 p.
9
D'ROZARIO, D. and WILLIAMS, J.D., Retail Redlining: Definition, Theory, Typology, and Measurement.
Journal of Macromarketing. December 2005, vol. 25, nr. 2, p. 175-186.
10
11
‘the Negro Problem’, the real Achilles’ heel of the Truman-, Eisenhower-,
Kennedy- and L.B. Johnson administrations.
2.2 The Big Five
The so-called Big Five were the main civil rights denominations that, from the
1960’s onward, opposed racism in the US and pushed the American government
for a substantial change concerning racial equality.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)11
Founded in 1909, in New York City by a group of multi-racial activists, the NAACP
is the nation's oldest and largest civil rights organization. It was founded in
response to deadly race riots in Springfield, Illinois. Their main aim was to
integrate African American people into all areas of life in the US. In 1910, the
NAACP started a magazine, the Crisis12, which was edited by Afro-American
leader William Edward Burghardt Du Bois.13 It was a premier crusading voice for
civil rights. Today, the Crisis still exists and continues its mission.
Organizations like this are necessary since they dare to criticize and counter
argue American government and public opinion leaders. In 1913, the NAACP
publically criticized president Woodrow Wilson, who officially re-introduced
segregation into federal government. After intense pressure by the NAACP,
Wilson finally publically condemned lynching. During the war, the NAACP
successfully pressured President Franklin D. Roosevelt to ban discrimination in
federal government agencies and defense industries. Roosevelt ultimately agreed
to open thousands of jobs to African American workers.14 In 1948, the NAACP
pressured President Truman into signing the Executive Order that formally
11
Website NAACP: http://www.naacp.org/
SINITIERE, P. L., Of Faith and Fiction: Teaching W. E. B. Du Bois and Religion. History Teacher, May 2012,
vol. 45, nr. 3, p. 421-436.
12
ENGLAND, L. and WARNER, W. K., W. E. B. Du Bois: Reform, Will, and the Veil. Social Forces, March 2013,
vol. 91, nr. 3, p. 955-973.
13
SCHENCK, W., Black Americans in the Roosevelt Era. Library Journal. 15 December 1979, vol. 104, nr. 22, p.
2647.
14
12
banned discrimination by the Federal government.15 In 1954, the organization
won a landmark case before the US Supreme Court (Brown v. Board of
Education) that declared racially segregated public schools unconstitutional. In
the 50’s and 60’s, many celebrities and leaders, including Sammy Davis Jr., Lena
Horne, Jackie Robinson, Harry Belafonte and Ella Baker stressed the importance
of recruiting young people and women in the ranks of organizations and their
crucial contribution in raising money and organizing local campaigns.
Today, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People has
approximately 425,000 members and its executive director, Roy Wilkins, is
ascribed as the most astute political personality in civil rights.16
The National Urban League (NUL)17
The aim of The National Urban League (1910) is to lead the African American
into mainstream life through projects concerning education, job training, welfare
and housing. During the 1960’s, this committee initiated an alternative education
system to prepare high school dropouts for college. The committee campaigned
to crack the barriers to Afro-American employment. Today, more than hundred
local affiliates of the National Urban League are located in thirty-five states.18
The Congress Of Racial Equality (CORE)19
This biracial community action organization, founded in 1942, believes in direct
actions such as demonstrations and marches to reach legal equality. The
organization is known for its sweeping attacks and his national director Floyd
McKissinck, one of the principal advocates of Black Power. During the 1960’s,
CORE organized monthly membership meetings and elected officers and
TAUBER, S., The NAACP Legal Defense Fund and the U.S. Supreme Court's racial discrimination decision
making. Social Science Quarterly, University of Texas Press, June 1999, vol. 80, nr. 2, p. 325.
15
WILKINS, R., The Quiet Revolutionary of the NAACP. Publishers Weekly. 28 October 2013, vol. 260, nr. 43, p.
52-52.
16
17
Website NUL: http://nul.iamempowered.com/
18
ROZ, A.-W., The new rights agenda. Black Enterprise, August 1997, vol. 28, nr. 1, p. 85.
19
Website CORE: http://www.core-online.org/
13
committees of volunteers, similar to a trade union. The organization opposed the
Jim Crow Laws, school segregation, job- and housing discrimination and strived
for voting rights. By the mid 60’s, founder James Farmer became disenchanted
with
the
emerging
African
American
nationalist
sentiments
within
the
organization. According to him, these sentiments would lead to the Black Panther
Party20, an organization that did not oppose US government and which was much
more violent than CORE wanted to be.21
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)22
Both Martin Luther King Jr. and his son MLK III lead the SCLC. Organized by
Martin Luther King Jr. and originally created for action in the South, the
organization’s main political objective was racial integration and full equality.
Mass demonstrations and marches have been MLK’s and the organization’s
trademark.23 The SCLC was considered more radical than the NAACP since the
members, who mobilized mass participation in boycotts and marches, engaged in
direct-action
protest
disobedience
and
and
favored
civil
disobedience.
lobbying,
The
NAACP
educational campaigns
opposed
and
civil
lawsuits.
Organizing successful mass protest movements, the SCLC embodied the vision,
hopes, aspirations, activism and philosophy of its founding president, Dr. MLK.
King’s philosophy for nonviolent direct action struck many as an appropriate
strategy for social advancement and social justice.24 In Alabama, the 7th of March
1965, Dr. King led six hundred African American human rights activists marching
from the peaceful city of Selma to Montgomery, the capital of the Southern
state. They already achieved voting rights but African Americans were still not
20
More detailed information on the BPP on p. 15.
MCKISSICK, F., Congress of Racial Equality. U.S. News & World Report. May 13, 1991, vol. 110, nr. 18, p.
21.
21
22
Website SCLC: http://nationalsclc.org/
ROGERS, M., Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.
Library Journal. February 15, 2004, vol. 129, nr. 3, p. 168.
23
BOEHM, R. and HYDRICK, B., Records of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1954-1970.
Bethesda (MD), University Publications of America, 1995, 72 p.
24
14
able to register as ‘voters’. The local government sent them back and forth.25 At
the Edmund Pettus Bridge, named after the man who once lead the Ku Klux Klan
(almost
unbelievable
but
the
bridge
still
bears
this
name),
peaceful
demonstrators were confronted with brutal police force. These latter attacked the
protesters with tear gas, truncheons and lashes. The images circulated
throughout the world media and that day became a turning point in Martin
Luther King’s nonviolent struggle. Eventually, the march led to the adoption of
the Voting Rights Act of 1965.26
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)27
This action group emerged from a student meeting and was one of the leading
civil rights organizations during the 60’s. SNCC ushered in a decade of civil rights
activism undertaken by African Americans and sympathetic whites whose
methods became more militant as their goals broadened.28 Its existence ended in
the 70’s.29
2.3 Other movements
The Black Panther Party (BPP)
The Black Panther Party was a revolutionary African American nationalist and
socialist organization, active in the United States from 1966 until 1982. The AfroAmerican population in Oakland was concentrated in poor urban ghettos with
high unemployment and substandard housing and where African American
CHILDERS, H.L., To Redeem the Soul of America: Public Relations and The Civil Rights Movement. Journal of
Public Relations Research, 1997, vol. 9, nr. 3, p. 163-212.
25
N.N., Turning 15 on the Road to Freedom: My Story of the 1965 Selma Voting Rights March. Publishers
Weekly. November 24, 2014, vol. 261, nr. 48, p. 78.
26
D'ADDARIO, D., Making Selma History. Time. January 19, 2015, vol. 185, nr. 1, p. 52-55.
27
Website SNCC: http://onevotesncc.org/stories/story-sncc/
N.N., The Student nonviolent coordinating committee papers, 1959-1972. Sanford (NC), MLK Jr. Center for
Nonviolent Social Change, 1981, 76 p.
28
PAYNE, Ch. M., More Than a Symbol of Freedom: Education for Liberation and Democracy. Phi Delta Kappa,
September 2003, vol. 85, nr. 1, p. 22-28.
29
15
people were mostly excluded from political representation, top universities and
the middle class.
On April 1, 1967, an unarmed twenty-two year old African American construction
worker named Denzil Dowell was shot to death by the police in North Richmond.
The county officials refused to investigate the case and two activists, Newton and
Seale, decided to help Dowell's family. They put on a uniform of blue shirts, black
pants, -leather jackets and -berets. The Black Panther Party's core practice was
its armed citizens' patrols to monitor the behavior of police officers and challenge
police brutality. Unfortunately, carrying weapons openly and making threats
against police officers gave the Panthers the reputation of a violent organization.
Party members engaged in criminal activities such as extortion, stealing, violent
discipline of BPP members and robberies.
The Black Panther Party newspaper portrayed women as revolutionaries, using
the example of party members such as Kathleen Cleaver (American professor of
law at universities like Yale and Emory), Angela Davis (American political activist,
scholar and author) and Ericka Huggins (African American activist and educator),
all politically-driven and intelligent women. They stated in several articles that
the role of female Panthers was to stand behind black men and be supportive.
Later the Black Panther Party newspaper officially stated that men and women
are equal and instructed male Panthers to treat female Party members as equals.
In 1970, approximately 40% to 70% of Party members were women. During the
early 1970’s, Hollywood celebrities like Jane Fonda and others like the French
writer Jean Genet, left-wing civil rights attorney Charles R. Garry became
involved in the Panthers' leftist programs.
However, the history of the Black Panther Party is controversial. Some
commentators described the Party as more criminal than political. Others have
characterized the BPP as the most influential African American movement
organization of the late 1960’s, and the strongest link between the domestic
Black Liberation Struggle and global opponents of American imperialism.30
BLOOM, J. and MARTIN, W. E., Black Against Empire: The History & Politics of the Black Panther Party. USA,
University of California Press, January 10, 2014, 560 p.
30
16
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)31
The National Woman Suffrage Association, founded in 1869, differed about
whether a woman's right to vote should stem from a federal Constitutional
amendment or from state legislatures. NAWSA represented millions of women
and was the parent organization of hundreds of smaller local and state groups.
