HELLENIC REPUBLIC
MINISTRY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT, PHYSICAL PLANNING AND PUBLIC WORKS
COUNTRY PROFILE
GREECE
National Reporting to the Seventeenth Session of the
COMMISSION for SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
of the UNITED NATIONS (UNCSD 17)
ATHENS
DECEMBER 2008
Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works
Department of International Relations and EU Affairs
15, Amaliados str., 115 23 Athens, Greece
T: + 30 210 64 65 762, +30 210 64 11 717
F: +30 210 64 34 470
National Focal Point for UNCSD: Maria Papaioannou
Compilation of Country Profile: Maria Papaioannou, Ilias Mavroidis, Alexia Economopoulou
Coordination of Compilation: Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public
Works, Department of International Relations and EU Affairs,
Head of Department: Maria Peppa
Acknowledgments:
This Report has been compiled based on data received from the relevant Services and Bodies of the
Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works (Central Water Agency,
Environmental Planning Directorate, Physical Planning Directorate, Bureau of National Programme of
Environmental Informatics and EEA, National Centre of Environment and Sustainable Development),
from other co-competent Ministries (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Ministry of Economy and Finance) as well as from the National Observatory of Athens, the
Agricultural University of Athens, the Ktimatologio S.A. and the National and Kapodestrian University
of Athens. Data has also been drawn from the “Fourth National Report of Greece on the
implementation of UNCCD”, December 2006.
Special thanks for data collection to: Prof. Costa Kosmas, Chair of the National Committee to Combat
Desertification of Greece under the UNCCD; Spyros Tasoglou, Central Water Agency, Hellenic Ministry
for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works; and Directorate of Agricultural Planning and
Documentation, Hellenic Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.
Athens, December 2008
ii
Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
I
Abbreviations, signs & notes
iv
AGRICULTURE – RURAL DEVELOPMENT
1
Status
1
Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework,
Policy Instruments
8
Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects
Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training
and Awareness-Raising
II
III
IV
14
22
Financing
24
Cooperation
25
DROUGHT - DESERTIFICATION
27
Status
27
Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework,
Policy Instruments
29
Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects
30
Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training
and Awareness-Raising
36
Financing
37
Cooperation
38
LAND – PHYSICAL PLANNING
41
Status
41
Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework
44
Strategies, Programmes and Projects
49
Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training
and Awareness-Raising
52
Financing
53
Cooperation
54
AFRICA
55
General Introduction
55
Cooperation on political, economic, technical level
55
Cooperation on environmental issues
58
iii
Introduction
ABBREVIATIONS
ADPD
BPI
CAP
CEU
CFP
CIHEAM
CO2
CoGAP
CSF
CRES
CWA
EFF
ΕFFIS
EIA
ERDF
ESDP
ΕU
EU-15
EU-25
EAGGF-G
FCGI
GEF
GAV
GHG
GMOs
GNP
ha
ICZM
IWRM
JMD
LEADER+
LULUCF
UNEP / MAP
MD
MDGs
MED EUWI
MoU
MRDF
MS/s
NAGREF
NAPCC
NAPCD
NCCD
NCESD
NEIN
NGOs
NOA
NRP
NSSD
NSSG
Agricultural Development Plan Document
Benaki Phytopathological Institute
Common Agricultural Policy
Commission of the European Union
Common Fisheries Policy
Centre of Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies
Carbon dioxide
Code of Good Agricultural Practice
Community Support Framework
Centre for Renewable Energy Sources
Central Water Agency
European Fisheries Fund
European Forest Fire Information System
Environmental Impact Assessment
European Regional Development Fund
European Spatial Design Perspective
European Union
The 15 old European Union’s Member States before the enlargement of
2004
The expand of the European Union with 25 Member States after the
enlargement of 2004
European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund - Guidance Section
Fixed Capital Gross Investments
Global Environmental Facility
Gross Added Value
Greenhouse Gas (Emissions)
Genetically Modified Organisms
Gross National Product
Hectare/s
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Integrated Water Resources Management
Joint Ministerial Decision
Operational Programme of the Community Initiative ‘LEADER+’
Land-Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Sector
United Nations Environment Programme / Mediterranean Action Plan
Ministerial Decision
Millennium Development Goals
Mediterranean Component of the EU Water Initiative
Memorandum of Understanding
Ministry of Rural Development and Food
Member State/s
National Agricultural Research Foundation
National Action Plan for the Abatement of CO2 and other Greenhouse Gas
Emissions 2000-2010
National Action Plan to Combat Desertification
National Committee to Combat Desertification
National Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development
National Environmental Information Network
Non-Governmental Organisations
National Observatory of Athens
National Reform Programme for Development and Employment
National Strategy for Sustainable Development
National Statistical Service of Greece
NSPAD
National Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development, 2007-2013
NSPF
National Strategic Plan for Fisheries, 2000-2013
NSRF
National Strategic Reference Framework
iv
Introduction
OECD
Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development
ODA
Official Development Assistance
OEP
Operational ‘Environment’ Programme
OP
Operational Programme
OPADRC
OPESD
Operational Programme for ‘Agricultural Development and Reform of the
Country-side’
Operational Programme ‘Environment and Sustainable Development’
OPF
Operational Programme for ‘Fisheries’
OJG
Official Journal of the Government
PPP
Public Private Partnerships
PDO
Products of protected destination of origin
PGI
Products of protected geographic indication
RES
Renewable Energy Sources
ROP
Regional Operational Programme/s
RWD
Regional Water Directorates
SCI
Site of Community Importance
SME
Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
SPA
Special Protection Area
SEIS
Shared Environmental Information System
UAC
Units of Animal Capital
UNCBD
United Nations’ Convention of Biological Diversity
UNCCD
United Nations’ Framework Convention for Combating Desertification
UNCSD
United Nations’ Commission on Sustainable Development
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
WFD
EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60
WSSD
WTO
World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, AugustSeptember 2002)
World Trade Organisation
YPEHODE
Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works
SIGNS & NOTES
.:
,:
EURO:
USD:
decimal point
thousands’ separator
euros
US Dollar
v
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
CHAPTER I: Agriculture – Rural Development
■
Status
Overview
In Greece the primary sector has and still is occupying an important position in the economy.
Nevertheless, it has followed a less intensive development path, involving lower environmental
pressures in comparison to other European Union (EU) countries. However, important advances
towards agricultural intensification as well as the use of fertilizers and pesticides have also increased
in Greece over last decades and this has had noticeable impacts on the long-term efficiency of
agricultural land, aquifer quality and biodiversity. Irrigation has expanded to cover larger areas of
agricultural land causing severe pressures on wetlands and accelerating phenomena such as erosion
and soil salinity. Only recently there has been a remarkable reduction in fertiliser use along with an
exponential growth of organic farming. Animal breeding, which represents one third of the total
agricultural production poses a limited threat to the natural environment, since the largest percentage
of ruminants are free-range animals. There are local problems of animal waste, caused by the recent
increase of pig and poultry breeding farms in some regions of the country. Thus, the sustainable
development of the primary sector in Greece requires a focus on farming as the intensification of
production is accompanied by the abandonment of less fertile soils. This dual trend is reflected in the
nature of the pressures on the natural environment. Moreover, the mechanisation and intensification
of agricultural production of the last decades, aiming at the maximisation of efficiency, has led to an
increase of pressures on the environment, which in some cases approach the carrying capacity of the
ecosystem.
Selected qualitative indicators on Agriculture, Animal breeding and Fisheries from the National Centre
for Environment and Sustainable Development’s (NCESD) “Report on Sustainable Development
Indicators of Greece” (2004), provide a broad introductory indicative picture of the trends in the
sector:
The intensity and “mechanisation” of Greek agriculture show upward trends, resulting in a
considerable improvement in productivity. Much of the country's agricultural produce is intensively
grown on a limited area of fertile, irrigated lowlands, giving rise to localised environmental
pressures.
During the last decade the quantity of fertilizers used in the country was reduced by 33%; thus,
the consumption per 1000 m2 became equal to the EU average. On the contrary, the use of
pesticides has shown trends of increase.
The continuous extension of irrigated land counterbalances the reduction in water intensity in
agriculture and imposes a change in farming practices and crops.
Agricultural added value appears to be relatively stable. Examination of the evolution of the other
three parameters with a negative impact on the environment (total irrigated area, fertilizers,
pesticides) shows that decoupling is observed, however, mainly in the case of fertilizers.
The agricultural and animal breeding sector contributes to a low extent to the emissions of air
pollutants, however more considerably to the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
The share of organic farming in Greece became noticeable in Greece after 1993. Since then and
until the year 2000, the respective area has increased by a factor of ten. In 2004 it slightly
exceeded 1.5% of the total permanent crop area where as in 2007 this percentage raised further
to reach 4% of permanent crop area. Thus, emphasis is given to accelerating the development of
organic farming and increase its share in agricultural production.
The total fishery production increased by 30% between 1990 and 1995 and remained almost
constant thereinafter. Meanwhile, there has been a more rapid development of aquaculture (45%
of total fisheries production, in 2000). Thus there is a trend to promote well-planned aquaculture
development with a view to contribute to the conservation of marine fish stocks.
Moreover, it should be noted that there are no Genetically Modified Organisms’ (GMOs) cultivations in
Greece.
Physical context
In more detail, and starting from the physical context of the country, the land territory of Greece
totals 13,195,700 hectares (ha), and according to OECD’s criteria for classification, 97.1% of it
accounts for agricultural land (73.8% mainly agricultural and 23.2% semi-agricultural), where the
64.4% of the total population resides. Overall, 40.2% of the total country’s surface area corresponds
1
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
to agricultural regions, 17.9% to forest regions, 38.5% to natural regions, 2.2% to artificial regions
and 1.2% to inland waters.
Table 1.1: Land distribution
Surface area (ha)
%
Agricultural areas
5,304,671.40
40.2%
Forest
2,362,030.30
17.9%
Natural
5,080,344.50
38.5%
Artificial
290,305.40
2.2%
Inland Waters
158,348.40
1.2%
Total
13,195,700.00
100.0%
Source: Common Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. Draft data set for context related baseline indicator.
Technical meeting on CMEF 30 January 2006
The geophysical characteristics of the country limit the competitivity of the sector with regard to other
EU countries. On the contrary, the intense horizontal fragmentation and intense vertical relief of
Greece, creates a wide variety of local micro-climates and production conditions which must be
developed holistically, turning these restrictions into positive prospects for development and
diversification.
The limited natural sources are also a restraining factor. The agricultural land that is utilised amounts
to 30.1% of the total land, whereas the equivalent percentage in the EU-25 is 42%. From this land,
the percentage of 82.7% is at unfavourable areas, therefore it cannot be productive without
appropriate institutional, financial and technical measures in place promoting competition. The data
provided by the National Statistical Service of Greece (NSSG) for the sector, in 2007, indicate that
almost 87.8% of the country’s agricultural land corresponds to cultivated areas while the rest, around
12.2%, corresponds to fallow land which are increased in 2006 due to the fact that it included areas
not used for production but maintained at a good agricultural and environmental status eligible for
future integrated support.
Table 1.2: Crop areas, fallow land and irrigated areas by categories of crops areas and groups of level,
semi-mountainous and mountainous communes municipal departments, for years 2005-2006
Categories of Crops by kind
in thousands stremmas
Total crop areas of Greece
Total crops areas and fallow land
of which irrigated
Crops on arable land
of which irrigated
Garden crops
of which irrigated
Areas under trees
of which olive trees
of which irrigated
Vines (grapes and raisins)
of which irrigated
Fallow land 1-5 years
Cereals for grain
Edible pulse
Industrial plants (e.g. tobacco, cotton,
sesame, soya, sunflower, etc)
Aromatic plants
Fruit plants
Melons, watermelons and potatoes
Vegetables
Commercial flower gardens and
greenhouses
Source: NSSG, 2007
Total 2005
2006
Total
Level
communes
Semimountainous
communes
Mountainous
communes
37,589
38,017
14,789
21,308
9,633
1,121
1,077
10,048
7,845
3,635
1,272
442
4,268
12,643
152
4,659
37,333
37,803
14,374
20,738
9,273
1,103
1,056
10,052
7,867
3,612
1,271
433
4,639
12,136
160
4,397
20,802
21,136
10,216
13,783
7,267
715
686
4,349
3,101
2,032
581
231
1,708
7,827
70
3,787
10,064
10,148
2,728
4,660
1,428
256
245
3,316
2,857
934
383
121
1,533
3,086
34
512
6,467
6,518
1,430
2,296
578
132
126
2,387
1,909
646
306
81
1,398
1,223
56
98
14
3,145
695
1,119
56
14
3,322
710
1,128
55
6
1,624
469
726
28
6
882
139
272
18
2
816
102
130
9
However, the total number of private holdings has increased from 817,060 in 2000, to 824,460 in
2003 and to 833,079 in 2005 (see Table 1.4 below) with a parallel increase in the size of the holdings
to the total utilised agricultural area of a little over 9% between 2000 (average holding size to total
utilized area at 4.4 ha) and 2003 (at 4.8 ha). This increase in holdings is the result of the appearance
2
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
of new / young farmers and the allocation of new additional land to agriculture in rural areas. To some
extent, this increase is due to the splitting up of the existing holdings in smaller ones according to the
currently in place inheritance legislation. Thus, despite the implementation of structural programmes
and reforms, the gap between the average Greek land exploitation and the EU average (15.8 ha) still
remains large. Therefore an important inhibiting factor to increased productivity relates to this very
fact, i.e. that exploited land consists of numerous, small and distant split-up holdings resulting in an
ineffective use of resources and thus reduced competitivity.
Economic characteristics of the agricultural sector – Trade
In Greece, the primary sector, as mentioned above, remains one of the most important economic
sectors that plays a special role from both a social and environmental perspective. The percentage of
contribution of the primary sector to the total Gross Added Value (GAV) of the country amounted to
7% in 2002 and to 5.2% in 2005 (compared to 2% of EU countries), whereas its contribution to the
Gross National Product (GNP) of the country amounted to 5.7% in 2002 and to approximately 4.9% in
2005. Trends show that these percentages are likely to decrease further in the years to come to
approximate the related percentage of other more developed countries, of the EU or non-EU.
Likewise, agricultural occupation has been dramatically reducing, since the 1980s when it
corresponded to a 35% of total occupation, whereas in 2000 it only reached 17% and in 2004 it was
even further decreased to 12.6% of total occupation rates. In 2003, the number of employed persons
in holdings owned by natural persons was 1,495,662 and in 2005 1,510,446 (see Table 1.3, below)
(NSSG). However, the national percentage of 12.6 compared to 3.8% in the EU-15 for the same year,
indicate that the sector in Greece continues to offer employment to a large number of people, in a
country where unemployment remains on the forefront of issues.
The most important structural change in the sector over the last two decades, has been multiemployment for the diversification of income: in agricultural/rural regions, 12.3% of holdings’ owners
is exclusively occupied in the primary sector, whereas the rest is also occupied in other sectors in
order to ensure more sustainable livelihoods.
Table 1.3: Persons employed in the total of holdings by category and working days, per Region (2005)
Region of
Greece
Managers
of
holdings
owned by
legal
persons
511
50
Greece Total
Eastern
Macedonia
and Thrace
Central
146
Macedonia
Western
6
Macedonia
Thessaly
25
Ipiros
49
Ionian
10
Islands
Western
25
Greece
Central
34
Greece
Peloponnesus
36
Attica
53
North
11
Aegean
South
42
Aegean
Crete
25
Source: NSSG, 2007
Number of employed
persons in holdings
owned by natural
persons
Holdings
Employed
Permanent workers
Seasonal workers
Holdings
Employed
Holdings
Employed
833,079
65,340
1,510,446
131,588
16,752
1,631
24,861
2,236
363,804
18,229
1,241,295
91,357
Working
days
23,477,884
1,490,478
117,624
218,245
4,053
5,963
49,668
173,782
4,902,289
30,387
54,484
1,209
1,441
6,809
17,995
499,398
80,141
43,267
31,873
145,345
71,398
54,409
2,335
1,077
194
2,954
1,462
338
30,667
11,496
11,033
113,236
37,049
21,659
1,669,911
487,293
522,308
94,738
167,362
705
1,082
46,463
192,403
3,298,539
81,143
145,377
1,201
1,975
39,906
155,699
2,479,349
105,849
26,596
33,788
188,338
44,888
58,515
830
1,385
230
1,369
2,699
351
61,097
15,176
12,924
201,324
44,115
29,798
3,600,959
709,933
641,097
24,298
41,085
182
280
3,533
7,149
118,233
98,037
189,411
1,719
2,710
56,803
155,729
3,058,096
The actual agricultural income was increased to 1.97% in the period 2005-2006 reversing the decline
of the previous years. Despite the fact that in 2000 a large amount (5-6%, i.e. a percentage double
3
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
the average of EU-15 at 3%) of the Fixed Capital Gross Investments (FCGI) of the country were
directed to the agricultural sector, in 2003 this percentage decreased to 3.3%, indicating a decrease
of investment in the sector.
More analytical data on the country’s areas by category of crops, on the output of agricultural,
husbandry and aquaculture (in both marine and fresh water) as well as on the employment levels in
holdings are presented in the tables of NSSG below, for years 2005-2006.
Table 1.4: Production of Agricultural and Livestock products, year 2006 (provisional)
Categories of crops by kind
in tons
AGRICULTURE
Crops on arable land
Cereals for grain
Edible pulse
Industrial plants
Aromatic plants
Fooder plants
Vegetables
Vine products
Tree crops
Citrus trees
Fruit trees
Nuts fruit
Other
PRIMARY LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS
Milk
Meat
Lard
Sheep’s wool
Honey
Eggs (in thousands)
LIVESTOCK BY-PRODUCTS
Cheese soft
Cheese hard
Butter fresh
Butter melted
INNERS WATERS’ FISH
Inner waters’ fish
Source: NSSG, 2007
2005
2006
5,095,749
27,792
3,939,379
1,663,892
1,944,530
3,998,335
709,160
4,695,632
29,533
2,886,042
1,631,151
2,147,442
3,323,803
677,131
1,169,239
1,289,245
70,797
2,995,168
1,123,127
1,157,806
69,817
2,690,151
1,987,280
462,276
1,396
8,647
15,639
1,961,994
2,004,809
495,832
1,407
8,784
16,526
1,954,983
116,915
38,979
2,434
852
122,421
38,039
1,833
809
28,200
28,126
Regarding trade, although agricultural trade plays an important role in the country’s export trade
activities, its percentages are decreasing. In 2000, imports of agricultural products amounted to EURO
3.91 billion (12.7% of total imports), whereas exports amounted to EURO 2.90 billion (25% of total
exports), with the agricultural balance amounting to EURO 1.02 billion. In 2004, the imports
amounted to EURO 5.27 billion (12.5% of total imports), exports amounted to EURO 2.80 billion
(22.9% of total exports) and the commercial agricultural balance amounted to EURO 2.47 billion
indicating an increasing trend in imports versus exports.
The National Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development (NSPAD) for the 4th Programming Period of
EU Structural Funds 2007-2013 (see also under Chapter “Strategies, Plans, Programmes and
Projects”), of the Hellenic Ministry of Rural Development and Food (MRDF), focuses on promoting,
encouraging and maintaining increased exports of agricultural products, through promotion of
transformation, manufacturing and quality control. In the medium run, Greek products, either fresh or
manufactured, will face even more intense competition as a result of the gradual banning of all tax
protective measures or other equally protective restrictive measures emerging from the ongoing
negotiation in the framework of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) as well as from
operationalisation of several Free Trade Zones that related EU Agreements (with Mediterranean and
Latin American countries) in various contexts entail (e.g. Euro-Mediterranean Partnership Free Trade
Zone by 2010, MERCOSUR, COTONOU). In this future more competitive context, the system of “Cross
Compliance” introduced by NSPAD will become even more crucial for ensuring a market share for
Greek products domestically and abroad (see also under Chapter “Decision-making, Legal and
Regulatory Framework, Policy Instruments”).
4
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
Apart from these direct results the opening up of international markets will have to the income of
farmers, there is also a matter of distribution, trade and price setting for agricultural products within
the country. Greek producers usually have little possibility to negotiate directly on the final price of
their produce; as a co-signee member of one of the existing 6,350 Agricultural Associations in Greece,
the producer consents a priori to the imposed conditions concerning the chain of distribution and trade
of the products, without any direct gain for the consumer.
Social aspects – Age and Educational issues
The improvement of the competition prospects in the sector through improved production methods,
certification and quality assurance of products, is impeded by the generally low level of professional
training of the majority of farmer as well as their increasing age. In 2000, the percentage of the
landowners aged up to 35 years amounted to 71,250, whereas those who aged 65 years and above
amounted to 347,420. In addition, in 2003 the indicator (% farmers younger than 35 years, in relation
to farmers older than 55 years of age) equalled to 0.13. This picture creates limits to the overall
reform of the sector due to the fact that older farmers are inherently reluctant to quit their agricultural
occupation as it represents their main source of their income, to shift to modern practices as they do
not have academic knowledge of economic and technical management, to abandon traditional
methods in favour of new technology ones and to cope with the continuous changes in a demanding
market. Currently, almost 40% of farmers are 55 years old or more.
Likewise, the educational level of employees in the primary sector indicates that less than 1% has a
University Degree while the majority, around 70%, has only an Elementary School Certificate whereas
around 10% has a Certificate of Secondary Education, 10% has attended only some classes of
Elementary School and around 5% has never gone to school.
The occupation in the agricultural sector of younger people adequately educated and trained, is limited
by social factors relating mainly to the quality of life and to the accessibility of social services in rural
regions and particularly in mountainous and remote areas as well as to the lack of adequate
infrastructure for product and human transportation, education, e-commerce, child care and social
care. Moreover, the lack of accessibility to information and consultation services for promoting
innovation in agricultural production is also a determining limiting factor. Research in the sector in
Greece still lags behind as regards the needs of farmers and the fast technological advancements for
production of agricultural goods of increased added value or of biological farming. Moreover, there is a
weak link between innovation and small-sized enterprises (often family-based) in the agriculture,
forestry and foodstuff sectors.
Irrigation
Greece faces considerable water challenges in terms of its agricultural water use, which represents
about 85% of overall water abstractions. Excessive pumping of groundwater has caused water levels
to fall in some rural areas, as well as salt water intrusion in certain coastal aquifers and even though
enforcement of regulations and water permit conditions for water abstractions for irrigation have
considerably improved, there is still room for further amelioration.
Irrigated areas in Greece, according to estimates provided by the NSSG, occupy roughly 44% of
cultivated areas. The distribution of methods of irrigation are as follows: 25% surface irrigation, 53%
sprinkler and 22% drip irrigation. Irrigated areas are differentiated in collective and private irrigation
networks, as indicated indicatively in Table 1.5 below.
Table 1.5: Indicative percentages of methods of irrigation used
Surface irrigation
Collective networks
38%
Private networks
13%
Source: NSSG (inventory 1999/2000), MRDF.
Sprinklers
52%
54%
Drip
10%
33%
total
100%
100%
Estimates for the period from 2000 until today indicate that there is an increasing trend in drip
irrigation in both private and collective networks aiming to gradually fully replace surface irrigation in
private networks. However, surface irrigation in collective networks is very difficult to be replaced by
other methods given on one hand the age of networks, some of which date back to the '60s, and on
the other hand due to the nature of cultivations (e.g. rice) that require such irrigation. Regarding
water resources used, efforts are intensified to shift from the use of groundwater to the use to surface
waters, with very positive results so far.
5
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
With regard to the pricing and subsidies’ system for irrigation, some general observations are:
- Generally, a resource price is not charged for irrigation water to farmers served by private nor by
collective irrigation schemes.
- In private networks, the user undertakes completely the cost of construction and maintenance,
whereas regarding the cost of electricity consumption, there is possibility for reduced tariffs if
provisions of JMD 142196/87 on “Measures for Rural Electrification” are applied; in the case of diesel
consumption, a tax refund is foreseen.
- In collective networks, administrators undertake the cost of management, operation and
maintenance, with the possibility of special tariffs or tax refunds being applied for electricity or oil
consumption required for their operation. Contributions per user are determined by the respective
administrative body of each network and vary from EURO 70-400/ha with a most common price
being fixed around EURO 150-200/ha.
However, in some cases like in the island of Crete a system of pricing of irrigation water per volume of
consumption is already applied with positive results. Such systems are intended to be shortly applied
to more areas throughout the country aiming at water resources protection.
Biodiversity
Greece, due to its geographic position and the traditional agricultural practices followed over the
years, is one of the richest countries in biodiversity with 5,800 plant species, 436 birds and 535 fish
species (88 in inland and 447 in sea waters). Agriculture plays a very important role in maintaining
biodiversity, with hundreds of local husbandry varieties and species. More than half of utilised
agricultural area in Greece is considered of high nature value, the highest share in EU-15 (2004). A
quarter is part of the NATURA 2000 network. However, the impacts of farming on biodiversity have
not always been adequately monitored, especially in previous years. The change of traditional farming
activities has led in certain cases to the degradation of valuable landscapes and cultural features,
particularly in rural mountainous areas, while the intensification of agriculture (use of fertilisers and
pesticides and expansion of cultivated land) in fertile plains exerts increasing pressure on natural
ecosystems and water resources.
Forestry
Forests and forest areas in Greece are characterised by high biodiversity while on EU level they have
the highest genetic diversity. They cover 30% of Greek territory, two thirds of which are in public
ownership and 58% are included in the NATURA 2000 Network in Greece, thus their sustainable
management is critical for the functionality of the network and the protection of the Greek natural
environment. Forests also contribute very positively in combating greenhouse effect and climate
change as sinks of CO2. They also contribute to the retaining of soils from erosion while enriching
aquifers, enhancing water quality and reducing floods’ and droughts’ intensity. In parallel, forests
products support local economies whereas they provide a popular recreational space and areas for the
development of eco-tourism activities. Greek forests are almost entirely considered as semi-natural
(i.e. influenced by human intervention) and appear relatively healthy: the share of trees affected by
severe defoliation has been decreasing and is now 20% (compared to an EU average of 23%). Forest
biodiversity has not been highly affected by invasive alien species, despite the presence of some tree
species that displace the native vegetation (e.g. the Tree-of-heaven) and some fungi (e.g. the Dutch
elm disease).
Table 1.6: Production of forest products, in 2004
Kind of product
In cubic meters
Round wood Total (in m3)
Fir
Pine
Oak
Beech
Other trees
Fire wood (in tons)
From forests
From agricultural holdings
Charcoal (in tons)
Source: NSSG, 2007
2004
380,931
72,844
151,349
3,782
90,311
62,645
466,847
509,854
1,249
6
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
The strict legal framework for the protection and maintenance of forest in Greece has provided in
several cases a protection shield for many natural functions and parameters; the renewed forest
legislation in Greece fully adopts the principles of biodiversity conservation and multiple uses of forest
lands. However, there are still considerable challenges being faced relating to encoding and
modernisation of the existing legislation, addressing of the weaknesses of the current administrative
system, finalising the National Cadastre and allocating definite land-uses in certain areas. In parallel,
large works in mountainous areas still impact on forests while coastal, peri-urban and lower altitude
forests have been considerably compromised due to urban sprawl and their transformation to
agricultural land. The most important challenge that the sector should address and aim at is the
increase of its competitiveness through a management more sustainable and able to meet the social,
environment and economic values attributed to forests.
The extensive wildfires, mainly due to the prolonged water scarcity, drought and arson, during the
summer of 2007, have been calculated to have resulted in the loss of 2,700 Km2 of forest land and to
be responsible for the emission of 4.5 million tones of CO2 in the atmosphere (European Forest Fire
Information System - ΕFFIS, 2007). These forest fires have not only threatened biodiversity but they
also gave raise to the emission of several other air pollutants, like dioxins, particulate matter, VOCs
and carbon monoxide, with adverse impacts to both the natural environment and human health.
Fisheries
Greece has a long-standing tradition in fisheries and aquaculture, owing to its geographical features
and rich biodiversity of its surrounding marine areas, with nearly 450 marine fish species. The Greek
fishing fleet is the largest in vessel numbers of all EU countries, however in terms of capacity reaches
only 5% of the average EU. It consists of around 18,113 vessels with average vessel age at 24.5
years (Commission of the EU – CEU-, 2006). The break down is as follows: approximately 90% are
small vessels for coastal fishing less then 12m long; approximately 2% are vessels longer than 12m
with fishing-nets; approximately 1.5% are motored vessels with several smaller vessels for fishingnets collection; 1.5% are bigger motored vessels that can fish in greater depths; whereas only 0.2%
of total vessels fish in international waters.
From 2000 to date, the Greek fishing fleet is decreasing also due to the implementation of the EU’s
Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and mainly after its 2002 reform, giving emphasis on the sustainability
of the sector striking a balance between fishing activities and maintenance of fish stocks.
Total fisheries’ production, for 2004-2005, amounted to 93,077 tons whereas the number of
permanently occupied persons in collective fishing were 31,000. Fisheries in Greek waters target
mainly small pelagic fish stocks, but also demersal species, bluefin tuna, swordfish and albacore.
Despite its fishing legacy and commitment, Greece has been running a national deficit of fish products.
Manufacturing and processing of fisheries’ stuff is closely linked to fishing, particularly sea fishing,
thus following its development and decline. Based on 2004 data, in the sector there are around 310
units producing 62,000 tons and with 3,000 employees. However a rapidly growing marine and
freshwater aquaculture industry has been able to compensate for the fall in capture fisheries. The total
annual yield from aquaculture in 2004 amounted to 105,650 tons, 42 and 1.2 times higher than that
of 1986 and 2000, respectively. Greece ranks first among EU countries in production of marine species
of intensive breed. The aquaculture sector, in 2004, occupied around 6,600 persons. In 2006,
aquaculture accounted for close to 60% of total production of all fish products (sea bass and gilt head
bream being the most important species), followed by shellfish.
The fisheries sector has a very prominent role in Greek economy not only because of its direct
contribution to the country’s GNP but also because of their critical role in maintaining economic and
social cohesion of coastal and island communities. In parallel, sub-sectors like aquaculture are
contributing considerably to exports and the consequent reduction of the negative commercial balance
of the country.