The organization focused on recruiting new members and winning the vote for
women. They condemned the 14th and 15th amendments, which defined ‘citizens’
and ‘voters’ as ‘male’, as blatant injustices to women. The NAWSA pushed for
suffrage at the state level. They forced the federal government to pass the
amendment. They also struggled to end women’s discrimination in pay and
employment.32 Along with many other feminist groups, the NAWSA brought
society a step closer to social justice. They gave African American women an
opportunity and a chance for proving their equality in terms of intelligence.33
Women known for fighting racism and striving for tolerance are:
Harriet Tubman, (1822–1913) was an African American escaped slave and
abolitionist who devoted her life to working as a conductor on the Underground
Railroad, helping other slaves get to safety.34
Ida B. Wells (1862–1931) was an Afro-American journalist, newspaper editor, a
leader in the Civil Rights Movement and also active in women's rights and the
women's suffrage movements.35
Mary Church Terrell (1863–1954) was a suffragist, a charter member of the
NAACP and the first president of the National Association of Colored Women. She
was an early advocate for civil rights and the suffrage movement.36
LUMSDEN, L., Good mothers with guns: framing black womanhood in the Black Panther, 1968-1980. Journalism
& Mass Communication Quarterly. Winter 2009, vol. 86, nr. 4, p. 900-922.
31
Website NAWSA: http://www.brynmawr.edu/library/exhibits/suffrage/nawsa.html
MCDEVITT, T., Winning the Vote: The Triumph of the American Woman Suffrage Movement. Library Journal,
November 1, 2005, vol. 130, nr. 18, p. 96.
32
MOORE, L. S., Women and the Emergence of the NAACP. Journal of Social Work Education, 2013, vol. 49, nr.
3, p. 476-489.
33
ALTER, C., Harriet Tubman Wins Poll for Woman on $20 Bill (May 19, 2015). Retrieved on June 4, 2015, from
Time.com.
34
DRAY, P., Yours for Justice, Ida B. Wells: The Daring Life of a Crusading Journalist. Publishers Weekly.
February 11, 2008, vol. 255, nr. 6, p. 69.
35
17
Josephine Baker (1906-1975) devoted herself to fighting segregation and racism
in the United States. She spoke out vehemently against Nazism and all forms of
racism.37
Rosa Parks (1913-2005) is most known for refusing to cede her seat in the bus
for the white passengers. She was arrested for civil disobedience and was found
guilty on all charges.38 Parks received many awards for her courage and wrote
four books. Recently, she was honored by President Obama in the Selma March.
Angela Davis, (1944) is an activist, scholar and writer who advocates for the
oppressed.
2.4 Conclusion
The Big Five, the BPP, the NAWSA and several feminists gave a voice to
minorities. All these social movements prove the desire for change that was
present in the 1960’s. The emergence of street protests and unification during
this time set the blueprint for change. These movements provide the foundation
and inspiration for social action today.
3. Government’s responses
3.1 Introduction
The history of the US has been characterized both by inclusion (European
immigrants) and exclusion (African Americans, Native Americans and Hispanic
people are the groups who suffered the most from this). After the Civil War,
slavery was abolished. Yet, backed by economic interests, the Reconstruction did
not imply full racial desegregation. This has been a process that has required
time and effort: two world wars that reshaped the role of citizens in modern
societies, several social movements that mobilized people and raised awareness,
WHITE, G. M., Mary Church Terrell: Organizer of Black Women. Integrated Education, Sep.-Dec. 1979, vol.
17, nr. 5-6, p. 2-8.
36
CORNOG, M., Remembering Josephine Baker (Book Review). Library Journal, November 15, 1976, vol. 101,
nr. 20, p. 2365.
37
DOVE, R., Rosa Parks. Her simple act of protest galvanized America's civil rights revolution. Time
International (Canada Edition). June 14, 1999, vol. 153, nr. 23, p. 114-117.
38
18
and an active Supreme Court, that has often taken the lead in promoting civil
rights.
Civil rights leaders, like King, argued that Afro-Americans had been denied their
fair share of good jobs, income, wealth and political seats. Dr. King spoke on the
eve of the great riot that exploded in Watts, Los Angeles, on August 11, 1965
and stated that the only effective remedies were racially preferential policies.
Over the next three years, 329 racial disturbances took place in 257 Cities,
resulting in nearly 300 deaths, 8,000 injuries, 60,000 arrests, and property
losses in the hundreds of millions of dollars.39 Because of the eruptions in Watts
and MLK’s death, violence consumed the ghettos and polarized white Americans.
The federal state and local governments responded by appropriating funds and
establish crash programs to alleviate some of the grievances highlighted by the
bloody uprisings. Under Nixon, the advocates of ‘Law and Order’ triumphed over
the proponents of ‘Equality and Justice’. The Kerner Commission perceived the
miserable conditions in which African Americans were forced to live in the
ghettos and the white racism that perpetuated them as the main cause of the
riots.
The
Commission’s
recommendations
were
costly
governmental
measurements on unemployment, poor housing and poverty. “Two decades later,
the KC still has relevance for a society that continues to face virtually the same
problems in its inner cities. This nation will deserve neither safety nor progress
unless it can demonstrate the wisdom and the will to undertake decisive action
against the root causes of racial disorder.”40
3.2 Kerner Commission
Examining the Kerner Report’s history, its recommended policies and -solutions
provide an insight in the American government’s attempt to respond to the race
THERNSTROM, S., SIEGEL, F. and WOODSON, R., The Kerner Commission Report. Lecture, Washington DC,
The Heritage Foundation, March 13, 1998.
39
LESTER, R. A Guide to Civil Rights during the Johnson Administration, 1963-1969: Records of the White
House Conference on Civil Rights 965-1966. USA, University Publications of America Inc, 1985, 68 p.
40
19
riots.41 Evaluating how these policies have fared, forty-six years later, permits a
vision on its effectiveness.
The race riots throughout the mid 1960’s were a security problem that needed to
be first of all understood. Hence, in 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson formed
an eleven-member National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders to examine
the causes of the urban riots that plagued cities such as Newark, Chicago, Los
Angeles and Detroit, since 1965. The so-called Kerner Commission, named after
his chairman Otto Kerner, had to respond to the following questions about the
riots: What happened? Why did it happened? What can be done to prevent it
from happening again?
After seven months of investigation, the report of the National Advisory
Commission on Civil Disorders, the Kerner report, was released on February 29,
1968 and provided data concerning the harsh working and living conditions of
millions of African Americans. The riots were the result of a lack of economic
opportunity for Afro-American communities. The report criticized both the federal
government and several state authorities. Moreover, sharp criticism was directed
at the media, which, according to the commission, added fuel to the fire. The
basic conclusion was that the nation was moving towards two societies, one
African American and one white, separate and unequal. Segregation and poverty
have created a destructive environment in the ghetto, unknown to white
Americans. The main course of urban violence was white racism and white
America bore much of the responsibility for African American rioting and
rebellion.
The
Afro-American
violence
was
caused
by
police
practices,
unemployment and underemployment, inadequate education, ineffectiveness of
the political structure, discriminatory administration of justice, inadequacy of
federal programs, inadequate welfare programs and so on. As a response, the
commission recommended that the government invest in housing and job
programs to improve living conditions for African American people and end the
segregation of many urban neighborhoods. Furthermore, it called for more racial
KERNER, O. The Kerner Report: The 1968 Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders,
USA, Pantheon Books, November 1, 1988, 513 p.
41
20
diversity among police forces, investment in education and redistribution of
income.42
President Lyndon B. Johnson had already pushed through the Civil Right Act and
the Voting Rights Act, hence, he largely ignored the report and even rejected
many of the Kerner Commission’s recommendations. The Millennium Breach,
which presents the effectiveness of the Kerner Commission, found that during
most of the decade that followed the Kerner Report, America made progress on
the principal fronts the report dealt with: race, poverty, and inner cities. Then
progress stopped and in some ways reversed by a series of economic shocks and
trends and the government’s action and inaction. One month after the release of
the report, in April 1968, civil rights leader Martin Luther King, was assassinated
and rioting broke out in more than hundred cities. This demonstrates how the
Report just remained a theoretical change. In reality, people who made an effort
to change the system of discrimination were forced to silence.43
Criticism on the report
Looking back on the Commission, it resembles a who’s who of liberal elites in the
late 1960’s, claims the Heritage Foundation, a research and educational
institution. By criticizing the Kerner Report in a lecture, organized by the
Foundation, several authors have addressed the failed legacy of liberal social
policy.
Author and Professor of history at Harvard University, Stephan Thernstrom
criticizes the report and claims it lacks credibility. How is it even possible to
reach equality when the ‘competition’ starts with a lack of tools for one group?
The Afro-Americans “are passive and helpless, who can hardly walk, much less
run, because of the chains whites had put them in. What whites had done, only
other (more benevolent) whites could undo.”44 The focus of the report rather lies
on equal outcome for groups than on equal opportunity for individuals. “Blacks
42
LOESSBERG, R.A., An Analysis of the Kerner Report. USA, University of Texas, 1981, 166 p.
43
SKRENTNY, J.D., The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America. USA, University
of Chicago, 1996, p. 97-102.
44
THERNSTROM, S., SIEGEL, F. and WOODSON, R., The Kerner Commission Report. Lecture, Washington DC,
The Heritage Foundation, March 13, 1998.
21
are too crippled to compete on equal terms with whites”. Thernstrom also argues
that the report does not provide an answer to why and where the riots occurred.
The commission took for granted that white racism lays at the basis of the riots.
He vouches his criticism by asking the question “if the problem was white racism,
why didn't the riots occur in the 1930’s, when prevailing white racial attitudes
were far more barbaric than they were in the 1960’s?”45 The commission
provided unjust information by declaring that the socioeconomic conditions of
African Americans were declining and that the nation was splitting into a black
and a white society, separate and unequal.
Author, columnist for the New York Post and professor, Fred Siegel also criticizes
the report by claiming that it did more harm than good. According to him, the
report assumed that African Americans were so harmed that they did not need
help to make it into society, but a layoff from society, a sort of pension from
society.46
4. Current situation - Recent racism issues
4.1 Introduction
Evaluating a society is difficult when one is not experiencing itself. Hence, we, as
Europeans can only try to understand American values and the outcomes of it.
On the other hand, the distance allows us to have a more neutral point of view
on what is going on in American society.
4.2 The most recent racism cases
In the mid 1930’s the NAACP noted “It is the fear of lynching and physical
violence, which more than anything else cripples our progress and prevents our
taking a more active part in the fight against the injustices heaped upon us”. The
NAACP provided change through their external pressure, which encouraged
public opinion to raise their voice and made the federal government intervene.
45
THERNSTROM, S., SIEGEL, F. and WOODSON, R., The Kerner Commission Report. Lecture, Washington DC,
The Heritage Foundation, March 13, 1998.
46
IDEM
22
The recent race issues prove that African American people are still forced to
experience the fear of lynching and physical violence.47
Below, a short description of the recent racism cases in the United States. These
incidents received national and international coverage.