However, in some of the large fishing areas of Greece, small open-sea fish stocks, benthic species as
well as big migratory fish species are endangered while traditional aquaculture was decreasing and
examples of unsustainable practices with adverse effects to coastal ecosystems were showing signs of
increasing, over past decades. Greece’s current policies, programmes and actions focus on rapidly
reversing these trends and rehabilitating and protecting fish ecosystems.
7
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
■
Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework,
Policy Instruments
Responsibility for agricultural issues in Greece falls under the Hellenic Ministry of Rural Development
and Food (MRDF) while there is a close cooperation / co-competency on several issues including
biodiversity, water resources, GMOs, land-use planning etc with the Hellenic Ministry of Environment,
Physical Planning and Public Works (YPEHODE) as well as with other Ministries on other specific topics,
e.g. with Ministry of Development on biofuels, with Ministry of Finance and Economy of financing
policies, instruments and subsidies etc.
In the EU, the interaction of the rural sector with the environment is determined to a great extent by
the framework set by the CAP. Although the initial CAP formulation favoured intensification, ignoring
the environmental dimension, over the last two decades there has been a clear shift towards “agroenvironmental development”. In 1992, the CAP reform and EU Regulation 2078/92 set a basis for
encouraging the promotion of agro-environmental practices. These policy instruments followed EU
Regulation 2092/91 (currently repealed by EU regulation 834/2007), which set the framework for the
development of organic farming in EU countries. However, restricted financial resources and low fund
absorption did not allow for a full integration of environmental concerns in agricultural policy in the
EU. Thus, increasing productivity has remained the main orientation of CAP. CAP’s reform in 1999 and
the implementation of EU Regulations 1257/99 and 1750/99 emphasise the integration of
environmental concerns and recognise the multi-functional character of agriculture. In addition, in
March 2001, the EU adopted the first Green Paper on the CFP and subsequently EU Regulation
2371/02, aiming at the restriction of over-fishing and the conservation of fish stocks, as well as the
encouragement of alternative fishing forms, in an attempt to ensure the employment and the income
of fishermen.
However, the most important progress in the agricultural sector in Greece that contributes
substantially to the sustainable development of the country, has been the most recent revision of the
CAP that occurred in 2003. This revision was necessary due to the commencement of the negotiations
in the WTO context, i.e. the Doha Round or the Doha Development Agenda, in order to address more
fairly the considerations of developing countries within the sphere of international trade of agricultural
products, as well as the increasing awareness of citizens towards environmental protection and food
safety. The main changes that the new CAP has brought, affecting the whole agricultural efficiency,
include:
The decoupling of subsidies to producers from the type and quantity of the products;
The gradual shift from direct subsidies to the support for integrated agricultural development
programmes;
The compulsory application of the rules of the “Cross-Compliance” which constitutes a prerequisite
for providing direct support to producers. Since 2005, all producers who are subsidised, according
to the 2003 CAP revision and EU Regulation 1782/2003, are obliged to fully follow the “CrossCompliance” scheme, which consists of standards for soil protection, maintenance of the organic
matter and soil structure, maintenance of natural habitats, landscape protection, including
protection of permanent grazing lands, thus keeping their lands in “good agricultural and
environmental condition”. In parallel, “Cross-Compliance” corresponds to the minimum obligatory
statutory measures, applied in Greece, for the protection of environment, i.e. all farmers receiving
a direct subsidy are compelled to abide by these set of measures aiming at a sustainable
agricultural practice that will also impact positively on natural ecosystems, flora and fauna.
Thus, the new CAP provisions as a whole are expected to lead to a better, more efficient and more
sustainable management of agricultural land and to the reduction of pressures on the environment
while respecting social and nutritional requirements. More specifically, the new Greek policy objectives
under the new CAP for a sustainable development of Greek rural areas and of the Greek agricultural
sector, include inter alia:
The promotion of integrated development of the rural land based on local resources and the
reinforcement of its multifunctional character;
The encouragement of farmers to adopt “wise” and environmentally friendly agricultural and
fishing practices and to continue implementing land set-aside programmes;
The improvement of land reclamation schemes and rational management of water resources.
Moreover, the gradual decoupling of subsidies from products’ type and quantity (e.g. for olive oil,
cereals, tobacco) is expected to lead several agricultural sub-sectors to the adoption of more
comprehensive models of agriculture, with a consequent improvement in soil and water management.
8
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
The prerequisite for striking a balance between grazing land and cultivated land is expected to
contribute to the same end. Moreover, the gradual reduction in subsidies is also expected to play a
catalytic role that will lead farmers to direct their efforts more towards the current market trends and
requirements thus giving emphasis on products that are in demand and not on those that are heavily
subsidised but with a low market value.
Implementation of the CAP in Greece has encountered, however, opposition due to the particularities
of Greek agricultural sector. Nevertheless the implementation of the agro-environmental EU
Regulation 2078/92 and of EU Regulation 1782/03 even though are still on-going, their results and
environmental performance are already satisfactory as key elements promoted under the Operational
Programme for the “Agricultural Development and Reform of the Country-side” (OPADRC) 2000-2006.
The environmental performance of the agricultural sector is expected to improve even further by the
implementation of the new Operational Programme entitled “National Strategic Plan for Agricultural
Development, 2007-2013” (NSPAD) for the fourth Programming Period, 2007-2013, (see also under
Chapter “Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects”).
Finally, Greek policy aspires to adequately address the need for creating strong public-private
partnerships (PPPs) and for a proactive multi-sectoral strategic planning in order to achieve the set
objectives for the sector’s sustainable growth.
More specific policy issues are presented analytically, below.
Certification of practices and products
“Agricultural Products Certification and Supervision Organization” of Greece, or commonly known as
“AGROCERT”, is a Private Law Legal Entity operating for the public benefit under the supervision of the
MRDF, and its establishment dates back in 1998 (Law 2637/98). AGROCERT is responsible for the
implementation of national policy objectives regarding quality assurance and control in agriculture,
aiming at a safe production of high quality agricultural products while safeguarding the environment.
Its competencies cover, inter alia: certification of agricultural production systems; certification of
agricultural products; evaluation, approval and supervision of Control and Certification private bodies
that are accredited by the National Accreditation System and are active also in the field of verifying
compliance with standards AGRO 2.1 and AGRO 2.2. on “Integrated Management System for
agricultural production”; preparation and publication of optional sectoral standards for both farming
and husbandry as well as development of specifications towards quality assurance of agricultural
products (i.e. breeding, production and packaging of fish farming products, beef-veal, pork, poultry
products).
In this context, AGROCERT is responsible for the certification and labelling of organics products (see
below under “Biological-organic farming and husbandry”) as well as for the certification of products
and foodstuff of “designations of origin” (PDO) and of “protected geographical indication” (PGI),
aiming at protecting the exceptional properties and quality of some products that derive from their
place of origin and/or from their production process itself. In particular, regarding PDO and PGI
products, current institutional context comprises EU Regulation 510/2006 on the protection of
geographical indications and designations of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs, coupled by
JMD 261611/2007 on the determination of supplementary measures for its application in Greece as
well as EU Regulation 1898/2006 laying down detailed rules for its implementation. Up to now, Greece
has established 86 products as PDO and PGI. The identification of agricultural products and foods as
PDO and PGI on one hand enables producers, in particular those of disadvantageous and remote
areas, to promote products presenting special characteristics more easily, improving in this way their
income with better prices in the market, while on the other hand enables consumers to buy high
quality products with guaranties for their production, processing and geographical origin. Moreover,
certification of PDO and PGI products by AGROCERT enables the use of acknowledged special labels,
which ensure full compliance with EU and national legislation requirements.
Biological-organic farming and husbandry
Organic farming and husbandry is characterised as a management and production system based on
the minimal use of pesticides and on practices sustaining and supporting balance between agricultural
and natural environment which leads to the production of high quality competitive products, without
chemical residues. The shift to biological-organic farming as well as biological husbandry, fisheries and
forestry constitute important priorities in the sustainable development of the sector in Greece. Data
9
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
for 2003 and 2004 indicate a big increase in the biologically cultivated fields (especially olives, cereals,
vines, fruits).
Figure 1.1: Progress of the total biologically cultivated land in Greece per year
60.000
Ha
Έ
κτα
σ
η(H
a)
50.000
40.000
30.000
20.000
10.000
0
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Έτος
year
Source: Hellenic Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate of Biological Farming, 2005
In 2007, organic farming that developed rapidly over recent years, reached 4% of permanent crops
area.
Greece has a comparative advantage regarding biological husbandry due to its rich natural resources,
mainly in mountainous areas, and the fact that it can easily be converted and certified as biological.
The lack of required infrastructure, however, poses limits to organic practice, farmers’ access to
markets and adequate income. Biological husbandry is directly linked to biological agriculture since
animals are fed not only through grazing but also through biologically cultivated animal feed.
However, a limiting factor to the further increase of biological farming and husbandry still remains the
access to markets that could be further improved. Recently, with the promotion of slaughterhouses for
biologically bred animals as well as with more effective mechanisms for the certification of biologically
cultivated/bred produce, significant progress has been achieved in the overall manufacture, transport
and market supply of organic farming products in the country, that will be further intensified in the
coming years. An important step towards this direction is the intensification of controls for compliance
with the standards set for biological agriculture by AGROCERT, with a view to increase market and
consumers’ reliance on these products’ quality and thus increase their market share. Moreover,
through the growing cooperation between AGROCERT and the “National Organisation of Agricultural
Vocational Education, Training and Employment”, commonly known as “DIMITRA”, farmers’ education
and training on biological production practices is enhanced aiming at a better application of all related
standards and certification requirements.
In particular, regarding certification requirements for biological-organic agriculture, the current
institution context is composed by EU Regulations 834/2007 and 889/2008, JMDs 245090/2006 and
157Β/10.02.2006 as well as Evaluation Regulation R-01/0200 of AGROCERT. Without proper
certification, no product can be marketed as organic agricultural product. AGROCERT elaborates and
manages the “National Label” regarding the identification of certified Greek organic agricultural
products. Marketing of organic products requires that they have been previously controlled by
competent certification bodies. The organic agricultural products Control and Certification System is
managed by the Directorate of Organic Agriculture of the MRDF, as supervising body, as well as by
AGROCERT, along with six approved Inspection bodies. Organic products should bear on their labels a
series of indications, i.e. “Organic agricultural product” or “Agricultural product in transition” or “% of
agricultural ingredients is organic” and the “approval code number of the Inspection and Certification
Body” as well as the “National Identification Label of Certified Organic Agricultural Products”. Any
indication and claim regarding organic production that could mislead consumers is prohibited and
prosecuted. The list of Bodies that are eligible to certify organic agricultural products comprises 11
companies (i.e. DIO, Fysiologiki E.P.E., BIO HELLAS S.A., Q Ways S.A., A Cert, IRIS Α. CHATZIDAKI &
Co., GREEN CONTROL, GEOTECHNICAL LABORATORY, LACON, GMCERT, FILIKI CERT).
Conservation of physical and cultural characteristics of Greek rural areas
In Greece, the traditional agricultural practices have created landscapes like hedgerows, traditional
olive groves and vineyards, layered plateaus etc, that constitute a great part of the country’s wild flora
and fauna. These elements constitute simultaneously landscapes of great historical and cultural value
and an appropriate basis for the development of agro-tourism and other recreational activities.
However, the latest registry of phytogenetic sources in Greece (HMRDF/National Agricultural Research
10
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
Foundation-NAGREF, 2003) indicates a considerable loss in local traditional varieties in cultivated
areas due to the change of land uses and the abandonment of traditional agricultural practices. In
certain cases, overgrazing and deforestation, farming on steep slopes and excessive use of water for
irrigation, have contributed considerably to soil erosion, loss of semi-natural habitats and wetland
degradation. Thus, agriculture activity has had both positive and negative environmental impacts.
Greek policies, during the last decade, have focused strongly on reversing negative impacts and
maintaining the physical and especially cultural characteristics of croplands as a key parameter of the
Greek traditional practices and cultural heritage.
Water resources protection
Greece, inherently a water scarce country, focuses strongly its policies on protecting water resources,
both in terms of quality and quantity from unsustainable agricultural practices.
More specifically, after the 1997 incorporation of EU Directive 91/676 “for the protection of waters
from nitrate pollution caused by agriculture” (arising mainly from the use of nitrogen fertilisers), in the
Greek national legislation with Joint Ministerial Decisions (JMD) 16190/1335/1997 (Official Journal of
the Government/OJG B519/1997), JMD 19652/1906/1999 (OJG B1575/1999) and JMD
20419/2522/2001 (OJG B 1212/2001), criteria for determining the level of risk of nitrate pollution of
inland waters by agriculture were drawn up and specific areas to be particularly protected due to their
vulnerability were designated as follows:
i.
Surface waters (especially water used or allocated as drinking water), the nitrate load of which
exceeds or may exceed the threshold values set by JMD 46399/1352/1986 regarding “drinking
water”. This category features the basin of river Pinios of the Ilia Perfecture in Peloponnesus.
ii.
Ground waters, the nitrate load of which exceeds or may exceed 50 μg/l. This specific category
features the aquifers of the Thessaly plain, the aquifers of the Kopaida and Argolic plains, the
groundwater of the basin of Pinios river in Ilia, the groundwater of the basin of Strimonas river as
well as the aquifers of the Arta – Preveza plain (i.e. the groundwater of the basins of Louros and
Arahthos rivers).
The first two categories (i and ii) also include the surface and ground waters of the Pella – Imathia
plain around Thessaloniki that encompass the basins of the Aliakmonas, Loudias, Axios and Gallikos
rivers, the lakes of Lagada and Volvi as well as the surface and ground waters of South Kilkis area.
iii.
Lakes and river deltas as well as coastal and sea areas that are prone to eutrophication. This
category includes the waters of Pagasitikos bay.
According to JMD 19652/1906/1999, a catalogue featuring at first 4 zones vulnerable to nitrate
pollution was compiled, in accordance to the article 3 of EU Directive 91/676, which included the areas
of i. Eastern and Western Thessaly, ii. the Kopaida plain, iii. the Argolic plain and iv. the basin of Pinios
river of Ilia. Furthermore, according to JMD 20419/2522/2001, the catalogue was updated with 3
more areas: v. the area of the Thessaloniki-Kilkis-Pella-Imathia Perfectures, vi. the basin of Strimonas
river and vii. the Arta–Preveza plain. Therefore, 7vulnerable zones have been enacted to date.
In compliance with article 5 of EU Directive 91/676, Greece, as part of its agro-environmental policies,
has enacted and set up 7 Action Plans, one for each of the abovementioned 7 overall designated
vulnerable areas, aiming at the protection of the aforementioned designated vulnerable zones to
nitrate pollution. These specific Programmes incorporate a set of rules and obligations of farmers
situated within the designated vulnerable zones. More specifically, they enact:
the application of a threshold for maximum nitrogen fertilisation of soils according to the type of
cultivations, the soil type, climatic conditions, the ground’s slope, irrigation needs and practices
etc in order to prevent fertilisers’ excess, surface runoffs or leachates;
the deployment of sustainable irrigation practices and well designed irrigation schemes to prevent
irrational use of water and soil sliding;
the safe and sustainable disposal of agricultural / animal breeding waste aiming at reducing nitrate
point pollution;
the maintenance of wild flora during autumn and winter especially on slopes so as to reduce
nitrate surface runoffs;
the deployment of high safety measures for fertilisers’ transport and storage.