Trayvon Martin
The Trayvon Martin case was the first of many racism issues in the US, which
received international media attention. In 2012, an unarmed, seventeen-year-old
African American from Miami Gardens was killed by George Zimmerman, a
neighborhood watch volunteer, in Sanford, Florida as he walked to his father's
home in a gated community.48 The case has gained national attention, as
Zimmerman was not initially arrested or charged. Zimmerman claimed selfdefense in shooting Trayvon Martin. After nearly six weeks and considerable
public outcry, a jury acquitted him of second-degree murder and manslaughter
charges.49 The case became a flashpoint in the conversations about racial
profiling and gun laws.
The execute of Eric Garner for illegal cigarettes
On July 17, 2014, Eric Garner, a forty-three-year-old Afro-American man died in
the Tompkinsville neighborhood of Staten Island in New York, when a police
officer, Daniel Pantaleo, put him in a chokehold. Pantaleo claimed he approached
Garner because he was selling unlicensed cigarettes, better known as ‘loosies’,
and that he resisted arrest. A bystander, Ramsey Orta, filmed the arrest, which
went viral. Eric Garner complained that he could not breathe as he was subdued
by cops. The video of the arrest shows Garner repeatedly screaming ‘I can't
breathe!’, before his body goes limp. His eleven-times repeated death rattle
OLZAK, S., The Political Context of Competition: Lynching and Urban Racial Violence, 1882-1914. Social
Forces, December 1990, vol. 69, nr. 2, p. 395-421.
47
48
N.N., We Are All Trayvon Martin. Black Enterprise, May 2012, vol. 42, nr. 10, p. 10.
49
FINKEL, E., Shifting Ground. ABA Journal, July 2013, vol. 99, nr. 7, p. 64.
23
became a slogan chanted by hundred thousand people protesting against the
abuse of African American civilians by police men.50
The autopsy determined the victim died from compression of the neck. A medical
examiner said asthma, obesity and high blood pressure were also contributing
factors in his death. Garner weighed 350 pounds (160 kg) and was 6'3" (1.91 m)
tall. The autopsy also found that compressions to the chest and prone positioning
during physical restraint by police killed Garner. The manner of death, according
to the medical examiner, was homicide.51
Daniel Pantaleo was a New York City Police Department officer who was, at the
time of Garner's death, twenty-nine years old and living in Eltingville, Staten
Island. Pantaleo was the subject of two civil rights lawsuits in 2013. Plaintiffs
accused Pantaleo of falsely arresting them and abusing them. In one of the
cases, Pantaleo and other officers ordered two African American men to strip
naked on the street for a search and the charges against the men were
dismissed. The Staten Island grand jury failed to hold Officer Daniel Pantaleo
responsible for Garner’s death.
Many protesters, angered at the killing of unarmed African American men by
white
police
officers,
marched
through
the
streets
of
Manhattan
and
demonstrated in many other cities in the US. It grew to an international mass
protest against police brutality.52
Erica Garner, Eric Gartner’s daughter said: “It could be you, everybody could be
Eric Garner, there are a lot of Eric Garners out there, a lot of innocent people
beaten down by police. I hope these protesters accomplish a lot. I hope it shows
ASSEFA, H. and DIROY, D., New Yorkers Continue to Call for Justice for Eric Garner (12/18/14). Retrieved on
June 4, 2015, from Time.com.
50
CALABRESI, M., Why a Medical Examiner Called Eric Garner’s Death a ‘Homicide’ (12/8/14). Retrieved on
June 15, 2015, from Time.com.
51
52
DOCKTERMAN, E., Protestors Rally for Second Night Against Decision in Eric Garner Case (12/8/2014).
Retrieved on June 15, 2015, from Time.com.
24
people that we’re very passionate about this and that we are not going to stop
until we get justice.”53
After several people were asphyxiated while in police custody, the NYPD forbade
the use of chokeholds in 1983, stating it could only be used when an officer’s life
was in danger.
Garner had been previously arrested for selling untaxed cigarettes, driving
without a license, marijuana possession, grand larceny and false impersonation.
The moment he was arrested he was out on bail. Garner had a criminal record
that includes more than thirty arrests dating back to 1980. An official said the
charges include multiple incidents in which he was arrested for allegedly selling
unlicensed cigarettes.
The shooting of Michael Brown
Michael Brown, an eighteen-year-old African American man was gunned down by
police, who fired ten times. Brown was unarmed. These facts occurred on August
9, 2014, in Ferguson, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis. Brown was fatally shot by
Darren Wilson, a twenty-eight-year-old white Ferguson police officer.54
Shortly before the shooting, Michael Brown stole several cigarillos and shoved a
store clerk at a nearby convenience store. Darren Wilson had been notified by
police dispatch of the robbery and the suspect's description and stopped Brown
and his friend Dorian Johnson, while they were walking down the middle of the
street, for blocking traffic. Wilson told them to ‘get the f--k on the sidewalk’. The
two refused to get on the sidewalk and Wilson drove at an angle to block them.
An altercation ensued with Brown and Wilson struggling through the window of
the police vehicle until Wilson's gun was fired. Brown and Johnson then fled in
different directions. Wilson, in pursuit of Brown, fired a total of twelve rounds.
Brown ran for his life, stopping at one point with his hands up in surrender and
yelling, ‘I don't have a gun, stop shooting!’. But the bullets hit Brown, who
N.N., Die-in’: Police chokehold victim Eric Garner's daughter leads Staten Island protest (12/12/14).
Retrieved on July 20, 2015, from rt.com.
53
VON DREHLE, D. The Long, Tangled Roots of the Michael Brown Shooting (8/14/2014). Retrieved on June 19,
2015, from Time.com.
54
25
collapsed onto the ground. He was hit seven or eight times and the last one was
probably the fatal shot. Witness reports differed as to whether and when Brown
had his hands raised and whether he was moving toward Wilson when the final
shots were fired.55
Police paint a less peaceful account of the moments leading up to the shooting.
They say a fight broke out after the officer asked the two to move to the side and
say the officer's gun went off inside the patrol car. They have not said why the
officer approached the men in the first place. There was no security camera
footage from nearby buildings or police dash-cam video of the incident.
A few days after the shooting incident, the Ferguson Police Department released
a video of the convenience store robbery. The timing of the video release
received criticism from some media, some public officials and the Brown family
who viewed the release as an attempt to besmirch Michael Brown. Others said
the video was informative as to Brown's state of mind, with the shooting incident
coming so shortly after the robbery and according to Darren Wilson, the recent
police dispatch of the convenience store theft was a factor in his decision to
confront Brown.
The grand jury of the Supreme Court responsible for deciding whether Ferguson,
Missouri, police officer Darren Wilson should be indicted for the shooting death of
Michael Brown has returned its answer: no. Also the department of justice stated
that the police officer not acted out of ‘criminal intention’.
The news of the next shooting came during the highly charged aftermath of two
grand jury decisions not to indict white police officers who killed unarmed African
American men, Eric Garner in Staten Island and Michael Brown in Ferguson,
Missouri.56
The shooting of Tamir Rice
On November 22, 2014 the twenty-six-year-old Cleveland Police officer Timothy
Loehmann Police shot Tamir Rice, a twelve-year-old African American boy, in a
55
N.N., Michael Brown Shooting, Storyline. Retrieved on June 4, 2015, from nbcnews.com.
DOCKTERMAN, E., See Congressional Staffers Stage a Powerful Walkout Over Grand Jury Decisions
(12/17/2014). Retrieved on June 7, 2015, from Time.com.
56
26
city park. Rice was carrying a toy airsoft gun.57 The boy was hit in the torso and
he died the next day. The Police officer shot Rice within seconds after getting out
of his patrol car and arriving at the scene.
Two police officers, Loehmann and the forty-six-year-old Frank Garmback,
responded after receiving a police dispatch call describing a ‘young black male’
brandishing a gun at people in a city park. A caller reported that a young boy
was pointing a pistol at random people in the Cleveland Recreation Center and
stated twice that the gun was probably fake.
Police have said that Loehmann opened fire after Rice reached for the gun in his
waistband and that an orange tip indicating the gun was a toy had been
removed. In the aftermath of the shooting, it was reported that Loehmann, in his
previous job as a policeman in Independence, Ohio, had been deemed an
emotionally unstable recruit and unfit for duty.58
The death of Tamir Rice has been ruled a homicide by the Cuyahoga County
medical examiner. Tamir's family has filed a lawsuit against two officers and the
city over his death. The Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Office will investigate the
shooting and Cuyahoga County Prosecutor Tim McGinty will turn over evidence to
a grand jury, which will decide whether to press criminal charges against the
officers involved.
The incident received national and international coverage, in part due to the time
of its occurrence; the recent police shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson,
Missouri and the death of Eric Garner in Staten Island, New York.59
GILLISPIE, M., Tamir Rice’s Friend Warned Him to Be Careful With Pellet Gun Before Police Shooting
(6/15/2015). Retrieved on June 20, 2015 from Time.com.
57
RHODAN, M., Officer in Tamir Rice Shooting Death Said to Have Handgun Performance Issues (12/4/2014).
Retrieved on June 5, 2015, from Time.com.
58
59
N.N., From Trayvon Martin to Walter Scott. Time, April 20, 2015, vol. 185, nr. 14, p. 28-29.
27
Phoenix Officer killed unarmed Rumain Brisbon
Mark Rine, a thirty-year-old white Phoenix police officer, shot and killed Rumain
Brisbon, an unarmed thirty-four-year-old African American man and father of
four, on December 2, 2014.60
Eyewitnesses and the police tell different accounts of what happened. Police
officer Mark Rine, approached Brisbon's SUV while investigating a suspected drug
deal. According to police officials, after Brisbon stepped out of his car and Rine
ordered him to show his hands, Brisbon reached for his waistband. Police say
Brisbon ignored orders and struggled with the officer. The officer fired two shots
into Brisbon's torso after mistaking some other object for a gun. The object
turned out to be a vial of oxycodone, a pain reliever and not a gun. But at least
one witness told the Arizona Republic that he never saw the officer talk to
Brisbon.
Media writes: “Police are considerably slower to press the 'don't shoot' button for
an unarmed African American man than they are for an unarmed white man and
faster to shoot an armed African American man than an armed white man.”61
UVA Student arrested while bleeding
Martese Johnson, a twenty-year-old student from Chicago was arrested outside a
bar on March 18, 2015 and charged with public intoxication or swearing, and
obstruction of justice without force.62
“His head was slammed into the hard pavement with excessive force”, school
officials said in a statement.63 One witness said the use of force was
unnecessary. This brutal arrest happened at the University of Virginia last March
RAYMAN, N., Phoenix Cop Shoots Unarmed Black Man During Struggle (12/8/2014). Retrieved on June 8,
2015, from Time.com.