In compliance with article 4 of the EU Directive 91/676 on nitrate pollution in Greece and aiming at
safeguarding the quality of all water bodies in the country, Ministerial Decision (MD) 85167/820/2000
(OJG 477/B/2000) established the “Code of Good Agricultural Practise related to the protection of
11
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
water bodies against nitrate pollution caused by agriculture”. The measures foreseen in the Code are
compulsory within the vulnerable zones to nitrate pollution (as specified above under bullet points i, ii,
iii), whereas for the rest of the country, the implementation of the Code is on voluntary basis its aim
being the safeguarding of a generally good quality status of all water bodies of the country. The Code
also aims to assit farmers to shift to more environmentally-friendly practices which will allow them to
secure their income while reducing nitrate pollution mainly as result of fertilisers used in cultivations.
More specifically, the Code aims at:
Reducing nitrate concentrations in surface and groundwater due to agricultural runoffs and
leachates;
Providing guidance and regulations as regards to the storage and transportation of the fertilisers,
the quantity, use and application to nitrogen fertilisers;
Providing guidance to farmers on proper water management practices, i.e. irrigation schemes,
water conservation etc;
The proper and safe use of pesticides;
The proper handling and disposal of agricultural/animal breeding waste so as to safeguard both
environmental quality and public health.
Moreover, regarding irrigation water, national policy focuses on formulating and implementing an
integrated national scheme, encompassing agronomic, water and environmental policy objectives,
which promotes the rational use of water, aims to improve irrigation efficiency and practices in both
communal and private irrigation networks and ensures that all water abstractions are properly
licensed. This scheme focuses at gradually replacing groundwater takes by surface waters.
Climate Change
Agricultural practices have been calculated to contribute to by 8.7% to overall GHG emissions in
Greece (2004), without accounting for “Land-Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry” (LULUCF). More
specifically, emissions arise in the sector due to:
- N2O emissions from soils due to the use of nitrogen fertilisers and manure management. N2O
emissions in 2004, in Greece, were mainly attributed to agriculture contributing to 70.7% (8,439.25
ktCO2 eq) of total emissions from agriculture;
- CH4 emissions from livestock digestion process and manure management contributing to 29.3%
(3,497.46 ktCO2 eq) of total emissions from agriculture.
According to the “2nd Revised National Action Plan for the Abatement of CO2 and other
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2000-2010” (NAPCC, originally drawn up in 2002 and revised in
2007) and the “National Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development” (NSPAD), 2007-2013, that
will substitute current ongoing Operational Programmes (for further details see under Chapter
“Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects”) the main policy options for reducing GHG
emission from agriculture relate to the increase in the effectiveness of animal waste
management, the further promotion of biological farming and animal breeding (according to the
target set under the NSPAD of 99,997 ha to be cultivated until 2012 according to the principle
of organic farming resulting to a reduction in emissions of 432 ktCO2 eq for the period 20082012) and the further promotion of reforestation/afforestation (according to the target set
under NSPAD for 90,811 ha of forested land by 2012 taking also into account the forest areas
lost during the devastating wildfires of summer 2007, the reduction in emissions is calculated
to 4,115 ktCO2 eq for the period 2008-2012).
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
The Greek policy towards GMOs as expressed through the competent authority, i.e. the Hellenic
Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works (YPEHODE), regarding the entry into
market of genetically modified hybrids as well as the release in the environment of products based on
genetic modifications, has been and still is negative, based on both an environmental and a
precautionary perspective. The concerns voiced by YPEHODE regarding the use and release of GMOs
do not only stem from scientific findings on the possible adverse effects on non-target or even useful
insects, on other animal species, on the natural environment as a whole as well as on human health
but are also based on the negative public opinion of Greek citizens towards the use of GMOs and
biotechnology, as “potential harmful”. Thus, there are no GMO cultivations in Greece.
12
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
Forestry
The main piece of forest legislation is the 2003 Forest Law, which adopts the principles of sustainable
forest management, biodiversity conservation and multiple uses of forest lands. A Forest Functional
Plan is in place, including measures for burnt land restoration, fire protection, improvement of
degraded forests, designation of protected forests, and completion of the National Forest Registry by
2012. Moreover, a Thematic Strategy for Forests and Mountainous Ecosystems is currently being
developed to improve the integration of biodiversity issues in forest management.
Regional Forest Services are in charge of managing forested areas, including ranger services, and of
developing ad hoc management plans. These plans regulate tree cutting, grazing, hunting (on the
basis of annual ministerial decisions), use of chemicals, collection of herbs and other plant species.
Around 4% of forested land (about 160,000 ha) is managed for biodiversity protection, 20% of which
for in situ conservation of genetic resources. Even though, to date, only one productive forest is ecocertified (by the Forest Stewardship Council), covering about 31,500 ha, national policy strongly
promotes the implementation of a national forest certification system.
Fisheries
Greek fisheries policy is based on sustainable management objectives, including rational exploitation
of fisheries resources and protection of vulnerable areas and species, along the lines of the EU CFP.
The CFP establishes catch quotas for EU MSs for each type of fish, and supports the fishing industry by
various market interventions, for example by regulating the quality, grading, packaging and labelling
of fish and fish products; encouraging the establishment of producer organisations to protect
fishermen from sudden market volatility; the establishment of minimum fish prices and finances the
buying up of unsold fish; and setting rules for trade with non-EU countries. Apart from the aboveentioned measures induced by the CFP, there are several policy instruments adopted by Greece’s own
initiative, on national level. These national measures aim at regulating fishing by setting minimum
landing size of commercial species, mesh size, closed areas and seasons, minimum depths and
distances from shore for fishing and penalties for infringements. To minimise the impacts of fishing
activities on the protected aquatic fauna (e.g. random capture of sea mammals and water birds), the
usage of drift nets and pelagic trawling have been banned. For the conservation of the habitats of
endangered aquatic organisms, protection zones restricted to fishing have been defined. Particular
attention has been given in recent years to the environmental aspects of the aquaculture industry,
both to ensure the quality of the product and to maintain high water standards in the coastal waters.
MRDF’s General Directorate for Fisheries is responsible for exercising fisheries policy at the national
level. This involves implementing the rules of the EU CFP by issuing regulatory measures for fisheries
in Greek territorial waters, and developing and managing the aquaculture sector. The Ministry of
Mercantile Marine, Aegean & Island Policy’s Directorate of Port Police, along with local port offices and
the Fisheries Divisions of Local Authorities of the Prefectures, implement the provisions of the fishing
legislation (EU and national) and, in the case of infringements, imposes administrative penalties
(fines, temporary withdrawal of vessels and licenses). Responsibility for the inspection of the market
for fisheries products is vested in the Ministry of Development/General Secretariat of Commerce.
Participation of the fishing industry stakeholders in the design, examination and introduction of new
fisheries legislation is arranged through a Fisheries Council that includes, inter alia, representatives of
the central administration and research institutions.
All aquaculture operations (including fish and shellfish farming) in Greece require approval by an array
of Ministries; i.e. an Environmental Impact Assessment that is submitted to YPEHODE and a license
from a Regional Fisheries Authority. A system of limited entry for new applicants is in place to control
production and to support the overall policy objective of achieving a balance between environmental
and health concerns as well as economic benefits. The licensing procedure for aquaculture farms
controls the introduction of alien species. There are also plans underway to establish Areas of
Organised Aquaculture Development, to increase efficiency of aquaculture activities and to better
integrate them in coastal zone management. It should also be noted that one important benefit of the
mariculture effort has been the new employment and income generated in previously uninhabited
island areas normally excluded from commercial activities.
Agrofuels
Agrofuels have become a major issue in recent years, not only because of the adverse developments
in the energy sector worldwide, but also due to their environmental and economic benefits. In this
13
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
respect, Greece, together with all other EU MSs has committed in 2007, in the context of the adopted
by the EU Spring Summit “Energy Policy for Europe” to increase the use of biofuels to 10% of total
fuel use by 2020. More specifically, according to Law 3423/2005 that has incorporated EU Directive
2003/30 into the national legislation, biodiesel and bioethanol consumption in Greece should reach
160,000 ton and 400,000 tons respectively. According to the climatic and physical context of Greece,
a feasible yield is calculated to 12 tons per ha per year of energy crops. Already 4 biodiesel production
plants are in operation in Greece (in Kilkis, Volos, Patra and Lamia) that have already supplied
300,000 Klt of biodiesel to the market through refineries. Most of them use frying oils as a main
source of production coupled with smaller quantities of seed oils mainly from crambe, thus giving a
boost to the reform of crops’ allocation in the country.
However, from a development perspective, more recent global concerns regarding the competition
between agrofuels and food security constitutes a determining factor of the Greek policy towards the
issue which is currently being remodelled, formulated and adapted, based on purely sustainability
criteria. In this respect, Greek policy fosters the reuse of agricultural by-products in the energy sector
with direct benefits for both energy efficiency and environmental protection.
As an internationally recognised certificate and agreement for the sustainable production of biofuels
including balancing GHGs from all possible options, is still lacking, Greece is aiming at achieving its
climate change mitigation commitments by giving primarily emphasis on the further promotion of
Renewable Energy Sources (RES). Moreover, some of the concerns with both local and global extend
Greece is addressing and counterbalancing at the moment include: the increasing competition over
farmland and water, the increased global demand for foodstuff, the displacement of food production
and the increase in food prices, the displacement of smallholders that might weaken local social
cohesion etc. Thus, the tendency currently in Greece, apart from the promotion of RES, also focus
towards prioritising research on second generation biofuels and exploitation of biomass from
agricultural by-products and waste. More specifically, Greece explores, through applied research
programmes, methods to process olive oil industry by-products, which are difficult to manage in an
environmentally sound manner, for the production of biofuels, thus also benefiting the environment.
Moreover, forest biomass is also intended to be used further in Greece, in a sustainable manner, as a
second generation biofuel.
Trade
In order to maintain the competitivity of Greek agricultural products, especially vis-à-vis the growing
completion that the full operationalisation of several Free Trade Zones that the EU has committed to
(e.g. Free Trade Zone in the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership framework by 2010, MERCOSUR,
COTONOU etc) as well as the growing competition that the banning of protective export subsidies will
bring about within the context of the on-going negotiations of the “Doha Round” of the WTO, Greek
policy focuses, inter alia, on the certification and quality control of agricultural products through the
promotion of food labelling, e.g. organic farming products, PDOs and PGI products etc (see also above
under “Certification of practices and products” and “Biological-organic farming and husbandry”). This
type of labelling already widespread and growing, is expected to contribute even further to the
increase of the portion of Greek products in international markets, building on the growing awareness
and selectivity of consumers in developed countries regarding the high quality standards and safety of
manufactured foodstuff.
■
Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects
Operational Programmes (OPs)
In the context of the various CSFs, Greece has drawn up several Operational Programmes aiming at
the sustainable development of the agricultural sector, of fisheries and of rural areas. More
specifically, during the 3rd Programming Period 2000-2006, i.e. the 3rd CSF, with regard to
agricultural, rural development and fisheries, priority has been given to the overall rural
competitiveness in a sustainable and balanced way, with particular emphasis on the mobilisation of
private investment, the promotion of quality, improvements in manufacturing and marketing of
agricultural products as well as the protection of natural resources and the environment. Regarding
fisheries, priority has been given to the reorganisation of the fleet, aquaculture, and product
processing.
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Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
Based on the above general objectives, during the 3rd Programming Period 2000-2006, the MRDF has
been responsible for the drawing up, together with the related CEU Services, and the management of
4 OPs:
i. The Operational Programme for the “Agricultural Development and Reform of the Country-side”
(OPADRC),
ii. The “Agricultural Development Plan Document” (ADPD)
iii. The Operational Programme for “Fisheries” (OPF) as well as
iv. The Operational Programme of the Community Initiative “LEADER+” (LEADER+).
In specific:
i. The general development objectives of the OPADRC for 2000-2006 were:
The first general objective was to “improve the competitiveness of Greek agriculture in view of the
challenges of an increasingly competitive international environment”. Within this framework, the
aim was to improve the competitive conditions of fresh and processed Greek agricultural produce,
so that production can cope with the pressures of a possible increase in imports and also enhance
its exporting capacity.
The second general objective was “the sustainable and integrated development of the countryside
in order to increase its competitiveness and attractiveness and to restore its social and economic
function”. This objective aimed to revive the declining regions whose local economy is directly
dependent on the primary sector. The specific objective was to create in these areas the
appropriate terms and conditions in order to reverse the unfavourable demographic trends, by
promoting opportunities for multi-activity, equal opportunities on a balanced gender approach and
use of natural resources in ways that will ensure sustainability.
The third general objective was to “conserve and improve the environment and the countryside’s
natural resources”. This objective aimed to develop the appropriate infrastructure to combat
isolation in combination with other environmental protection programmes – such as those
combating forest fires and other natural disasters – in order to improve the attractiveness of rural
areas, with a view to reverse the current trend of countryside abandonment through an
improvement of services provided.
In order to achieve the above objectives, 7 priority axes and 34 measures, i.e. concrete projects are
implemented, that include assistance to small farm investment plans, construction of small public
works projects etc.
The basic results expected from the completion of the OPADRC include the following:
Investment aid to 13,100 agricultural holdings, which correspond to 5.2% of the total number of
agricultural holdings in the country that meet the requirements of the programme;
24% increase in agricultural productivity (family income per work unit);
1,100 assisted investment plans related to the processing and trade of primary sector products,
including forestry products;
Creation of 3,800 new jobs in the processing and trade of primary sector products, including
forestry products;
29% contribution to assets created in the agro-industry sector;
20,300 new farmers assisted, which corresponds to 9% of all individuals over the age of 45 who
are employed in the agricultural sector
Improvement of 20% of the existing agricultural education structures;
5% increase in sector exports;
5% improvement in milk-producing capacity for sheep and goats included in livestock breeding
and reproductive improvement programmes; 10% improvement for cows;
Over 20% drop in plant protection costs in fields included in the OPADRC;
Increase in reservoir water storage capacity to 8 million m3;
Improvement in irrigation conditions for 10,000 hectares of cultivated land;
Implementation of 40 integrated agricultural development programmes with interventions
targeting 800,000 inhabitants of mountainous, disadvantaged and island regions.
ii.
-
-
With regard to the ADPD, its general development objectives for 2000-2006 were 4, analysed
across 4 axes of actions:
Support for the early retirement of farmers;
Equalising balancing compensation for farmers aiming at the improvement of the Greek
agricultural sector within the current competitive international context as well as at the
enhancement of social cohesion in rural areas in harmony with environmental protection
principles;
Promotion of agro-environmental measures;
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Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
iii.
-
Afforestation of agricultural lands.