60
NOAH, R., Phoenix Cop Shoots Unarmed Black Man During Struggle (12/4/2014). Retrieved on June 5, 2015,
from Time.com.
61
O'DELL, L., Charges Dropped Against UVA Student Bloodied During Arrest (6/12/2015). Retrieved on June
12, 2015, from Time.com.
62
GOLGOWSKI, N., MURPHY, D., SILVERSTEIN J. University of Virginia student's bloody arrest sparks massive
protest, governor's call for investigation. New York Daily News, March 18, 2015.
63
28
and was filmed. The video of the arrest went viral, which lead to national
attention. If it were not for social media, the case might have been just another
police file.
The school organization promoted a night protest through its Facebook page,
originally intending to hold it in a classroom. But so many students showed up,
an estimated three hundred, that the demonstration was moved to the campus
amphitheater. As students chanted and held a candlelight vigil, Johnson stood
somberly in the middle of the crowd.64
The shooting of Tony Robinson
In Madison, Wisconsin, Tony Robinson, an African American nineteen-year-old
teenager, was shot Friday night, march 6th, 2015, after assaulting the white
veteran Officer Matt Kenny. Robinson was unarmed. He died at a hospital.65
Two thousand students marched on Wisconsin's capital to protest the fatal
shooting. Hundreds of high school and university students left their classrooms
and occupied the state capitol building. They chanted ‘we want justice now’ and
‘Black Lives Matter’. Turin Carter, Robinson's uncle, said his family was calling for
a thorough investigation. His family was concerned about systematic targeting of
young black males in police shootings. They have demanded justice. The police
chief has apologized and pledged transparency in the investigation of the
shooting.66
The police murder of Anthony Hill
On March 9, 2015, twenty-seven-year-old Afro-American Anthony Hill was
gunned down by a white police officer outside an apartment complex in Atlanta.
Hill struggled with mental illness, given his behavior. He was walking and rolling
GOLGOWSKI, N., MURPHY, D. and SILVERSTEIN, J., University of Virginia student's bloody arrest sparks
massive protest, governor's call for investigation. New York Daily News, March 18, 2015.
64
LUCKERSON, V., No Criminal Charges for Wisconsin Cop in Unarmed Teen’s Shooting Death (7/22/2015).
Retrieved on July 25, 2015, from Time.com.
65
SANBURN, J., From Trayvon Martin to Walter Scott: Shooting Cases in the Spotlight (4/14/2015). Retrieved
on July 4, from Time.com.
66
29
around on the ground in his apartment complex completely naked and unarmed.
The officer, who was white, met the man in the parking lot of the apartment
block. Hill ran at the officer, did not stop when ordered to, so the policeman shot
him twice.67
Shooting of Walter Scott
On April 4, 2015, Walter Scott, a fifty-year-old Afro-American man was shot by a
South Carolina police officer, Michael Slager. Scott, who was pulled over for a
broken taillight, was shot with eight bullets in the back because of running away
from the traffic stop. 68
69
Slager was charged with murder after a video surfaced
contradicting his initial police report. The video showed him shooting the
unarmed Scott from behind while Scott was fleeing.
70
Death of Freddie Gray
April 12, 2015, Baltimore. Freddie C. Gray, a twent-five-year-old African
American is arrested for having a switchblade in his possession. During the
transport to the police station, Gray falls in a coma and dies several days later,
on April 19, due to injuries on his spinal cord. It is assumed that Baltimore police
officers used unnecessary force against the African American man, during his
arrest.71 His death evoked civil unrest and protest actions in downtown
Baltimore, in the state of Maryland. Even after his funeral, violent civil disorder
kept going on. Local stores were burned, thirty-four people were arrested and
fifteen police officers got injured. On April 27, a state of emergency was declared
by Lawrence Hogan, the governor and national guard of Baltimore, Maryland.
The widespread distrust towards the police made African American people in
67
KING, S., The tragically unnecessary police murder of Anthony Hill. Daily Kos, March 10, 2015.
MAZZA E., Michael Slager, Cop In Walter Scott Shooting, Reportedly Heard Laughing Afterward (4/13/15).
Retrieved on Jul 2, 2015, from Rhuffingtonpost.com.
68
ROGERS, A., Rep. Jim Clyburn Blames Conservatives for Walter Scott Shooting (4/14/2015). Retrieved on
June 4, 2015, from Time.com.
69
BERMAN, M., South Carolina police officer in Walter Scott shooting indicted on murder charge. The
Washington Post, June 8, 2014.
70
RHODAN, M., Six Baltimore Officers Indicted in Freddie Gray’s Death (5/22/15). Retrieved on June 3, 2015,
from Time.com.
71
30
Baltimore feel unsafe. Interviews with colored people from the city stated that
police should protect the people of a community, but instead they do the
opposite and scare them.72
African American 14 year-old girl mistreated by policeman
Police Cpl. Eric Casebolt was placed on administrative leave after a video
surfaced showing him pulling a fifteen-year-old girl to the ground and pinning her
down outside a Friday night pool party in the expansive Craig Ranch subdivision.
Seconds later, he pulled his gun and pointed it at two teens who appeared to try
to come to her aid.
The video, posted to YouTube had been viewed more than one million times. It
shows white police officers trying to control black teens who had scattered as
officers arrived at the pool.73
74
Dylann Roof shoots nine African American people in church
Dylann Roof opened fire on members of a Bible study group at a church in
Charleston, South Carolina. He shot and killed nine people inside the historic
Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church, near the heart of Charleston's
tourist district. Six women and three men were killed, including the church's
pastor. A law enforcement official said witnesses told authorities the gunman
stood up and said he was there ‘to shoot black people’.75 The president of the
NAACP expressed his outrage at the violence. Authorities were shocked; not only
by the killings but that the violence occurred in a house of worship.76
77 78
MYERS, A.L., Baltimore Mayor Wants Answers on Police Policies in Freddie Gray’s Death (4/29/15). Retrieved
on May 5, 2015, from Time.com.
72
COOPER, B., America’s war on Black girls: Why McKinney police violence isn’t about ‘one bad apple’
(6/11/15). Retrieved on June 15, 2015, from salon.com.
73
TSIAPERAS, T., McKinney police officer on leave after video shows him pushing teen to the ground Friday
night (7/7/15). Retrieved on June 16, from crimeblog.dallasnews.com.
74
ELLIS R. et. al., Shooting suspect in custody after Charleston church massacre (6/19/15). Retrieved on June
24, 2015, from CNN.com
75
GRAY, E., What We Know About South Carolina Shooting Suspect Dylann Roof (July 2015). Retrieved on July
28, 2015, from Time.com.
76
KEDMEY, D., Families of Church Shooting Victims Confront Dylann Roof in Court (July 2015). Retrieved on
July 28, 2015, from Time.com.
77
31
Anthony Ware
Near the Crescent East Apartments in Tuscaloosa, Alabama a black man died
after the Alabama police used pepper spray. Police said Ware ran into nearby
woods and struggled with officers when they caught up with him. Officers
sprayed him with oleoresin capsicum, more commonly known as pepper spray.
Ware began having troubled breathing and collapsed as they were walking out of
the woods. He died in the local hospital shortly after he was pepper-sprayed and
investigators are trying to figure out why.79 80
Sandra Bland
On July 10, 2015, Sandra Bland was arrested for failing to signal a lane change.
She was locked up for this futility and three days later, she was found dead in
her jail cell, suicide…
81
4.3 Revenge
Asking forgiveness, a week after the shootings is crazy, says Cornel West,
Professor at Harvard and Princeton. Forgiveness is a process and can takes years
of time. Hence, it is not surprising that the recent shootings have provoked
revenge.
On December 20, 2014, twenty-eight-year-old Ismaaiyl Abdullah Brinsley killed
two New York City Police Department (NYPD) officers, in the line of duty in the
Bedford–Stuyvesant
neighborhood
in
Brooklyn,
New
York
City.82
The
GREENBERG, A,. How a Local Florist Helped to Catch Charleston Shooting Suspect Dylann Roof (July 2015).
Retrieved on July 28, 2015, from Time.com.
78
MCHUGH, J., Man dies after getting pepper-sprayed by police (7/12/15). Retrieved on July 27, from
CNN.com.
79
N.N., Alabama Man Anthony Dewayne Ware Dies In Custody After Being Pepper-Sprayed By Police (7/15/15).
Retrieved on July 27, from ibtimes.com.
URBANSKI, D., Man Wanted by Cops Collapses and Dies After Police Pepper Spray Him (7/11/15). Retrieved
on July 23, from theblaze.com.
80
CAREY-MAHONEY, R., Sandra Bland death triggers #IfIDieInPoliceCustody trend (7/22/15). Retrieved on
August 1, 2015, from usatoday.com.
81
82
N.N., Behind The 89% Spike In Cop Killings. Investor's Business Daily, May 13, 2015, p. 12.
32
assassination seems ostensibly to be a revenge for the death of Eric Garner and
the shooting of Michael Brown. The officers Wenjian Liu and Rafael Ramos did
not have time to draw their weapons. Both officers did not even see their
attacker before they were shot and killed. Brinsley then fled into the New York
City Subway, where he committed suicide.
Before these facts, Brinsley was incarcerated for various crimes and criminal
possession of a weapon. His rage seemed to be directed at the government and
anger at the police, referencing the death of Eric Garner and Michael Brown.
A White former Marine suffered a severe brain injury and is in a medically
induced coma after a group of Afro-American men beat him at a Mississippi
restaurant in an apparent ‘revenge’ attack for the killing of Mike Brown in
Ferguson, Missouri. The US Marine went into a Waffle House late at night in West
Point, MS. As he went in a black man warned him not to enter because he is
white. He went in anyway and was immediately jeered by blacks in the
restaurant. He left and walked to a nearly vacant Huddle House down the road.
However, a mob of about twenty Afro-Americans followed him to the Huddle
House and brutally attacked him while screaming racial slurs. He was seriously
injured. A second white man who served in the Air Force was also injured.83 84
In March 2015, protest actions against racism rose. African Americans ventilated
their anger towards an unjust and racist government. Banners with the
inscription ‘Racism lives here’ demonstrated the rage that people of color felt. In
Ferguson and Baltimore, the actions even got out of hand and police men got
injured.
This boiling point of frustration did not happen overnight. Rather, it is the
product of gradual frustration, resentment and struggle felt by African American
citizens. It is the reaction of an embittered community after years of police
misconduct. Afro-American people want to make a statement that is heard in
the US and the rest of the world. The only thing they want is justice. Jewish
N.N., White Marine Brutally Beaten by Black Mob in Apparent ‘Revenge’ Attack for Ferguson. Top Right News,
August 26, 2014.