With regard to the OPF, its general development objectives for 2000-2006 were:
Achieve a sustainable balance between fishing production and conservation of fisheries resources;
Apply the principles of responsible fisheries and aquaculture;
Enhance sector competitiveness and contribute to the development of economically sustainable
businesses;
Improve market supply quality and make good use of fisheries and aquaculture products;
Contribute to local development, particularly of regions dependent on fisheries;
Use domestic water resources rationally based on sustainability principles;
Promote equal opportunities in respective labour market.
These overall objectives are defined more specifically as follows, per theme:
Regarding sea fisheries: protection of fisheries resources, restructuring of the fishing fleet,
improvement of living conditions of fishermen as well as support in terms of vocational
reorientation for fishermen and related professionals.
Regarding aquaculture: product quality upgrading, modernisation and restructuring of enterprises
in the sector, modernisation of the data monitoring and entry for the production, trade and
employment system, increase in the production of aquaculture products, improvement of
conditions in fish farms located in inland waters, environmental protection ensuring sustainability
as well as aquaculture product market research and location of new markets according to
consumer demands.
Regarding processing and trade of fisheries produce: re-orientation of the sector towards high
value-added products, increased productivity of processing and trading enterprises and increased
product exportability, expansion of the geographic coverage of the sector activities, provision of
suitable support infrastructure and services to sector as well as improved sector contribution to
maintaining and/or increasing employment rates in parallel with environmental protection.
The basic results expected from the full completion of the OPF include, inter alia, the following:
Construction of fishing vessels with a total capacity of 800 GT and/or power of 8,300 kW, namely
approximately 0.76% of the total capacity and 1.28% of the total power of the country’s fleet;
Modernised vessels with a total capacity of 20,100 GT and/or total power of 77,000 kW, namely
approximately 19.10% of the total capacity and 11.90% of the total power of the country’s fleet;
Increased aquaculture production capacity by 10,000 tonnes for marine species, by 1,750 tonnes
for fresh water species, by 3,450 tonnes for shellfish and by 50 million for spawn fish;
Increased fisheries product processing and trade capacity by 600 tonnes for fresh or refrigerated
products, by 200 tonnes for canned or semi-preserved products, by 11,000 tonnes for frozen or
deep-frozen products and by 2,500 tonnes for other processed products;
Increased production in processed products by 11,000 tonnes per year.
iv. With regard to the sustainable development of rural areas, the LEADER+ Programme constitutes an
EU initiative designed to improve the quality of life of the population of the rural areas and to attract
young people into the rural economy, by implementing a set of actions which meet both national and
EU priorities under the 3rd Programming Period, namely employment, equality, environmental
protection, etc. In this respect, the Greek LEADER+ Operational Programme, had two general
development objectives:
Promote an integrated, high-quality, sustainable development of the rural areas, by means of pilot
implementations;
Support efforts to end the isolation of various regions, on all levels of economic and social life.
It should be stressed that for the new (i.e. 4th) Programming Period 2007-2013, all 3 abovementioned
OPs for Agriculture that are at completion stage will be encompassed under one single OP, i.e. the
“National Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development” (NSPAD), 2007-2013. NSPAD which has already
been drawn up, approved and amended also to include particular activities for addressing the results
of the devastating wildfires that occurred in Greece in the summer of 2007, will be focusing on 3
objectives: the promotion of the competitiveness of agriculture, forestry and food production; the
improvement of environmental quality and landscape, the enhancement of the quality of life and the
diversification of income in rural areas, coupled with a 4th objective under the new LEADER for the
promotion of bottom-up approaches in support of small scale local communities’ initiatives. NSPAD has
been designed to interlink effectively with the various related national sectoral OPs within the
overarching “National Strategic Reference Framework” (NSRF) 2007-2013 that represents the new
CSF Framework for Greece for the period 2007-2013 (e.g. the new Operational Programme on
Environment and Sustainable Development / OPESD 2007-2013 of YPEHODE) as well as with the
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Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
“National Reform Programme for Development and Employment” (NRP) 2005-2008 in the context of
the implementation of the EU Lisbon Strategy in Greece. It is also fully aligned with the provisions of
the latest CAP revision, especially as regards to agro-environmental issues.
Regarding Fisheries, for the 4th Programming Period 2007-2013, a similar “National Strategic Plan for
Fisheries” (NSPF) has been elaborated as the new Operational Programme through which the country’s
strategy for the fisheries sector and fisheries areas will be implemented. The new NSPF and its
resulting OP will be co-financed by the European Fisheries Fund (EFF) and national funds. This
Programme too is entirely coherent and complementary with the NSRF and the rest of related sectoral
OPs, at a strategic level, for the period 2007-2013. Its main goals include: the improvement of
competitiveness in the fisheries sector, the protection of the environment and sustainable
management of aqueous resources and the diversification of the economies of areas that rely on
fisheries.
It should be additionally highlighted that both NSPAD and NSPF have undergone a Strategic
Environmental Assessment that will guide their implementation and its monitoring in practice;
moreover they both present strong synergies, complementarity and consistency with the various ROPs
to be implemented under the same period 2007-2013, focusing on the sustainable and balanced
development of all the country’s Regions.
Finally, it should be noted that Greece currently implements ad hoc integrated programmes and
actions, as an emergency priority, for the protection and restoration of all burnt forest areas (e.g.
Parnitha Mountain north of Athens, Olympia, Kaiafas etc) by the 2007 devastating wildfires. These
actions are planned to be continued also during the 2007-2013 period.
Specific Measures and Actions promoted by the OPs 2000-2006
These indicatively include, among others, the following Measures and Actions, as grouped hereby by
general strategic objectives:
i. Strengthening of good agricultural practices
- Codes of good agricultural practice (CoGAP) for the implementation of agri-environmental measures
With the CAP revision with Agenda 2000, the implementation of CoGAPs started aiming at a
sustainable management of agricultural land, conservation of natural resources, protection of
agricultural landscape and safeguarding of farmers’ and consumers’ health. CoGAPs represented the
minimum requirements for environmental protection based on which the potential loss of income of
farmers abiding to these stricter environmentally friendly practices could amount to so as to calculate
their consequent state financial support. CoGAPs have been revised and updated in Greece, through
JMD 125347/2004 as amended by JMD 140920/2005, to satisfy current demands for environmental
protection and to ensure compatibility to the CAP’s most recent revision. CoGAPs implementation is
obligatory for all farmers receiving direct subsidies according to EU Regulation 1259/1999 as well as to
those that the measure of “equalising balancing compensation” applied (2nd axis of action under the
ADPD) or those that implemented “agro-environmental measures” (3rd axis of action under the ADPD).
- CoGAP for the protection of water resources from nitrate pollution of agricultural origin
In the context of implementing EU Directive 91/676 on nitrate pollution in Greece, and in particular its
article 4, the “CoGAP for the protection of water resources from nitrate pollution of agricultural origin”
was enacted. The Code’s main aim is to assist farmers to apply more environmentally friendly
practices regarding use of nitrogen fertilisers and, in parallel, safeguard their income. More particular,
the Code focuses on preventing water resources pollution from nitrates; promoting a sustainable
pattern of water resources management for irrigation aiming at water savings; safe application of
pesticides and; safe management of animal waste. The application of these measures is obligatory in
the 7 areas that are designated as “vulnerable zones to nitrate pollution” (see also under Chapter:
“Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework, Policy Instruments”, “Water resources
protection”) whereas for the rest of the country its application is optional. It should be noted that the
designing of the related Action Plans within the above mentioned vulnerable zones is a prerequisite for
designing and approving a subsidised agro-environmental measure under the ADPD; farmers active
within a vulnerable zone are obliged to fully implement the related Action Plan without being
subsidised.
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Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
- “Cross-Compliance”
Since 2005, within the revised CAP, all farmers that are a being directly subsidised under EU
Regulation 1782/2003 have to comply with the “Cross-Compliance” provisions that includes standards
for soil protection, conversation of its organic matter and structure as well as conservation of natural
habitats and landscape, including permanent grazing lands. Subject to full and good application of
these measures, the extent to which farmers can actually benefit form the direct support that they are
potentially able to receive, is calculated. (see also under Chapter: “Decision-Making, Legal and
Regulatory Framework, Policy Instruments”).
ii. Sustainable management of water resources
Over and beyond the above mentioned measures for implementation of EU Directive 91/676 on nitrate
pollution in Greece and the consequent application of CoGAP for the protection of water resources
from nitrate pollution of agricultural origin, additional agro-environmental measures are being
implemented on a voluntary basis, mainly under the 3rd axis of the ADPD for “Environmental
protection and Sustainable Development of the Agricultural sector” aiming at the qualitative and
quantitative protection of surface and ground water, the protection of wetlands and natural habitats,
the reduction of soil loss etc. More analytically, these Measures and Actions include:
- Reduction of nitrate pollution of agricultural origin (Measure 3.5 of ADPD)
In the context of implementing EU Directive 91/676 on nitrate pollution in Greece, 7 vulnerable zones
prone to nitrate pollution have been designated and enacted coupled by 7 respective enacted Action
Plans for their protection (see also under Chapter: “Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory
Framework, Policy Instruments”). Measure 3.5 corresponds to these activities: initially, in 2000,
activities would cover 35,100 ha whereas today they are implemented by 10,900 farmers for an area
of 114,000 ha, indicating that the initial aim was over-covered by 225%. During 2001-2004, 2,480
contracts were signed for participation to these activities corresponding to 24,800 ha whereas during
2005-2006, 10,768 additional contracts were signed, corresponding to 112,800 ha, thus indicating an
increase in contracts in two years that exceeds 330%. Activities similar to the ones included under
Measure 3.5 for the reduction of nitrate pollution will be continued under NSPAD 2007-2013.
- Protection of wetlands (Measures 3.6, 3.9, 3.10, 3.16, 3.17 of ADPD)
Significant wetlands in Greece, such lakes Volvi-Koroneia, several lagoons of the Region of Thrace,
lake Doirani etc have managed to preserve their ecological functions and values throughout the
centuries due to the traditional and environmentally friendly agricultural practices that farmers
followed. However, over recent decades, intensive patterns of cultivation resulted in a deterioration of
their environmental status that required the enactment and implementation of specific Measures for
restoration of the ecological status of these wetlands through, inter alia, promotion of environmentally
friendly practices (fallowing, development of ecological compensation areas, crop-rotation etc) and
reduction of the use of water for irrigation and fertilisers’ run-offs. Measure 3.6 regards the protection
of lake Pamvotis, with a total original budget for five years amounting to EURO 4 million and an area
coverage of 1,300 ha. Measure 3.6 will be continued under NSPAD 2007-2013 covering an area of
3,000 ha. Measure 3.9 regards the protection of the lakes and lagoons in the Region of Thrace. During
2000-2006, 870 farmers participated in the Measure with an area coverage of 9,726 ha, while for
2007-2013, the expected area to be covered will reach 20,000 ha. Measure 3.10 regards the
protection of lakes Volvi & Koronia and during 2000-2006, 120 farmers representing an area of 1,400
ha participated in its implementation. During 2007-2013, this Measure will be incorporated into the
above mentioned Action Plans for the protection of water resources vulnerable to nitrate pollution of
agricultural origin. Measure 3.16 regards the protection of lakes and lagoons of the Region of Western
Macedonia, with emphasis on lakes Vegoritida, Himaditida and Zazari. In 2006, a total of 29
beneficiaries representing an area of 229.5 ha participated in the Measure that will be continued under
NSPAD 2007-2013 with an area coverage of 10,000 ha. Measure 3.17 regards the protection of lake
Doirani, a transboundary lake shared with FYROM. In 2006, a total of 42 beneficiaries representing an
area of 450.8 ha participated in the Measure that for the period 2007-2013 will be incorporated into
the above mentioned Action Plans for the protection of water resources vulnerable to nitrate pollution
of agricultural origin. All these Measures will cover new additional areas, apart from the ones currently
designated, under NSPAD 2007-2013.
iii. Promotion of biological farming
Biological farming constitutes an integrated approach to agriculture contributing to achieving higher
environmental standards in several related aspects, e.g. protection of soil and water resources,
18
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
biodiversity conservation, low energy demand due to a low demand of fertilizers and pesticides.
Implementation of the two related Measures (3.1 and 3.2) under ADPD, is subsidied.
- Biological Farming (Measure 3.1 of ADPD)
Financial support for its promotion begun in Greece already in 1996. Beneficiaries are supported
annually according to the type and area of cultivation, and for 5 years, provided their full compliance
with standards set for biological farming by EU Regulation 2092/1991. In 2005, this measure was
applied at 87,000 ha with 12,000 beneficiaries participating. In 2006, 10,000 beneficiaries entered the
programme with 77,000 ha covered. This very rapidly increasing trend is also indicated by
accumulative percentages: in 2004-2005, the number of new beneficiaries increased by 57% whereas
in 2005-2006 the increase was 62%, with an increase by 75% and 48% respectively in the surface
area covered. This successful Measure will be continued during the period 2007-2013.
- Biological husbandry (Measure 3.2 of ADPD)
Financial support for its promotion begun in Greece already in 2001. Participating beneficiaries are
obliged to comply with the standards set by EU Regulation 1257/1999 for a minimum of five years. In
2004, there were 956 participating breeders covering an area of 88,513 ha whereas in 2006 there
were 3,210 covering an area of 248,726 ha, indicating a very rapidly increasing trend. This successful
Measure will too be continued during the period 2007-2013.
iv. Preservation of the plant and animal genetic resources (Measures 3.7, 3.8, 3.11, 3.13 of ADPD and
Measure 6.3 of OPADRC)
The plant genetic resources feature the plants’ multiplying material (i.e. seeds, genes, etc), which may
be agriculturally utilised for the production of food. The material features traditional species,
nowadays disdained by the modern agriculture system of nutrition, wild species (the ancestors of
species cultivated today), as well as local species (original material). These resources need to be
protected and systematically monitored. Measure 3.7 regards the protection of endangered local wild
animal species (e.g. sheep, cattle, goat, horse, pig and poultry species), so that their numbers are
maintained or increased above a threshold so that are no longer considered endangered. Some
indicative results so far show that local sheep species in the island of Chios are above safety level and
are no longer considered endangered whereas goats in the island of Skopelos are reaching safety
level; 12 species are extinct; the increase rate of the rest 22 species under protection is at 134%.
During 2000-2006, 1,034 contracts corresponding to 12,807 Units of Animal Capital (UAC) were
signed while the Measure is about to continue for the period 2007-2013. Measure 3.8 regards the
conservation of local plant resources threatened by “generic erosion”. Under this Measure that is being
financed though the ADPD and the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund - Guidance
Section (EAGGF-G), in 2006, 300 farmers, corresponding to 570 ha, participated with 40 local
varieties (mainly annual cultivations) selected for protection. This Measure, with a much enlarged
scope, will too be continued during period 2007-2013. Measure 6.3 regarding the establishement of a
Sample Bank of plant genetic material (covering both construction of new modern facilities as well as
collection of a large part of the remaining genetic material of the country, targeting at an annual of
5,000 plant samples), is funded by 69.3% from EAGGF-G and by 30.7% from the National Public
Investment Programme of MRDF, with a total budget amounting to EURO 2.13 million and with
finalisation date in early 2009. Measure 3.11 regards the conservation and restoration of traditional
hedgerows in the boundaries of farming fields, aims at the protection of biodiversity and habitats of
wild fauna in agriculture areas; the preservation of feeding, resting and nesting fields of predators and
immigrant birds; the conservation of agricultural landscape; and the development of ecological
compensation areas. This activity, even not so highly valuated by farmers so far, is of critical
ecological importance for competent Authorities, targeting mainly remote and disadvantaged areas,
e.g. the Evros and Ioannina Prefectures in Northeast and Northwest of Greece. Finally, Measure 3.13
regards the conservation of cultivated areas that have become, over the years, a wildlife habitat or
are providing food to endangered and rare wildlife species, and focuses primarily to achieving a
harmonic coexistence between farmers and wildlife. This Measure is implemented in several NATURA
2000 sites under protection network as well as in their surrounding areas, located in mainland Greece
as well as in the islands.
v. Maintenance of areas of high ecological value and of traditional agriculture landscapes (Measures
3.3, 3.14, 3.15 of ADPD as well as related activities under OPADRC)
Measure 3.3 regards the long-term fallow of agricultural lands for their transformation to natural
habitats aiming at increasing biodiversity and soil retention, through provision of incentives and
financial support to farmers for long-term setting aside their cultivation lands. Even not so popular to
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Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
farmers with only 6,200 ha covered currently, the Measure will be continued also during 2007-2013.
Measures 3.14 and 3.15 regard the protection of the traditional olive grove in the area of Amfissa near
the famous Delphi archaeological site (Central Greece) and the preservation of the traditional
vineyards in the Aegean island of Santorini, respectively. Both agricultural lands offer ecological and
high cultural/traditional functions as they are areas where both practices, i.e. olives and vines
growing, are considered historically ancient and are conducted through traditional methods. Farmers
participating in these Measures are subsidised to preserve traditional agricultural practices facing
extinction, help protect the soil from erosion and land use change and development of ecologic
compensation areas. Moreover, in the context of OPADRC, 2 pilot management plans for 2 areas
protected under NATURA 2000 (i.e. the Zakinthos Sea Park and the lake Pamvotis) where agricultural
activities take place, have been compiled and are being implemented. These plans intend to achieve a
high ecological protection status for these 2 areas while continuing the conduction of agricultural
practices in an environmentally friendly manner: the sites’ Management Bodies are equipped with
computing tools and models that provide guidance to the planning (type, extend etc) of agricultural
activities so as to safeguard the natural habitat at all times.
Finally, in the context of OPADRC 2000-2006 and in particular under its Measure 4.3 on promoting
activities for improving exports, there have been 557 entities participating, with a total budget
amounting to EURO 29.06 million. Its general objectives include promotion of environmentally friendly
production practices as well as promotion of organic, wholesome, PDO and PGI products, mainly
through better marketing strategies and faster adaptation to international market prices so as to
increase competitiveness and exports of quality products. Marketing strategies include organisation of
and participation in regional and international Expos, tasting events and road shows, production of
promo material etc. Main products selected for these activities are wines, olive oils, vinegar, fruits,
dried nuts, olives, cheeses etc. Similar Measures are being implemented in the context of OPF 20002006, for increasing the market value and visibility of Greek fish products abroad, e.g. for the
promotion of gilthead and sea-bass some EURO 3,2 million have already been allocated.
Strategic Objectives, Measures and Actions for the period after 2007
Greece’s NSSD initially elaborated in 2002, is currently under revision, along the reviewed EU Strategy
for Sustainable Development of 2006. The main strategic objectives, goals and targets that the
revised NSSD will aim at encompassing for the issues of agriculture, forestry and fisheries, in line with
the goals and targets set under the NSPAD and the NSPF, are broadly as follows:
i. Agriculture
The key strategic goal for the sector is to continue the increase of employment and income generation
in the sector with a view to further enhance its quantitative and qualitative growth and to assist
farmers further, especially young ones, not to abandon their places of origin, while ensuring
environmental protection in a sustainable manner that will allow for an efficient, productive and
coherent balance between competition for agricultural land and natural ecosystems’ conservation. To
this end, a series of actions that are already on-going, will be continued and further strengthened,
such as:
- Efforts to more efficiently address the structural problems the sector faces, through the
implementation of related economic measures and instruments.
- Promotion of education and vocational training on economic, technical and environmentally friendly
practice issues while orientating farmers to more profitable and sustainable cultivations.
- Promotion of a system of “agricultural consultants” to technically support producers.
- Build capacity of producers to negotiate better market prices for their products and to effectively
establish and operate cooperative bodies with distribution of expenses and raising of profits
- Continue products’ labelling and their marketing both in domestic and foreign markets.
- Enhance research to adapt practices and products to new trends while benefiting from modern
technological advances.
- Effectively adapt land use planning to meet growing demand for land by young farmers while
avoiding degradation and multi-fragmentation of land.
- Improve social services of high quality for farmers, especially those in remote areas, young ones
and women, for improved social cohesion, repopulation of the country-side and reversing of the
negative trends of an aging population occupied in the agricultural sector.
- Continue efforts for long-term fallow of agricultural lands for their transformation to natural habitats
aiming at increasing biodiversity and soil retention.
- Intensify efforts to adapt the sector to the impacts of climate change, in terms of water scarcity and
resilience of cultivations.
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Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
- Intensify measure to protect water resources from agricultural activities, both in terms of
overexploitation and thus need for conservation especially of groundwater as well as in terms of
decreasing agricultural run-offs and nitrate pollution.
- Improve quality and safety of vegetable products by minimising fertilisers’ traces.
- Coupling of subsidies to the impacts the subsidised activities have on environment so that only
sustainable activities are supported.
- Continuing promotion of biological agriculture by various means, such as financial incentives to
farmers or regular elaboration of feasibility studies for the introduction of new organic cultivations or
biological stock-breeding.
- Simplification of the certification, packaging, transport, distribution and trading chain of organic
products so as to increase their market share, producers’ income, visibility and popularity.
- Continue efforts to protect and preserve traditional agricultural practices, local varieties and species
of plants and stock as well as plant and animal genetic sources, aiming to positively contribute to
maintaining the Greek agricultural biodiversity.
- Protection and enhancement of natural and cultural landscapes created by traditional agricultural
activity (dry stone walls, terraces, hedgerows, traditional olive groves, vineyards) that constitute an
important part of the cultural identity of the country and a habitat for its wild flora and fauna.
ii. Forestry
- Reverse of forest loss and protection of forest biodiversity while increase surface area of sustainably
managed forests and the percentage of wood products resulting from integrated forest management
practices. Such practices should be well defined with criteria and standards, monitored and certified
and should be applied widely with priority to NATURA 2000 forest sites, as a part of a national
thematic strategy on forests to be soon finalised. To this end, training and recruitment of specialised
staff is further intensified. Moreover, particular emphasis is given to the strict protection of periurabn or degraded forests and their rehabilitation through natural reforestation and afforestation
with local plant species.
- Improve the competitiveness and added value of forestry outputs while enhancing further the
economic, social and environmental functions and services of forests such as the enhancement of
livelihoods of populations depended on forests.
- Increase information and awareness of society on issues and targets pertaining to the protection and
sustainable management of forests, such as the tremendous adverse effects that forest fires have
on the overall forest ecosystem. To this end, the inventorying of the existing levels of forest biomass
and of its fluctuations in time is promoted together with the final compilation of the national Forest
Cadastre aiming at protecting various types of forest land from pressures such as overgrazing,
illegal logging, land-use change, unauthorised building etc.
iii. Fisheries
- Enhance fish-stock management and avoid overexploitation so as to achieve a maximum sustainable
output by 2015.
- Protect the aquatic environment and sustainable management of coastal formations, e.g. lagoons
that are important to aquaculture.
- Reinforce support mechanisms for the implementation of an even more sustainable fisheries policy
and the creation of more and highly competitive viable businesses for processing and trading of fish
products as well as by increasing distribution points and minimising time requirements of the market
supply chain so that marketed products are fresh and of high quality. In parallel, improve aesthetic
conditions in fish-ports and public fish markets.
- Adopt an ecosystem approach for the management of fish-stock, by rehabilitation of fish reserves
and establishment of areas of controlled fishing, so as to conserve the structure and functions of
these ecosystems as well as to support conservation and further growth of marine flora and fauna.
Reorient fishing fleet’s activities to more sustainable ones that respect fragile ecosystems and
habitats (e.g. spawn, alevin areas) while increasing the sector’s competitiveness.
- Promote integrated land-use planning for the site allocation of aquacultures, designate areas of
Organised Aquaculture Development to increase efficiency of aquaculture activities and to better
integrate them in coastal zone management, support traditional methods of aquaculture and of
biological aquaculture and introduce innovative schemes for products certification and labeling.
- Promote marketing of additional aqueous products apart from fish such as sea-weed etc while
maximising benefits from technological advancements for modernizing fish breeding.
- Further intensify inspections to control and abate illegal fishing (i.e. methods, catches, period,
areas) and aquaculture activities.
21
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
Finally, is should be highlighted that YPEHODE is at the final stages of compiling, for the first time, the
draft of a comprehensive integrated “National Strategy for Biodiversity” along the lines of the UN
Convention of Biological Diversity (UNCBD). The Strategy’s main objective is the halting of biodiversity
loss in Greece with an implementation period of 15 years, 2009-2023. The Strategy, once finalised
through a public consultation process and officially adopted by the Government, will encompass 23
policy targets categorised in 4 broad strategic objectives: protection of genetic resources, species and
habitats; integration of biodiversity protection objectives into climate change adaptation policies, into
physical planning, into urban planning and into tourism policies; cross-sectoral objectives like
research, information, awareness raising, public participation, funding, governance strengthening etc;
prevention of impacts from alien invasive species sprawling and GMOs. Implementation oversight and
monitoring of the Strategy will be undertaken by a new special Inter-Ministerial Committee of 10 cocompetent Ministries (YPEHODE, MRDF, Merchantile Marine and Aegean Islands, Foreign Affairs,
Interior, National Economy and Finance, Education, Culture, Tourism).
■
Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training and AwarenessRaising
In Greece, the National Organisation of Agricultural Vocational Education, Training and Employment,
i.e. “DIMITRA” (http://www.ogeeka-dimitra.org.gr/) is responsible for organising and carrying out
secondary education programmes in the field of agriculture as well as for vocational training of those
occupied in the sector, aiming at increasing knowledge and capacities of farmers to fulfil their
demanding and challenging occupation in a manner that is environmentally friendly, while
economically profitable and socially viable, thus contributing to the sustainable development of the
Greek rural land and sector’s economic regeneration. DIMITRA fulfils its mission through operation of
4 Professional Schools for secondary education as well as 71 Centres for Training and Information
throughout the country. These Schools and Centres provide an occupational alternative to populations
living in rural remote or disadvantaged areas to either fight unemployment or raise their income; they
conduct studies and promote research and life long knowledge updating to new trends, methods and
products in the field of agriculture (e.g. biological farming, PDO, PGI, agro-tourism, etc); they also
provide qualifications’ certification through the “Green Certificate”. Since 2004, public financing (EU
and national funds) of DIMITRAS’ activities increased from 50% to 75% that resulted in an upgrading
in quantity and quality of all implemented programmes; trained farmers are thus alleviated from
participation fees and are instead granted financial support for their attendance at EURO 3.23/hour.
DIMITRA in cooperation with AGROCERT is carrying out specialised training on biological agriculture
and the certification processes of these products. Secondary education and training is increasingly
targeting women of all ages aiming at their empowerment, retention of their active social involvement
in participatory and productive processes and creation of additional income by means of capacity
raising for forming of women’s cooperatives to effectively trade local traditional products.
MRDF (http://www.minagric.gr) itself is carrying out massive information, capacity building and
awareness raising activities of farmers and of the general public. In particular, the Codes of Good
Agricultural Practice (CoGAP) for the implementation of agri-environmental measures as well as the
CoGAP for the protection of water resources from nitrate pollution of agricultural origin, the
implementation of which is supervised by MRDF, are a significant step towards this direction. The
CoGAPs (see also under Chapter “Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects”) address all farmers,
growers and land managers, offer practical interpretation of legislation and provide good advice on
best practices, i.e. “good agricultural practice” that minimises the risk of causing pollution while
protecting natural resources and allowing economic agriculture to continue (e.g. they include specific
requirments for cultivating, plowing etc of lands of over 10% slop). They intend to inform all persons
occupied in farming and stock-breeding who handle, store, use, spread or dispose of any substances
that could pollute water, soil or air about their responsibilities and about the causes and results of
pollution to the natural environment of agricultural origin. In this respect, the CoGAPs provide an
important point of reference, based around the main operations that farmers, growers and land
managers might undertake, from the activities carried out in the field or in management plans to
waste management. Their implementation is inspected, enforced and obligatory for all farmers
conducting activities in vulnerable for nitrate pollution zones or for those implementing subsidised
agro-environmental Measures.
With an aim to successfully implement the new national irrigation policy and promote a new “irrigation
culture”, both Ministries of RDF and YPEHODE are intensifying activities to raise greater public
awareness and understanding, particularly among farmers, of the economic, social and environmental
aspects of water management.
22
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
Capacity building efforts of MRDF also focus on increasing farmers’ abilities to successfully negotiate
their products’ prices, since, currently, the possibility for the Greek producer to unilaterally negotiate
the price of his production is limited; notwithstanding the 6,350 Agricultural Associations that exist,
producers consent to a series of “imposed conditions” of a chain of distribution and trade of their
products, without any prominent gain for the consumer. In order to reserve these trends, Agricultural
Associations now focus much more on educating and training their employers in order to be able to
negotiate successfully, in domestic and subsequently in foreign markets, the conditions of products’
distributions, with direct benefits also for the consumers. Moreover, farmers and growers are
supported, through the OPs, to participate in “life-long learning” programmes that assist them to
adapt their technical capacities to the production of products presenting a high market demand and
high additional value (e.g. foodstuff) as well as organise the provision of technical consultation and
support mechanisms.
Regarding fisheries, thanks to the continuous efforts of MRDF, Greek fishermen are becoming
increasingly aware that fisheries are highly dependent on healthy ecosystems. To this end, several
associations have favoured the designation of fisheries-restricted reserves as a way to restore natural
habitats and increase abundance and diversity of fishstock. The Hellenic Society for the Study and
Protection of the Monk Seal promoted, in 2005-2009, a project (co-funded under the EU LIFE-Nature
programme) to draft and implement an action plan to mitigate the seal-fisheries conflict, with the
active participation of fishermen, whose fishing practices might cause serious threats to the seal but
who in parallel bear income losses due to damage of their gear by seals. The project also aims at
evaluating and revising the National Conservation Strategy for the Mediterranean Monk Seal. Similar
programmes of cooperation with fishermen have been undertaken by the Sea Turtle Protection Society
of Greece (ARCHELON) in several parts of the country
A wide series of national entities conduct advanced research and pilot applications in the field of
agriculture (e.g. explore the feasibility of applying new methods of cultivations, new technologies and
new products, explore interlinkages and synergies between climate change and agricultural practices,
explore and develop innovative and profitable methods of managing agricultural waste and residues
etc) including the National Agricultural University of Athens (AUA) (http://www.aua.gr/), NAGREF
(http://www.nagref.gr/), the Benaki Phytopathological Institute (BPI) (http://www.bpi.gr/), the
Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES) (http://www.cres.gr/), the National Centre of Scientific
Research DIMOKRITOS (http://www.demokritos.gr/) etc.