83
N.N., Man, 32, is left with brain damage after 'being attacked by gang of 20 black men' in parking lot after
being told Waffle House 'wasn't safe for white people after Ferguson. MailOnline, August 26, 2014.
84
33
sociologist Nazgol Ghandnoos advises American politicians on race riots and
police discrimination towards African Americans. Her study shows that the crime
rate in the US is higher for African Americans than for whites. People from
African descent get heavier prison sentences than whites and they are more
likely to be controlled or arrested by the cops than whites. Moreover, African
Americans are condemned faster, prosecutors and judiciary are milder for whites
than for people of color and in general, whites can afford better lawyers than
African Americans. Whites are released faster and can thus have a better
opportunity to prepare their trials.85 Her research demonstrates that both African
Americans and whites feel scared in America. It seems like they take a defensive
approach towards one another. Both scared of not being recognized by the other
race.
Why are people scared? Are they afraid of change, afraid to lose their position?
Whites like the system how it is in place now, because it secures their
superiority. African Americans feel inferior, ignored and are striving for progress.
This is exactly what scares whites, the fear that Afro-Americans will catch up on
their jobs, their lives. It is a matter of misunderstanding and lack of empathy.
We live in an age of mass communication, yet we communicate so little. Whites
and African American citizens should approach each other with empathy, yet it
seems as if the contrary is occurring. It seems like more and more distance is
created and the boundaries keep getting larger and will lead to extremism. It is a
vicious circle that needs breaking.86 On July 19, African American agent, Leroy
Smith supported a weakened man to a calm spot. The man, who was marching
in a Ku Klux Klan demonstration felt feeble because of the intense sunshine. The
KKK member wears a Swastika T-shirt but that does not prevent the AfroAmerican officer from helping him. The officer comments on the internet: “That
is the way to ban racism out of this world, slowly and politely. Not by preventing
85
N.N., Le racisme est profondément enraciné dans la société américaine. Le Vif, 12/7/14.
DE FOER, S., Thuis bij Thomas Robb, de imperial wizard van de KKK. De Standaard Weekblad, April 18th,
2015, nr. 191, p. 12-19.
86
34
people from saying horrible things, but by proving them wrong. You destroy your
enemy by making him your friend.”87
5. Citizens’ initiatives – A renewed rise of civil rights
movements
5.1 Introduction
People are waking up. Street protest are emerging and the many organizations
prove that it is time for change, time for affirmative action.
5.2 Social movements today
BlackLivesMatter
Black Lives Matter is an American movement that started in July 2013 after
George Zimmerman's 2013 acquittal for the shooting death of the seventeenyear old Trayvon Martin. The organization received fresh impetus from the 2014
shooting of Michael Brown and the death of Eric Garner. The movement, which
was co-founded by three African American activists, Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors
and Opal Tometi, has received worldwide media attention and at least seven
hundred Black Lives Matter demonstrations have been held across the globe.
Protesters have met with President Obama and other leaders to demand an end
to what they view as racial profiling, police brutality and the militarization of
many US police departments. African American people in the US often feel
deprived of their basic human rights and dignity. Newspapers show protestors of
the movement holding signs which read 'Black Lives Matter' as
hundreds of
demonstrators gather in Leimert Park in South Central Los Angeles, California,
USA on, 14 August, 2014, to protest the police shooting of Mike Brown in
Missouri. The city of Ferguson, Missouri removed an improvised shrine for
Michael Brown and will have it replaced with a permanent plaque dedicated to
the young man’s memory. The present temporary shrine has become a symbol
VAN HOUWERMEIREN, A. Zwarte agent helpt Ku Klux Klan lid met appelflauwte (7/19/15). Retrieved on July
28, 2015, from demorgen.be.
87
35
for the ‘Black Lives Matter’ civil rights movement which was, to a certain degree,
sparked by the death of Brown and the ensuing protests in Ferguson.88 On their
website89, one can find their vision for ‘A New America’.
“It’s important to realize that black lives do matter. We’ve been here. We’re
going to still be here. You can’t just treat us like we don’t matter”, Sonja
Lanehart, a linguistics professor at the University of Michigan, told TIME. 90 91 The
members of the American Dialect Society invented the word of the year. Indiana
State University’s Leslie Barratt was the one who nominated #blacklivesmatter.
“It’s one of the most important issues in our country this year, and every year”,
she said.92
IcantBreathe
‘I can’t breathe’ were Garner’s final words in July after an NYPD officer placed
him in a chokehold during an altercation on Staten Island. The phrase has since
become a rallying cry for protestors upset about police brutality, especially
involving white officers and unarmed African American men and particularly after
the Ferguson (MO) protests following the police shooting of Michael Brown.93
A Richmond County (Staten Island) grand jury decided not to indict the white
officer Daniel Pantaleo. The grand jury announcement, which came just over a
week after a similar outcome in the Ferguson case involving teenager Michael
Brown, sparked an immediate outcry and led a number of activists and elected
officials to demand a federal investigation.94
MCSPADDEN, K., Michael Brown’s Temporary Shrine Will Be Replaced With a Permanent Plaque (5/22/2015).
Retrieved on June 28, 2015, from Time.com.
88
89
Website Black Lives Matter: http://blacklivesmatter.com/
STEINMETZ, K., #blacklivesmatter Is the American Dialect Society’s 2014 Word of the Year (1/12/2015).
Retrieved on June 27, 2015, from Time.com.
90
91
IDEM
92
IDEM
FEENEY, N., LeBron James Wears ‘I Can’t Breathe’ Shirt During Warm-Ups (12/9/2014). Retrieved on June
23, 2015, from Time.com.
93
DOCKTERMAN, E., Protestors Rally for Second Night Against Decision in Eric Garner Case (12/8/2014).
Retrieved on June 15, 2015, from Time.com.
94
36
Thousands of people took the streets and chanted Garner's last words: I can't
breathe.95 A large and rowdy crowd gathered in Lower Manhattan, as similar
protests popped up in Washington DC, Chicago and elsewhere, echoing
demonstrations. At least fifty demonstrations had been held nationwide.
Dozens of congressional staffers walked out of their offices in Washington DC, to
gather on the steps of the Capitol in a show of protest against two recent grand
jury decisions in the police-involved deaths of unarmed African American men.96
Senate Chaplain Dr. Barry Black also led the demonstrators in a prayer. “Forgive
us when we have failed to lit our voices for those who could not speak or breathe
themselves”, he said, invoking the last words “I can’t breathe”.97
Politicians (New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio, Former U.S. President George W.
Bush, Barack Obama98 and many others), musicians (i.e. artist Kxng Crooked
who recorded a tribute song for Garner) and many athletes acknowledged there
is a serious racism problem in the US.
NBA players99 (LeBron James, Kobe Bryant) and the Los Angeles Lakers (Kyrie
Irving, Kevin Garnett, Derrick Rose) wore T-shirts bearing the phrase ‘I can't
breathe’ during pregame warmup. The LA Lakers donned ‘I Can’t Breathe’ shirts
before Tuesday night’s game against the Sacramento Kings, showing their
support for protesters in the wake of the Eric Garner grand jury decision.
Hands up don’t shoot
More than one thousand demonstrators around the country have been raising
their arms in the ‘hands up, don’t shoot’ gesture to protest the Ferguson grand
DOCKTERMAN, E., Protestors Rally for Second Night Against Decision in Eric Garner Case (12/8/2014).
Retrieved on June 15, 2015, from Time.com.
95
96
DOCKTERMAN, E., See Congressional Staffers Stage a Powerful Walkout Over Grand Jury Decisions
(12/17/2014). Retrieved on June 7, 2015, from Time.com.
97
IDEM
98
SAVAGE, L. C., America can’t breathe. Maclean's. December 29, 2014, vol. 127, nr. 51/52, p. 16-17.
N.N., Know Right Now: NBA Stars Protest The Eric Garner Decision (12/11/14). Retrieved on June 23, 2015,
from Time.com.
99
37
jury’s decision not to indict now-former Ferguson police officer Darren Wilson for
shooting Michael Brown, who did not have a weapon on him, multiple times.100
As with the Sixties, the new movement has generated its own rhetoric, ‘Hands
Up, Don’t Shoot!’101 This phrase became a rallying cry for Ferguson residents,
who took to the streets to protest the fatal shooting. Thousands of protesters
have subverted the gesture of putting two hands in the air to challenge police in
the wake of eighteen-year-old Michael Brown's shooting.
Witness accounts differ whether Michael Brown actually had his hands up or
uttered the words ‘don't shoot’ at the moment he was shot, but, as one protester
remarked: Even if you don't find that it is true, it is a valid rallying cry... it is just
a metaphor. Hands up, don't shoot has become a rallying cry of people all across
America who are fed up with police violence.
Athletes too, take part in the movement. Five St. Louis Rams players took the
field for Sunday’s home game against the Oakland Raiders with a ‘Hands Up,
Don’t Shoot’-pose that has been used by protestors in Ferguson and across the
country recently.102
African American Congressional staff and others hold their hands up during a
walk-out outside the House on Capitol Hill on December 11, 2014 in Washington
DC.103
The Coalition Against Police Violence (CAPV)
CAPV was formed in November 2014 by two female activists who use Facebook
to unite their supporters. The aim is to unite diverse individuals and
organizations which are fighting to eradicate systemic injustice. Unjust abuse of
ALTER, C., St. Louis Cops Condemn Rams’ ‘Hands Up, Don’t Shoot’ Gesture (12/2/2014). Retrieved on June
24, 2015, from Time.com.
100
LANDON, J., How ‘Hands Up, Don’t Shoot’ Could Start a Real Revolution (12/8/2014). Retrieved on June 23,
2015, from Time.com.
101
N.N., Rams Players Use ‘Hands Up, Don’t Shoot’ Pose While Taking Field (12/2/2014). Retrieved on June 12,
2015, from Time.com.
102
DOCKTERMAN, E., See Congressional Staffers Stage a Powerful Walkout Over Grand Jury Decisions
(12/17/2014). Retrieved on June 7, 2015, from Time.com.
103
38
citizens in law enforcement is addressed through the CAPV’s relentless activism,
economic sanctions and pragmatic strategies of reform. Furthermore, the
coalition fights criminal court systems based on class, race, and gender
identity.104
Black Youth Project 100
The activist member-based organization’s goal is creating justice and freedom for
all Afro-American people, through education, advocacy, direct action and
transformative leadership development.