Particular emphasis should be given to the activities of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of
Chania (http://www.ciheam.org/mai-chania._8_39296_.php) that has been pursuing an active policy
of cooperation for many years. Education and training in collaboration with various institutions in other
CIHEAM (Centre of Advance Mediterranean Agronomic Studies) member countries, multidisciplinary
orientation and scientific excellence (including a Master of Science degree), networked research, Elearning and joint publication of scientific work are some of its innovative and highly successful
trademark activities.
AGROCERT’s (http://www.agrocert.gr/) activities, unilaterally or jointly with DIMITRA, also strongly
focus on information and awareness raising of farmer and growers on new trends in the sector and in
particular on the various certification labels used so as to further widespread them, raise their visibility
and enhance their marketing options. Through its activities, it also targets general public so as to
make, inter alia, the labels of organic products, PDO and PGI more widely known and recognised,
inform on the various benefits for choosing these type of products by the consumers for both
consumers and producers and generally make consumers more aware, conscious of their choices and
more active participants to delivering the strategic targets of national agriculture and rural
development policies. In this context, the various bodies that carry out certification procedures for
organic products also have their share of responsibility and benefits within the information and
awareness
raising
efforts
of
both
producers
and
consumers;
these
include
DIO
(http://www.dionet.gr/), Fysiologiki E.P.E., BIO HELLAS S.A. (http://www.bio-hellas.gr/), Q Ways
S.A. (http://www.qways.gr/), A Cert (http://www.a-cert.org), IRIS Α. CHATZIDAKI & Co
(http://www.irisbio.gr/),
GREEN
CONTROL
(http://www.greencontrol.gr),
GEOTECHNICAL
LABORATORY
(http://www.bio-geolab.gr),
LACON
(http://www.lacon-institut.com),
GMCERT
(http://www.gmcert.gr), FILIKI CERT (http://www.filikicert.gr).
In terms of information, NSSG (http://www.statistics.gr/) conducts an enormous work of collecting,
processing and presenting, through the publication of its “Annual Agricultural Statistic Survey” a large
number of data regarding, inter alia, surface area of cultivated lands per various categories; farming
23
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
and stock breeding activities per type, output, etc; employment in the sector, age ranges of people
occupied in the sector, domestic and external trade activities and related income etc.
Selected qualitative indicators on Agriculture, Animal breeding and Fisheries were also presented and
analysed by NCESD’s (http://www.ekpaa.gr/), supervised by YPEHODE, “Report on Sustainable
Development Indicators of Greece” (2004); a similar more extended and comprehensive report is
currently being finalised. NCESD is also conducting a wide range of information and awareness raising
activities on related issues by organising Roundtables, consultation events, publications and
distribution of printed material etc; a recent very successful campaign focused on the production of
biofuels, encompassing issues pertaining to their sustainable production, integrated assessments and
criteria for their characterisation including ethical/social aspects, inter-linkages between climate
change adaptation and mitigation to agriculture etc.
■
Financing
A key funding source for the agricultural sector and the sustainable development of the country side in
Greece has been provided, since 1985, through the various CSFs. In 2000-2006, MRDF has been
responsible for the management of 4 Operational Programmes:
1. The Operational Programme for the “Agricultural Development and Reform of the Country-side”
(OPADRC);
2. The “Agricultural Development Plan Document” (ADPD);
3. The Operational Programme for “Fisheries” (OPF) as well as
4. The Operational Programme of the Community Initiative “LEADER+” (LEADER+).
In more detail and with regard to OPADRC, it consists of 7 priority axes. The total budget for the
period 2000-2006 is around EURO 3.6 billion, out of which the public expenditure (i.e. EU funding and
National funding from Greece’s own resources) amounted to EURO 2,136.2 million while the rest
corresponds to private participation. Under the 7 priority axes of OPADRC, 34 measures have been
identified under which several concrete projects are implemented. Assistance to 880 small farm
investment plans, the public cost amounting to EURO 130 million, and 478 small public works
projects, the public cost amounting to EURO 115 million, as part of the Integrated Rural Development
Programmes.
Progress until June 2007 indicated that 721 projects have been approved, their total public cost
amounting to 82.6% of the overall public cost of the programme. Total budget contracted (legal
commitments) corresponds to 49.7% of the overall public cost of the programme, while expenditure
to date on the whole programme amounts to 27.5% of the overall public cost of the OP.
Actions undertaken and financed by the same above mentioned date, under the OPADRC, included:
- Support to more than 44,000 beneficiaries;
- Funding for 12,554 investments in agricultural holdings, the public cost of which amounting to EURO
345 million;
- Single premium paid to 22,800 young farmers for first-time setting up on an agricultural holding,
the public cost amounting to EURO 225 million;
- 850 agricultural product processing and trading firms assisted, the public cost amounting to EURO
400 million;
- Construction of 22 major land reclamation schemes with a total public cost of EURO 265 million;
- Assistance to 880 small farm investment plans, the public cost amounting to EURO 130 million, and
478 small public works projects, the public cost amounting to EURO 115 million, with additional 192
projects already commenced, as part of the Integrated Rural Development Programmes for the
improvement of infrastructure in 40 rural areas;
- Implementation of integrated activities in mountainous and generally disadvantaged areas with an
overall public expenditure amounting to approximately EURO 420 million, at 47 areas, aiming at the
realisation of small public works projects, activities for supporting the human context and capacities
as well as for supporting private investments;
- More that 6,500 small and major investment plans for processing and trading wood products were
supported.
With regard to ADPD, its total public expenditure for the period 2000-2006 amounts to EURO 2.69
billion, distributed to the programme’s 4 objectives; in this context, funds spent for the
implementation of Agro-environmental Measures reached EURO 122 million for the same period.
24
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
With regard to the OPF, its total budget for the period 2000-2006 is EURO 483.1 million, out of which
the public expenditure (i.e. EU funding by EAGGF-G and national funding from Greece’s own resources
from the National Public Investment Programme of MRDF) amounted to EURO 343.51 million while the
rest corresponds to private participation. Progress until June 2007 indicated that 187 projects were
approved, their total public cost amounting to 77.2% of the overall public cost of the programme.
Total budget contracted (legal commitments) corresponded to 84.4% of the overall public cost of the
programme, while expenditure on the whole programme amounts to 57.7% of the overall cost of the
OP. Until that date, OFP benefited around 4,590 beneficiaries; the dismantling of 2,577 old fishing
boats (of public expenditure of over EURO 140.77 million) and the building of 306 new ones (of public
expenditure of around EURO 9.54 million) was supported while 702 boats (of public expenditure of
over EURO 14.28 million) were modernised; 195 aquaculture establishment and 103 processing and
trading of fish products' plans were funded while 650 professional fishermen were included in the
socio-economic measures of the programme. Moreover the refurbishment of public infrastructure in 63
fishing ports and reserves has been promoted and funded; rehabilitation works in 3 lagoons were
carried out of public expenditure of EURO 1.23 million; 8 research projects were conducted of public
expenditure or EURO 1.17 million; projects for the creation of 3 artificial reefs and one for monitoring
of an existing one were funded with EURO 3.3 million.
With regard to LEADER+, by August 2007, EURO 158.17 million were already disbursed reaching a
61.8% of programme’s overall budget.
For the period 2007-2013, for the implementation of the NSPAD, EURO 5.078 billion have been overall
committed; from these, around EURO 870 million is earmarked already for the implementation of
agro-environmental activities with priority to NATURA 2000 sites, such as conservation of biodiversity
and soil quality, development of agricultural sustainable practices, protection of traditional rural
landscapes and rational management of water. Similarly for the NSPF 2007-2013, its public
expenditure part will amount to EURO 274.11 million, for the same period.
Apart from the OPs supervised by MRDF, under the Operational “Environment” Programme (OEP)
2000-2006 of YPEHODE, there are several budget lines broadly linked to the sustainable development
of rural areas as well as promotion of sustainable agriculture and fisheries while safeguarding
ecosystems’ integrity in land and in water. These include, inter alia, Measure 3.2 for landscape
protection and rehabilitation (of a total budget of around EURO 10 million); Measure 6.2 for the
development of basic infrastructure works for the sustainable management of water resources (of a
total budget of EUR 166 million); and Measures 8.1 and 8.2 for the protection of special protected
areas and biotopes (of a total budget of around EURO 165 million). During the 4th Programming Period
of Financial Perspectives 2007-2013, the OPESD, i.e. the new Operational Programme on Environment
and Sustainable Development of YPEHODE (of a total budget for public expenditure covering both EU
and national funds of EURO 2.8 billion) that will succeed OEP, will similarly continue the funding of
several activities like the ones above mentioned broadly related to the sustainable development of
agriculture and fisheries also by giving priority to new fields, such as assisting sectors like agriculture
to adapt to climate change impacts and to the new geophysical conditions e.g. of water scarcity;
strengthening mitigation of climate change through forestry and concerted land-use planning;
promoting innovative RES from biomass etc.
Finally, it should be noted that under the National Private Investments’ Law (Law 3299/2004 on
“Incentives for Private Investments and Economic Development and Regional Convergence) funding of
up to 60% of total investment cost is provided by the state as subsidies for private investments in all
economic sectors (including primary sector) for supporting sustainable activities in line with the
principles of environmental protection, such as production of biofuels or solid fuels from biomass.
■
Cooperation
Greece, as an MS of the EU, the FAO, the WTO and other related regional and international
Organisations and Agencies is bounded by and closely follows all related international Treaties,
Agreements and Negotiations.
For instance, in the context of Greece’s international commitments to FAO and the Rome Treaty
regarding Plantation Resources related to Food and Agriculture, MRDF is implementing various
measures and activities for conserving the various wild indigenous plant species existing in Greece.
Greece has also been an active participant in fisheries-related activities of the FAO and has ratified a
variety of multilateral conventions and agreements that address fisheries management issues.
25
Chapter I: Agriculture – Rural Development
Moreover, Greece follows closely, as an EU Member, the negotiations of the “Doha Round” in the
context of the WTO, giving particular emphasis on the needs and demands of developing countries,
aiming at poverty eradication, by opening up EU markets to developing countries’ agricultural products
and by gradually abating subsidisation of exports of EU products in such a way that international
market balance is distorted and developing countries are financially and socially excluded. Moreover,
Greece is committed to abide to EU decisions, within the same context and in the context of the
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
(2002), for phasing out gradually agricultural subsidies with adverse environmental effects.
Greece is strongly committed to the UNCBD Cartagena Protocol’s objective of ensuring the safe
handling of GMOs to protect biodiversity and human health.
Greece is regularly contributing to all the replenishments of Global Environment Facility (GEF), the
international independent financial mechanism which provides developing countries with grants for
programs that aim at the improvement of environment globally and promote sustainability of local
communities through activities related to biodiversity, climate change, international water resources,
land degradation, ozone depletion and persistent organic pollutants. For its current fourth
replenishment (2007-2010) is contributing EURO 5.73 million in four equal annual instalments.
Furthermore, Greece as a country that is mainly relying on its primary sector, is regularly organising
(e.g. the Thessaloniki annual international exhibition) and participating (e.g. the Berlin annual
“Fruitlogistica” exhibition) to various international Expos concerning the promotion of agricultural
products, foodstuff, agricultural technologies etc.
On the regional level, Greece is a member of and actively participates to the activities of CIHEAM and
is hosting one of its four Mediterranean Agronomic Institutes in the city of Chania, island of Crete.
On a bilateral level, Greece’s bilateral development assistance activities benefiting developing partner
countries, in the fields of agriculture and rural development, amounted in 2007 to approximately
EURO 2.9 million. Indicatively, bilateral cooperation activities with Egypt include a twining of the
Mediterranean Agronomic Institutes of Chania with the Agronomic Institutes of Egypt through a
Bilateral Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the two countries signed at Ministries of
Foreign Affairs level (2006), aiming at experience, expertise and information exchange on agronomic
and environmental issues common to the two countries due to their similar climatic conditions. In the
context of this MoU, an activity entitled “GI@MED” of a EURO 555,300 budget is carried out aiming at
the electronic networking of all agronomic schools throughout Southeast Mediterranean, based on
geo-information systems, for the promotion of joint strategies for the management of agricultural
areas, water resources and environmental issues in general.
Another example is the bilateral cooperation of Greece with Ethiopia; the two countries have signed an
MoU at Ministries of Agriculture level, for providing to Ethiopia expertise and know-how on issues
pertaining to the cultivation of cotton, through the Greek NAGREF.
Cooperation with other African countries also includes the creation of a farm in Zambia encompassing
an agronomic school for education and training as well as two units of plant cultivation and animal
breeding, that will also be conducted by NAGREF, through a multi-year project that has already
disbursed, in 2008, EURO 30,000.
Other Bilateral Cooperation Agreements that Greece has signed include, indicatively, those with South
Korea, with Japan and with Russia, at Ministries of Foreign Affairs level, for the promotion of technical
cooperation between the countries on issues pertaining to agriculture and husbandry and for
supporting the commercial dissemination of the agricultural products and foodstuff of one country in
the other, respectively.
Greece is currently further intensifying its efforts focusing on financing adaptation to climate change
programmes of all sectors, inter alia, agriculture and water resources, in Least Developed Countries
and in regions that, due to their geographical locations, are under severe danger from climate change
(Africa and Small Island States). In order to ensure best possible utilisation of funds and distribution
to programmes according to the most significant needs of the threatened regions, the Greek plan will
be implemented in coordination with regional organisations of the areas under consideration and
especially with the African Union (EURO 3 million in 2007, EURO 1 in 2008), the CARICOM (EURO 1
million in 2007 and EURO 1 million in 2008) and AOSIS (EURO 1 million in 2007).
26
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
CHAPTER II: Drought – Desertification
■
Status
General
Water scarcity and drought in Greece should not be viewed only as a physical phenomenon or natural
event, as it has also negative impact on the economy, environment and the society in general. The
recent drought events in Greece, in particular in years 2006-2007, highlighted the vulnerability of the
society to these natural hazards by reducing not only primary production of crops, grass and fodder,
but also by jeopardising the constant supply of good quality water.
In terms of definitions, meteorological drought is commonly based on actual precipitation’s difference
from normal average over a certain period of time and is region-specific; agricultural drought occurs
when there is not enough soil moisture to meet crop water requirements at a particular time and takes
place after meteorological drought but before hydrological drought; hydrological drought refers to
deficiencies in surface and ground water supplies which can be directly measured as stream or river
flow and as lake, reservoir or groundwater levels, however due to the time lapse between rainfall and
its appearance in streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, hydrological measurements cannot be
considered as the earliest indicators of drought; finally socio-economic drought occurs when physical
water shortage starts to affect people, individually and collectively, when demand exceeds supply as a
result of a weather-related shortfall.