They campaign against the use of racially motivated force.105
Dream Defenders
The organization is based in Florida and has mobilized communities against racial
profiling and state oppression. On their website, the organization stresses their
nonviolent intentions. Dream Defenders supports, nonviolently, the oppressed
people in their struggle for freedom. Furthermore, they demand an immediate
end to police state and murder of people of color, the release of the 2.5 million
prisoners of the American ‘War on the Poor’, the protection of the right to vote
for all and free public education.106
The National Police Violence Map
This website, founded by three young activists aims at collecting statistical
information on police killings nationwide, with a particular emphasis on black
deaths at the hands of police.107
104
N.N., Coalition Against Police Violence. Internet, July 23, 2015.
105
N.N., Black Youth Project 100. Internet, July 23, 2015.
106
N.N., Dream Defenders. Internet, July 23, 2015.
107
N.N., Mapping Police Violence. Internet, July 23, 2015.
39
Starbucks offering spaces to discuss racial issues
On December 16, 2014, Starbucks Chair and CEO Howard D. Schultz published a
letter to Starbucks employees, stating that he had watched the tragic events
with a heavy heart. Schultz wrote: “Not to point fingers or to place blame, and
not because we have answers, but because staying silent is not who we are.”108
Schultz had called an impromptu forum on December 10, 2014 at the Starbucks
Support Center in Berkeley, California, to allow employees, whom the company
calls partners, to openly discuss their personal experiences and ideas about how
the country might move toward improved understanding and unity.109
“Coffee shops have always had a role to play as a venue for open conversation
about issues that matter”, Schultz and USA Today publisher Larry Kramer wrote
in a special eight-page supplement to Kramer's newspaper that was being
distributed at every Starbucks in the country. “We hope you'll join us, at your
community Starbucks, with your friends and neighbors.”
110
The forums on race
have been going extraordinarily well and were well received by employees.
A more recent phase of the campaign, in which employees were encouraged to
engage customers in the dialogue about diversity by writing or placing stickers
with the words ‘Race Together’ on drink cups, spurred criticism and ultimately
was dropped.111 Schultz however, continued to facilitate additional forums on
diversity in Oakland, California, New York City and St. Louis. Not only does it
signal a progressive attitude toward workplace multiculturalism, but it is also
good for business.112
108
BOGADO, A. What Racial Diversity Looks Like at Starbucks (3/17/15). Retrieved on July 1, 2015, from
colorlines.com.
109
MARCHAND, A. M., Diversity Engagement. NACD Directorship. March/April 2015, vol. 41, nr. 2, p. 30-35.
110
ABEL, A., A Grande race problem. Maclean's, April 6, 2015, vol. 128, nr. 13/14, p. 25-27.
111
MARCHAND, A. M., Diversity Engagement. NACD Directorship. March/April 2015, vol. 41, nr. 2, p. 30-35.
112
TOLLER, C., Playing the race card. Canadian Business. April 2015, vol. 88, nr. 4, p. 20.
40
Honoring the fiftieth anniversary of the Selma to Montgomery Voting
Rights March
On January 2, 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. helped break an illegal injunction
against public assembly and freedom of speech in Selma, Alabama, with a
massive public rally. Sixteen days later, protests began, mostly composed of
local students.113
Selma and the Alabama Black Belt were the battlegrounds for the Voting Rights
Movement that resulted in the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
On March 25, 2015, Walkers marched across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in
Selma, Alabama to commemorate the freedom-marchers who were clubbed and
tear-gassed by state troopers as they peacefully filed across on March 7, 1965.
John Lewis, foreground, chairman of the Student's Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee, was one of many people beaten on that ‘Bloody Sunday’ when
Alabama's governor ordered state troopers to break up the civil rights marches in
Selma.114
President Obama, First Lady Michelle Obama, daughters Sasha and Malia joined
thousands of Americans at the foot of the Edmund Pettus Bridge, to honor the
sacrifice and bravery of the men and women who bled there exactly fifty years
ago. Many of those original ‘foot soldiers’ joined him including Congressman John
Lewis, who helped to organize the first march over this bridge in 1965 and who
strode arm in arm with the President of the United States.
Selma, Ava DuVernay's film, a best picture Oscar nominee, tells the story
surrounding ‘Bloody Sunday’ on March 7, 1965, when Alabama Governor George
Wallace sent state troopers to attack civil rights protesters crossing the Edmund
Pettus Bridge, and the triumphant march from Selma to Montgomery that began
on March 21 and ended March 25 with King speaking in front of 25,000 people at
the state capitol.115 Oprah Winfrey, who produced and appears in the Oscar-
113
MILLER, S., March Madness. Newsweek Global. March 6, 2015, vol. 164, nr. 9, p. 54-57.
114
IDEM
115
IDEM
41
nominated movie Selma, marched in Selma with members of the film’s cast and
crew to celebrate Martin Luther King, Jr.’s birthday.
Director Ava DuVernay and star David Oyelowo also marched in the event to
celebrate Dr. King’s contributions.116
The Voting Rights Act, the signature accomplishment won in the Selma marches,
was weakened by a 2013 Supreme Court ruling. The arguments over what sort
of resistance is acceptable and what goes too far could as easily have taken place
a month ago, during nationwide protests against police brutality toward unarmed
people of color. “If there’s one thing that Selma shows”, says David Oyelowo,
“it’s that things haven’t changed enough.”117
The National Voting Rights Museum in Selma pays homage to the struggle for
voting rights by African Americans and women in the US. The museum is divided
into variously themed rooms, such as the Memorial Room, which honors those
who lost their lives in the voting struggle; the ‘I Was There’ wall, which features
narratives of those who participated in Bloody Sunday and the Suffrage Room,
which recalls the voting rights struggle of women.118
The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)
The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) is an American nonprofit legal advocacy
organization specializing in civil rights and public interest litigation. They are
based in Montgomery, Alabama, the birthplace of the modern civil rights
movement and they have offices in Atlanta, New Orleans; Miami, Florida., and
Jackson, Mississippi. J. Richard Cohen is the president of the organization and
several civil rights lawyers make up a strong team of board members. The SPLC
is founded in 1971 by civil rights lawyers Morris Dees and Joseph Levin Jr.
ALTER, C., Selma Cast Will March in Alabama to Celebrate MLK Day (1/20/2015). Retrieved on June 23,
from Time.com.
116
117
D’ADDARIO, D., Making Selma History. Time. January 19, 2015, vol. 185, nr. 1, p. 52-55.
BROWN, A. and GRAY, V.L., Black museums worth a summer visit. Black Enterprise. June 1998, vol. 28, nr.
11, p. 336.
118
42
Their actions are aimed against hate groups, racism and for human rights. The
SPLC was founded to ensure that the promises of the civil rights movement
became a reality for all American people. The SPLC is noted for its legal victories
against white supremacist groups, its legal representation for victims of hate
groups and its classification of militias and extremist organizations. The
organization is internationally known for tracking and exposing the activities of
hate groups (Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups). The SPLC's hate
group list has been the source of controversy. Along with civil rights
organizations such as the Anti-Defamation League, the Center has provided
information about hate groups to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The
SPLC has been criticized by conservative politicians and media and by
organizations that have been listed as hate groups in their reports. Its
fundraising appeals and accumulation of reserves have been the subject of
criticism.119
5.4 Social media
Most of the new civil rights organizations use social media to increase their
effectiveness. Social networks, like Facebook, Twitter, Google+ and Instagram,
have the power to unite people. Moreover, these social media offer a way of
deep consensus building which can lead to collective action. Racism incidents
that might have gone unnoticed receive recognition through social media. The
network sites provide a coherent whole and open up the road towards flattening
social hierarchies. Activists, all over the US, can communicate and find solidarity
amongst each other, through the networks. Their separate voices are brought
together, which adds more focus and power to their message.
In contrast with what is assumed, instant information can lead to higher
credibility.
While
protesting,
social
activists
can
Tweet
their
first-hand
experiences. Police reports can be compared to these instant testimonials of
119
Ter Zake. Tv program, Brussels, Canvas, July 14, 2015.
DEES, M., Hate Crimes. Vital Speeches of the Day, February 1, 2000, vol. 66, nr. 8, p. 247-253.
N.N., $30,000 helps project teach about tolerance. The Journal, December 1993, vol. 21, nr. 5, p. 28.
APPLESON, G., Southern Law Center Fights Klan Activities. American Bar Association Journal, August 1982, vol.
68, nr. 8, p. 901-902.
43
rioting. This can uncover false information, which then can be reconsidered on
the basis of Tweets or Facebook posts. For example, while TV networks were
reporting on incidents of rioting in Ferguson, real-time social network messages
from protesters claimed that the police had been firing tear gas and rubber
bullets into groups of peaceful protesters. The spread of instant online
information contributes to greater liability and mainstream media have fewer
opportunities to hide.
Furthermore, online activism captures collective awareness since it provides
victims’ personal data, like their names. The videos, like the arrest and death of
Eric Garner, make the affinity with the victim even more prompt.
Ethan Zuckerman, the director of the MIT Center for Civic Media and author of
‘Rewire: Digital Cosmopolitans in the Age of Connection’ warns that activist
should be aware that social media will not provide long-lasting policy change.
“Although social media can give the illusion of empowerment, it also runs the risk
of diverting attention away from the knottier problems of longer-lasting policy
change.”120 At the moment, trust in major US institutions is low, which decreases
the ability for change.
“Social media are places where people feel they can move the wheel, and
they’re right – they can change the representation of a gun victim in
mainstream media. They can build momentum around removing the
Confederate flag. But the fear is that it might be harder to make these
much bigger structural changes in education or wage policy or to have a
conversation about our gun culture.”121
5.3 Women opposing African American racism
Racism cannot be separated from feminism. The NAWSA and a lot of feminists
brought society a step closer to justice. Today, there are still women fighting
racism:
120
DAY, E.,
121
IDEM
#BlackLivesMatter: the birth of a new civil rights movement (7/19/15). Retrieved on July 23, 2015,
from theguardian.com.
44
Oprah Winfrey (1954) is an actress, philanthropist, publisher, producer and
media personality. She is best known for hosting her own internationally popular
talk show.122 Through her talk shows and books, she has been an important role
model for black American women, breaking down many invisible barriers. She
portrayed a civil rights activist in the movie ‘Selma’.123 In November 2013,
Winfrey received President Barack Obama gave her the Presidential Medal of
Freedom for her contributions to her country.124
Beyoncé Giselle Knowles-Carter (1981) is an American Grammy-award winning
singer, songwriter and actress. In New York, she participated in street protests
honoring Trayvon Martin and to demonstrate against racism and police violence
against Afro-Americans.
125 126 127
Marilyn Mosby, the woman who follows MLK’s footsteps by kicking a conscience
to white America, is perceived as the new hero. A lawyer and State’s attorney for
Baltimore, Mosby charged the six police officers who arrested Freddie Gray. She
accuses them of several crimes like involuntary manslaughter and second-degree
murder.128
5.5 Conclusion: Individualism vs. collective action
Unfortunately, racism is still part of the collective identity in the United States. It
seems like politicians and policymakers have a hard time facing the ongoing
122
SIZWEKAZI, J., Oprah is winning hearts and souls. Finweek. September 21, 2006, p. 32-32.
NEUMAIER, J., Oprah Winfrey’s new movie, ‘Selma,’ links Martin Luther King to today’s racial crises. New
York Daily News, December 19, 2014.
123
LIDDLE, R., The sad story of Oprah, the handbag and the shop assistant. Spectator, August 17, 2013, vol.
322, nr. 9651, p. 17.
124
THE IMPROPER STAFF, Beyoncé, a Budding Social Activist, Adds New Cause to Resume - Speaks Out for
Gender Equality in Shriver Report. The improper Magazine, January 13th, 2014.
125
OMISEEKE, N., Black Feminism Lite? More Like Beyoncé Has Taught Us Black Feminism Light. University of
Texas News, November 20, 2014.
126
BAKARE, L., Beyoncé, Spike Lee and Alicia Keys add voices to Ferguson protest Musicians, film-makers and
writers express sorrow over verdict not to indict Darren Wilson for killing Michael Brown. The Guardian,
November 25, 2014.
127
ELSHOUT, A., Hoofdaanklager Marilyn Mosby, de vrouw die blank Amerika een geweten schopt. De Morgen,
June 4th, 2015.
128
45
challenges. However, in evaluating these actions and movements it is crucial to
keep in mind the notion of individualism vs. social action. What is our
responsibility to the community?
The causes of racial change are beyond any individual's reach: they are mostly
economic, political, social, demographic, ideological and international. But mass
media fill this gap between individual and collective responsibility by providing a
window to the world. Keeping up to date about what is going on one’s country is
indeed an important step to social action. Therefore media can be a source of
unification and common ground. The movements that were mentioned in this
thesis were all very locally: Marches in Brooklynn, Manhattan, Ferguson,
Baltimore. However, social actions cannot be ranked in terms of most important
or most effective, since history is not math or science. Individually, these social
actions might seem futile but together they form a strong unit striving for a fair
and inclusive society.
6. Government’s responses
6.1 Introduction
Fighting racism should start from below, in the streets, with movements like
#IcantBreathe, #BlackLivesMatter, Hands up don’t shoot, Starbucks offering
spaces to discuss racial issues and Selma fiftieth Anniversary Jubilee. Street
protest are the perfect stimulus for the White House, Congress and the individual
states to refine civil rights laws. Change is happening slowly and mostly locally.
On June 14, 2015, the district of Staten Island, New York has reached a
settlement with the family of Eric Garner, the forty-three-year-old man who was
killed after being put in a chokehold by police last July. The state agreed to pay
$5.9 million to resolve the claim over his death, city officials said on Monday.129
The New York City comptroller, Scott Stringer, announced the settlement in a
statement.130
129
N.N., New York City to pay $5.9 million to family of Eric Garner. Reuters, July 13, 2015.
130
N.N., Eric Garner's family to receive $5.9m settlement from New York City. The Guardian, July 14, 2015.
46
In the city of Ferguson, Andre Anderson, an Afro-American man, was appointed
interim police chief. Furthermore, the debate has opened about the legality of
the Confederate Flag, which, to many, symbolizes oppression and racism. Dylann
Roof, who shot nine Afro-Americans in a church, was shown by media wearing
the Flag on his jacket, in several pictures. This lead to commotion about the
symbol. Professor Cornel West argues that it is time to remove the Confederate
Flag. He states that the Confederate Flag can be compared with the Nazi flag and
raises the question why this symbol is still legal in America.131
6.2 Obama’s response
At a national level, questions remain unanswered. African American people’s rage
stems from what is known but cannot be said; at every governmental level,
policies are set forth which turn African American citizens into a slush-fund.
Ironically enough, these policies, are brought into life by a government that
pledges to protect minorities, like poor African American people. This is American
racism.
The 2008 presidential election was seen as a step forward from this point of
view. African American people had high expectations when Obama came to
power. His election itself was already perceived as a major accomplishment. But
was he able to achieve his goals and live up to the expectations? It is the
President’s task to make the population understand the American complexity of
race. The reason that his presidency did not succeed in doing this, in contrast to
what is said in his book ‘Dreams From My Father’, has to do with a prejudice. It
was a form of self-censorship, imposed by his strategists: Do not speak about
racial prejudices or you will be misjudged by a majority of white voters. Right
wing parties blamed Obama of nepotism when trying to make changes for the
African American people in American society.132
On February 27, 2013, short after her hundred birth day, Rosa Parks was
honored by President Obama. In the National Statuary Hall on Capitol Hill, the
131
WEST, C., It's time to remove the Confederate flag. CNN interview, June 22, 2015.
RAHMING, M.B., Critical Essays on Barack Obama: Re-affirming the Hope, Re-vitalizing the Dream. UK,
Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012, p. 130-154.
132
47
President revealed a statue in memory of Rosa Parks. Earlier that month in the
US, a stamp with her portrait was released. The President gave the first starter
to counteract racial discrimination by taking matters as the creation of a task
force to examine how relations can be improved between law enforcement and
minority groups who feel unfairly treated. Furthermore, he will invest in
equipping 50,000 agents with ‘body cameras’ for self-control and a better proof
of evidences. Officers from metropolises are advised to (re)train their officers in
dealing with minorities and meanwhile, the federal justice ministry opened
investigations to determine whether the recent race riots civil rights were not
violated. Obama himself mentioned that he is not interested in talking, instead,
he wants action.133
But is he still able to make a difference in his last year as President? Moreover,
the democratic President has to lead a nation while having a Republican
Congress behind him. Do his words still have the power of calming the tempers
in the street? Or do these race riots signify the sad end of Obama's era?
According to many, Obama let go of the opportunity to put an end to the
impunity of police violence. An African American president and an African
American justice minister, an African American leader of the Homeland Security
but the US still has a judicial system protecting white supremacy.134
In his State of the Union Address, on January 20, 2015, President Barack
Obama, stated that America must progress on many levels in order for the
American families to encounter the benefits of the economic recovery. He
referred to the rescue of the American car industry. The Ford factory will start
building hybrid and electric vehicles, which is a major stimulant for the
employment rate. Furthermore, the cost for the community colleges will be
brought down to zero dollars. This is already the case in Tennessee and now it
will be extended to the whole country. Obama calls it the ‘America’s College
Promise’. Quality education cannot be a privilege only reserved for the wealthy
few. It is a right for everyone who is willing to work for it. President Obama,
known for his family focused mentality, addressed that he will approve the
133
RABAEY, M., Zelfs Obama #cantbreathe. De Morgen, December 12th, 2014, p. 12-13.
134
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48
‘Healthy Families Act’. This allows American employees to have seven days of
paid sick-leave per year. Paid sick-leave used to be limited and arranged locally,
especially in progressive metropolises like San Francisco and New York. This Act
would imply that the US is no longer the only industrialized country that does not
give new mothers paid maternity leave.
Despite Obama’s actions, racism is ever present. So where did it go wrong? Why
are these things happening in a country where people have fought so much to
protect their fundamental rights? White America agreed on an African American
man as President but him making changes seems one step too far. Obama’s
election was a symbolic one. His ‘blackness’ does not matter anymore. He
succeeded by being there. The rhetorical aspect was important for his
Presidency, policy wise it did not work since institutional restraints act like a
filter. If he would take measures, he would encounter even more criticism from
Republicans. Despite this, the US cannot afford being racist, because it is a
nation of ‘freedom and democracy’. Therefore the rhetorical mostly differs from
the measurements that are taken in the US. Cornel West, an influential Professor
Afro-American studies at Princeton University stated, in a CNN interview, that
Obama’s term ended whit the acquittal of a white police officer in Ferguson,
Missouri. Because of the dismissal of Agent Darren Wilson, there is no justice for
Michael Brown’s death.
“I think Ferguson signifies the end of the age of Obama. It’s a very sad
end. We began with tremendous hope and we end with great despair.
Why? Because we have a Jim Crow criminal justice system that does not
deliver justice for black and brown people. And certainly not when they are
poor. Poor and working class people need to be at the center.
Unfortunately, President Obama chose a Wall Street presidency rather
than Main Street. He chose a drone presidency, rather than cutting back
on the drones. He chose massive surveillance which Snowden and others
have revealed rather than protecting rights and liberties. And he chose not
to give even one speech that focuses on the Jim Crow criminal justice
system that’s been targeting poor black and brown youth.”135
DARCY, O., Cornel West appears on CNN delivers blunt message about his thoughts on the age of Obama
(11/27/14). Retrieved on June 9, 2015, from theblaze.com.
135
49
West made the news when he tweeted out a sharp piece of criticism against the
President. “Obama’s empty neutrality, moral bankruptcy and political cowardice
is now undeniable to even his most loyal cheerleaders and boot-lickers!”136
West’s criticism is supported by Kirsten West Savali, a senior writer at The Root,
a webzine for Afro-American themes and columnist for the Huffington Post. She
states that African American America is sick and tired of being assuaged behind
the scenes and after the shootings. She wonders ‘how can there be peace
without justice?’. Even the first African American President did not succeed in
making sustainable changes. According to Savali, this has driven African
American rage above boiling point. Obama knows African American history, from
Jim Crow to the way African American and whites were punished differently in
the War on Drugs. But ever since his Presidency, he does not mention any word
about this. Obama is a typical example of an Afro-American intellectual who
thinks ‘I wear a suit now, I do what is perceived as good, then I will make it.’137
MLK and Malcolm X also started wearing suits and delivering speeches, yet they
were both killed. Words alone do not do the trick. Change has to start from
below, by means of street protests and movements, like #BlackLivesMatter and
#IcantBreathe. Even #PresidentObamaCantBreathe; as a President, Obama
himself has to deal with racism, death threats and political obstruction from the
Republican Congress. Obama is expected to be the face of a powerful America,
who tells society that the American Dream belongs to all. The problem is, that
dream is not reality and it never was…
138
6.3 Conclusion
What are the possibilities for addressing the remnants of Jim Crow still facing the
nation today?
136
RABAEY, M., Zelfs Obama #cantbreathe. De Morgen, December 12th, 2014, p. 12-13.
137
RABAEY, M., Zelfs Obama #cantbreathe. De Morgen, December 12th, 2014, p. 12-13.
138
IDEM
50
7. The New Jim Crow?
By the mid-1960’s, the civil rights revolution in the US had accomplished its
primary goal, the destruction of the legal foundations of the Jim Crow system.
The 1964 Civil Rights Act and its companion piece, the 1965 Voting Rights Act,
marked the end of this long struggle for decreasing the African American-white
gap. Housing, education and income evolved positively for African Americans,
since 1960. Yet today, inequality remains an issue. Afro-Americans have reasons
to be more concerned than whites about healthcare in the US. The Office of
Minority Health at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports:
Using 2002 data, an estimated 83,570 excess deaths each year could be
prevented in the United States if this African American-white mortality gap could
be eliminated.139
The Voting Rights Act, the signature accomplishment won in the Selma marches,
was weakened by a five to four 2013 Supreme Court Ruling, which declared that
several voting procedures were outdated. In his speech, in honor of the fiftieth
anniversary of the Selma March, President Obama stated that today, in many
states, laws, which are restricting the right to vote, get approved. He refers to
states like Texas and North Carolina, where ID documents with picture (many
African Americans and poor people do not have this) are required to be able to
vote. Furthermore, the measures require voter ID or proof of citizenship and
have reduced early voting days and poll locations. “We’re celebrating something
that has been neutered. You’ve kicked the teeth out of a lion.”, said James
Perkin, Selma’s firs Afro-American mayor.140 The fights over voting rights had
prominence in the Selma anniversary march. Stopping the attacks on voting
rights is the activists primary objective. Afro-Americans still feel suppressed.
Hence, an opening up of dialogue between the government, the police
departments in particular and the communities they serve is still needed.
SATCHER, D. et. al., What if we were equal? A comparison of the black-white mortality gap in 1960 and
2000. The Medical Journal of Health Affairs, March/April 2005.
139
MADHANI, A., Fight over Voting Rights Continues on Selma Anniversary (3/6/15). Retrieved on July 22,
2015, from usatoday.com.
140
51
In 2012, Michelle Alexander stated in her book ‘The New Jim Crow: Mass
Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness’ that America’s War on Drugs has
affects African Americans in a discriminatory way.141 According to her, this is a
new way for enforcing traditional, as well as new, modes of discrimination and
repression. The New Jim Crow was put in place. African American people are
targeted and Alexander argues that the US criminal justice system acts as a
contemporary system of racial control and repression. The civil rights litigator
and legal scholar argues that mass incarceration of African American men is "a
stunningly comprehensive and well-disguised system of racialized social control
that functions in a manner strikingly similar to Jim Crow."142 She views modern
society as a ‘racial caste system’ in which there is justification for a social
stratification where African Americans are treated inferior. According to her,
American society is recurring into a racial control under changing disguise. It
looks like America is evolving towards a New Jim Crow status, ‘equal but
separate’; equal in theory but a separate treatment in practice, more particular
in the justice system. Alexander’s goal is to prevent this by revitalizing the
predominant mentality regarding human rights, equality and equal opportunities
in the United States.
She criticizes President Obama for his failures to remodel the laws that have
made African Americans suffer from the drug war. Alexander questions the
American citizens, whether they would stand up for themselves instead of relying
on someone on top of the government.143
The recent race issues demonstrate that the question whether the societal
position of African Americans throughout the twentieth century has evolved in a
positive way, is difficult to answer. Undeniably, much has changed for the better.
Since 1965, Afro-Americans have equal rights as whites. African American
superstars are among the most visible representatives of US culture. Yet, the
lower societal layers are not represented. Minority voices are still not heard. A
ALEXANDER, M., The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. USA, The New Press,
2012, 336 p.
141
142
ALEXANDER, M., The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. USA, The New Press,
2012, p. 4.
143
IDEM
52
new segregation is emerging and this one differs from the former segregation
since African Americans themselves are defending this, says author Chris
Quispel. African Americans do not believe that whites support them integrating,
the former believe that they should rely on their own strength. ‘Blackness’ has
become more important than equality. African American intellectuals are seen as
traitors; it is acting white. Few know how to reconcile the two (intelligence and
‘blackness’), not even Obama. Whites argue that African Americans create their
own problems and therefore must resolve their issues themselves. Hence the
indifference with regard to the recent events. Racism, which is often viewed as a
thing of the past, is not gone; it is now isolated.144
May 2010, Kalief Browder was walking home on Arthur Avenue in the Bronx. He
was on probation for a previous arrest and was unable to make bail as a result.
He was arrested at age sixteen. The case was dismissed and Browder was
released in June 2013 after numerous postponements of his case. His story was
covered by local press after his release and Browder was profiled in The New
Yorker in October 2014 for being held for three years on Rikers Island without a
trial. In June 2015, Kalief Browder committed suicide. The exposure of his case
became the impetus for proposed reforms in the New York City criminal justice
system.
8. A new Kerner Commission ?
American police walking down the street, excessively armed, in tanks, ready for
warfare on its own citizens and in the most provocative manner, was the very
behavior that the Kerner Commission had assisted to end in the 1960’s. In “It is
time for a new Kerner Commission on Police and Race”, an article by Jay Kriegel
in the Daily Beast, says it all. Kriegel is convinced that America needs to learn its
lesson again and it needs a new Kerner Commission. Especially since there are
no more brave people who form a model to set the nation on a better track.
QUISPEL, C., Hardnekkig wantrouwen. De relatie tussen blank en zwart in de VS, Amsterdam, Amsterdam
University Press, 2002, p. 353 – 359.
144
53
The Kerner Commission found that the faults often lay within the police forces
themselves. Racial fear paralyzes America and a change in federal policy is the
only way minority communities’ faith in police and government can be restored.
Police departments need new policies and retraining programs, focusing on
discipline and restraint.
The 1968 Kerner Report concluded that the nation was “moving towards two
societies, one black, one white – separate and unequal.” It seems like American
society still has not got rid of this image. A new Kerner Commission could be a
major help in achieving changes:
“Once again we need a commission that handles problems like these
tacitly, by urging restraint, with sound historical perspective and detailed
fact-based inquiry. A Second Kerner Commission, as focused, fact-based
and practical as the first, with knowledgeable leaders, may be the best
way to achieve the objective. We did it once at a time of far greater
national unrest. We can and must do it again.”145
Especially now, as the racism debate has opened, appointing a new Kerner
Commission is necessary. It is the step towards affirmative action. The former
model needs to be adapted according to the criticism it received. The new Kerner
Commission has to take into account that racism is broader than discrimination
based on skin color. It is about poverty, lack of opportunities, lack of equal
resources, like education, housing and health care. The new report has to
provide advice on police response and offer alternative solutions to handle the
source of the racism problem. Education and integration are the keywords for
change. Hence, African Americans need to be integrated in society by receiving
the opportunity to play the game, starting with equal resources, equal
opportunities for education, a vital factor for change.
The New National Advisory Commission should investigate the following
questions: Why is there police misconduct towards African Americans? and What
can be done to prevent it from happening again in the future?
LOTT, J., It’s Time for a New Kerner Commission on Police and Race (8/25/14). Retrieved on July 20, 2015,
from thedailybeast.com.
145
54
To reach optimal negotiations, following representatives should board in the New
Kerner
Commission:
representatives
of
White
the
Big
House
Five,
delegates,
police
a
delegates
neutral
(judges,
moderator,
officers),
representatives from local courts and local justices, employers’ representatives
and delegates of educational boards. While the focus used to lie on the causes of
the riots in the former Commission, the New Commission needs to focus the
attention on reaching solutions which are acceptable to all representatives in the
Committee.
55
Conclusion
Researching social movements from the 1960’s and the ones that are in place
now, it becomes clear that the African American message has remained the
same: equal opportunities for colored people. From an organizational point of
view, changes have occurred. In the 1960’s, successful social movements relied
on leadership, local chapters and direct actions/mobilization. Leaders like Martin
Luther King Jr. had the courage to speak up and tell the truth. But MLK, the
Kennedy brothers and Malcolm X were all shot for trying to bring change. The
American government was refusing to listen to their African American citizens.
Policy makers assumed that people would be pleased when MLK would receive a
national day and a few streets named after him.
America’s image always played a major role in presenting itself to the world but
underneath it is clear that in that ‘free and democratic America’, a lot of people
are living in pain, poverty, anger and fear. In theory, racism does not exist
anymore. The recent events prove that in reality, the opposite is true. AfroAmerican people associate mistrust, anger and fear with their government since
they have seen what happened to leaders with a strong voice. Today, the
suppression of their voices is even strengthened. Whites feel threatened, so
extremism (KKK) is seen as the only way to save one’s own position.
As a response to the silent government and the anger stemming from the recent
racism issues, people beneath the surface, the people who make up the majority,
the core, the foundation of the American country are starting to revolt. Moreover,
the American government starts to worry and is forced to listen.
As people get more educated and media are omnipresent, this majority speaks
up and is uniting through social media, through street protests and social
movements. American society itself is stronger than any leader on his own; that
is exactly the weakness of this latter. Politicians have been forced to listen.
Leading Republicans like former President Bush and house chairman John
Boehner condemn the deadly violence towards Eric Garner. Even Bill O’Reilly, the
ultraconservative talk show host of the Fox television channel, judges the police
misconduct and entered a peculiar debate with a liberal Afro-American radio
56
presenter. The fact that these race issues are talked about and reach the news is
a first step in the right direction. The racism debate has finally opened.
Social movements have the novelty of social media activism, which brings the
opportunity of collective action. Moreover, people are better educated, which
makes them more skeptical. Colored people have lost trust in the American
government and are increasingly taking action by themselves. They organize
street marches and start up websites and social networks to fight racism.
Although, this unification through social media means less leadership. The
movements today do not have a prominent leader, like MLK in the 1960’s. This
lack of a coordinated leadership is the most evident difference between the social
movements in the 1960’s and now.
Today, US society needs to be reminded of the power and possible impact of a
strong leadership in social movements. I am not claiming to have all the answers
but according to my research, combining a strong leadership with the power of
social media will make social movements stronger and more effective than ever
before. Especially now, at a time where the United States have revealed how
many forms of racism are still ingrained in society, a new Kerner Commission is
necessary. A strong leadership, collective action via social media and a New
Kerner Commission are key at this time in history. For once, the roles might be
reversed and people on the street will have the strongest voice. These race riots
are a perfect opportunity for the White House, the Congress and the states to
refine the laws concerning civil rights. The debate has opened for the next
presidential elections, in 2016. Hope springs eternal.
The bad news is that the sickness of winning and being successful at the expense
of others has no immediate remedy. The good news is, change can happen.
Those who have the courage to make small, determined steps towards a better
world will gradually reap the benefits and only those will truly win. The only
change that can happen comes from within. This means that there is only one
force more powerful than any policy maker, Congressman or President: American
society itself.
57
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