Prolonged drought periods also result in soil exposure, erosion, land degradation and, finally,
desertification. It is evident that in Greece the risk of land degradation and desertification is already
taking place creating a vicious circle with climate change and human activity.
In Greece, the agricultural sector constitutes the highest consumer of water for crop irrigation for both
national consumption and exports. The tourism sector is also characterised by a strong seasonal
variation in water demand with peaks in the summer when resources are, by natural terms, at their
lowest and with geographic peaks along the coast. Around 16 million of tourists visit Greece every
year, while in 2005, only Athens attracted 6.1 million of tourists. Thus, water demand is often being
shifted towards satisfying the needs of the tourism industry while also seasonally increasing
considerably due to crop irrigation.
In Greece, water scarcity is not only defined from the “endemic” limited availability of water resources
but in certain, point cases can also be aggravated by pollution incidents. The resulting problem is thus
connected to both inadequacy of water sources as well as to possible limitation of required
infrastructure and institutions for water management.
Until recently, remedial measures to combat water scarcity and droughts used to focus more on the
development of new water resources to offset the increasing demand. However, the ever increasing
abstraction of the limited resources has stimulated further a strategic approach focusing mainly on
saving water rather than developing new water resources, in order not only to “manage physical
resources” but also to “reform human activities to enable better benefit from the resources”. Dialogue
with users, participation of citizens and information and educational campaigns are essential elements,
in this respect, of an effective water management system, permitting a demand regulation and a
better use of amenities.
Water scarcity and drought profile of Greece
Mean annual precipitation in Greece approaches 850 mm/year, however it follows a highly uneven
distribution pattern in time and space: Western Greece accepts the majority of rainfalls, more than
1,500 mm/ year, while Eastern Greece, along with the islands of Aegean and Crete, have considerably
smaller rainfalls e.g. Attica’s mean interannual precipitation is approximately 400 mm/year. On the
other hand, evapotranspiration is quite high, especially in the dry eastern regions of the country.
Values below 0.20 characterise dry regions, between 0.20 and 0.49 almost dry, between 0.50 and
0.74 almost humid, while values over 0.75 characterize humid regions. Most of Greece is either semiarid or sub-humid according to the UNESCO's dryness scale (ratio of mean annual precipitation to the
corresponding potential evapotranspiration), with only the regions west of the Pindos mountains being
classified as humid while south-eastern Greece and the islands of Aegean including Crete are the
driest areas of the country.
27
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
In general, the hydrologic regime in Greece, as far as the amount of total precipitation is concerned,
corresponds to that of the other Mediterranean countries of the European Union (EU). However,
eastern parts of Greece, as above mentioned, present a certain hydrologic particularity that
considerably differentiates them in terms of their natural enrichment capacity; water shortage in these
regions is further aggravated due to a higher degree of runoff which presents an uneven distribution
proportional to the rainfall, i.e. areas of low rainfall are also characterised by more intense runoff.
Above elements, provide evidence that water deficiency in the eastern parts of the country is a
permanent "endemic" situation, presenting a seasonal fluctuation in its severity dependent on the
weather conditions. This “endemic” situation combined with the very high water consumption needs
and the water losses in these regions (particularly Thessaly for rural and Attica for urban use)
establishes almost permanent conditions of water scarcity, namely permanent insufficiency and
shortages of water that requires the systematic implementation of a long-term policy of integrated
rational management both of the water resources and the water uses.
In particular, some 80-85% of total freshwater resources in Greece are surface waters. Moreover, one
forth of water is coming from upstream countries. The overall water demand of 7,907 million m3 per
year has remained fairly stable during the last decade, after having grown significantly in the 1990s.
However, a marked shift has occurred towards a greater use of groundwater. Agriculture (mainly
irrigation) is the dominant user of water, accounting for 86% of total withdrawals. Domestic drinking
water accounts for 11%, industry for 2% and the energy sector for 1%.
In Greece, anti-erosion measures and works on mountainous water systems have started during the
3rd decade of the 20th century while the desalination and rehabilitation of soils and irrigation works
have been intensified after the 2nd World War.
A mapping effort initiated by the National Committee to Combat Desertification (NCCD) indicates that
34% of the country is impacted to a high degree by desertification; 49% is moderately affected; while
17% is at low risk. The pressures are numerous: overgrazing of fragile land; non-integrated water
management; non adequate protection of vegetative cover exacerbated by forest fires; and intense
agricultural practices. Greece's climatic conditions, with long, dry summers and high evapotranspiration rates, favour desertification in the driest areas of the country that are also suffering from
water scarcity and droughts, i.e. eastern areas and Aegean islands in general and in particular eastern
areas of the Regions of Peloponnese, Sterea Hellas and Thessaly; central and southern areas of
Macedonia; central and eastern Crete; and the Cyclades islands in the Aegean (see Figure 2.1 below).
The resulting loss of productive, arable land from soil erosion and salination, and the over-pumping of
aquifers to compensate for water losses, are among the key factors posing a desertification risk for
the country which is, subsequently, further intensified by raising global warming effects.
Figure 2.1: Hot spots in Greece for water and wind erosion
Boundaries
Roads
Water erosion
Wind and water erosion
Source: National Committee to Combat Desertification (NCCD), 2006
28
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
■
Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework,
Policy Instruments
Greece ratified the United Nations’ Framework Convention for Combating Desertification (UNCCD) in
1997 with Law 2468/1997.
The Greek NCCD was first established in 1996. The Ministry of Agriculture was appointed in 1996 by
means of Ministerial Decision (MD) 96990/9361/1996 as the national focal point for desertification
abatement. Subsequent MDs 291203/2005 and 305116/2005 appointed the Ministry of Rural
Development and Food (MRDF) as the national focal point, which corresponds to the same Ministry
under a different title and extended responsibilities.
Due to the cross-sectoral and multidisciplinary nature of desertification issues, the composition of the
NCCD includes representatives from various competent Ministries, Universities, Research Institutes
and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). In particular, composition according to the above
mentioned MDs is as follows:
- two representatives from MRDF,
- one representative from the Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works,
(YPEHODE),
- one representative from the Ministry of National Economy,
- one representative from the Ministry of Development,
- one representative from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
- two representatives from research institutes,
- three academia representatives (university professors),
- one representative of NGOs active in the field of desertification,
- one university professor with expertise in soil science,
- one university professor with expertise in meteorology.
The fourteen members of the Committee are appointed by the Minister of Rural Development and
Food upon recommendation by the involved Ministries, Authorities and Institutes.
NCCD’s activities are funded directly from the MRDF’s budget and its day-to-day secretariat
management is carried out by the administrative services of the National Agricultural Research
Foundation (NAGREF). NCCD meets monthly or once every two months to coordinate and review
activities as well as to strategically plan and decide on future actions and measures to be taken.
The NCCD prepared a National Action Plan to Combat Desertification (NAPCD) that was adopted in
2001; the coordination and the monitoring of the NAPCD’s implementation is undertaken by the NCCD
itself. The NAPCD also provides for the establishment of several Local Committees for Combating
Desertification in Greece, one in each administrative Region of the country; the full establishment of
these Committees is expected to be finalised in the coming months. Once fully operational, these
Regional Committees will result in a restructuring and further invigoration of the implementation of
the UNCCD and its monitoring procedures in Greece.
Moreover, the NAPCD addresses the urgent need to reverse an already occurring and visible
desertification trend in 35% of the country’s land as well as to prevent desertification phenomena and
effects in an additional 60% of the country’s area. NAPCD also includes a critical analysis and
assessment of the factors and processes that control desertification pressures in Greece as well as
general and sector-specific measures (agriculture, forests, livestock, wild fauna and water resources)
to mitigate them. NAPCD’s measures are implemented by several competent Authorities and Services
at central (e.g. competent Ministries) and regional levels (e.g. Regions, Prefectures, Local Authorities).
In particular, Local Authorities may refer to the NCCD for scientific guidance and information for
implementation of the NAPCD’s foreseen measures financed directly from their own budgets.
In the context of UNCCD’s implementation, since 2001, four National Reports have been elaborated
and submitted to UNCCD, with the latest submitted in 2006.
29
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
■
Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects
Activities incorporated into the NAPCD
As above mentioned, the NAPCD was officially published in January 2001 and widely distributed to all
related stakeholders of the public sector, civil society, local authorities, academia, institutes etc.
Following an extensive consultation phase for several months, NAPCD’s final version incorporated all
proposals for improvements and was finally adopted by the Government in July 2001 (OJG
99605/3719), by means of a Joint Ministerial Decision (JMD) issued by the 6 involved Ministers
(YPEHODE, Agriculture, Economy, Development, Foreign Affairs, Interior). The total estimated funds
required for the abatement of desertification were calculated approximately until 2006 to EURO 450
million.
NAPCD encompasses guiding principles and strategic objectives to reverse already occurring
desertification and prevent new occurrence as well as specific detailed activities, measures and actions
for various sectors. The NAPCD’s scope, in order to ensure effectiveness of measures, is to incorporate
them and efficiently integrate them into other relevant thematic Operational Programmes (OPs) and
Strategies, like the OP for “Agricultural Development and Reform of the Country-side” (OPADRC,
2000-2006), the OP “Environment” (OEP, 2000-2006), the OP “Environment and Sustainable
Development” (OPESD, 2007-2013), the “National Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development”
(NSPAD, 2007-2013), the various Regional OPs as well as the “National Strategy for Sustainable
Development” (NSSD) that was first elaborated in 2002 and currently under revision according to the
2006 EU Renewed Strategy for Sustainable Development. Due to this integrated and cross-sectoral
approach that has been followed, the NAPCD urges all involved authorities, agencies and stakeholders
to:
- fully apply all measures described in NAPCD,
- incorporate the policies and measures described in the NAPCD into regional and local development
plans,
- implement the NAPCD through coordinated and integrated local projects securing the consent and
active participation of all related stakeholders,
- develop local agencies that will undertake responsibility for coordination and implementation of
NAPCD’s policies and measures at local level,
- elaborate and implement projects, studies and strategies required additionally to those described in
the NAPCD for combating desertification at local level,
- implement the NAPCD starting with six priority sectors, i.e. water resources management,
agriculture, forests, pastures, wild life and biodiversity, socio-economic sector and operation of
competent agencies.
The NAPCD includes several general measures for the restoration of “desertified” areas which are
distinguished in two cases: reversible and non-reversible. In detail, indicative measures included in
the NAPCD for the above six priority sectors encompass, inter alia, the following:
i. Water Resources
(a) Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60
The EU WFD’s overall aim is the effective and sustainable quantitative and qualitative management of
water resources in EU Member States (MSs). Through its provisions for monitoring of surface and
ground water status (Article 8) and the program of measures (Article 11), the WFD proposes an
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach also giving a framework for long-term
changes in quantitative management in order to address long-term imbalances between supply and
demand, recalling that “all practical steps are taken to prevent further deterioration in status” (Article
4a). Additionally, the WFD considers that prolonged droughts “cannot reasonably have been foreseen”
(article 4.6). Prolonged droughts are therefore “grounds for exemptions from the requirement to
prevent further deterioration or to achieve good status” thus measures that directly relate to drought
mitigation are left as optional supplementary measures (WFD Annex VI, Part 5).
Although the WFD will contribute to the mitigation of the effects of droughts, this is not one of its
principal objectives. In most cases, droughts are identified at a late stage and emergency measures
are undertaken in a urgent and generally insufficient way. Clear and consistent criteria for an early
detection and warning of drought situations, therefore, need to be established. Such criteria would
allow sufficient time, before and at the beginning of a drought event, to look for suitable responses in
the management of a water resource system.
30
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
Greece updated its water management framework by adopting a new water law (Law 3199/2003) in
December 2003 that was complemented by Presidential Decree 51/2007 for the definition of measures
and procedures for the integrated protection and management of water resources. This legislation
is based on the EU WFD with its emphasis on ecological functions of water, river basin management
approach, economic evaluation and full-cost pricing of water services.
(b) Establishment of Central Water Agency (CWA) and Regional Water Directorates (RWD)
YPEHODE has overall policy, regulatory, monitoring and control responsibilities of water resources
above mentioned. Law 3199/2003 created and renewed a number of institutions with regard to water
management. In this context, the CWA was established within YPEHODE, with responsibilities of
definition and oversight of the national water policy reporting directly to the Minister. Moreover, a
National Water Committee was formed as the political body consisting of six co-competent Ministers
and responsible for setting water policy and overseeing implementation; the Committee meets once a
year. Finally, a National Water Council was established to assist the National Water Committee; it
consists of 24 members, including representatives from political parties and Municipal Water Supply
and Sewerage utilities. At the regional level, the RWDs in each of Greece's 13 regions are responsible
for the formulation and implementation of the basin plans. A Regional Water Council, consisting of
approximately 30 members (stakeholders, NGOs), provides a consultative function in each region.
The CWA has recently developed strategies for drought and water scarcity management, based on a
study conducted by the Agricultural University of Athens (October 2008), in which the steps for
designing a clear and decisive action plan for proactive water scarcity management are elaborated.
(c) Preparation of IWRM plans for water districts
Management plans for river basins encompass compulsory measures and monitoring programs as well
all required data, information and assessments for the protection and management of water resources
aiming at addressing water supply and scarcity issues. Based on the EU WFD’s provisions, the
programs of measures can include additional means such as codes of good practice, water demand
measures like effective management of irrigation water and conversion to less water intensive crops,
water reuse measures especially in the industrial and agricultural sectors, construction works,
desalination plants, site rehabilitation activities, artificial enrichment of aquifers etc.
In this regard, some of the measures that YPEHODE has proposed for implementation to RWDs,
mainly for addressing winter water scarcity effects, are distinguished in short-, medium- and longterm ones. Short-term measures include, inter alia: information and awareness raising in order to
control over-consumption; technical guidance to Perfectural Services for reducing pumps’ operation;
installing adequate metering devices intended controlling of over-consumption rather than a means for
imposing bills collection; systematic control of irrigation and municipal water supply networks for
mending possible leakages. Medium- and long-term measures include: design and construction of
water conservation and water development works; surface and ground water quality control; surface
and ground water quantity control through control of permitting and operation of boreholes;
maintenance and replacement of irrigation and municipal water supply networks; systematic
monitoring of water reservoir levels in comparison to water needs.
(d) Extension of the water storage facilities (reservoirs and artificial water recharging)
Construction of the following big water storage reservoirs have been launched by YPEHODE in 2005:
- The dam of Triantafyllia (Prefecture of Florina, Western Macedonia), with a height of 75m, a capacity
of 10 million m3, for the irrigation of 40 million m2. It has a budget of EURO 45 million and its
construction is expected to be completed in the next couple of years.
- The dam of Sykia on Acheloos River (Western Greece), with a height of 165m and a capacity of
approximately 520 million m3. Part of its water reserve will be used for electricity production (80
MW) and part will be transported to the basin of the Pinios River (Thessaly, Central-Eastern Greece)
for the protection of its ecosystem. Its budget reaches EURO 170 million.
- The dam of Aposelemis (Crete), for the water supply of the cities of Heraklion, Ayios Nicolaos and 8
more Municipalities in Crete, covering the needs of 270,000 inhabitants and 130,000 hotel beds. It
has a budget of EURO 120 million and is expected to be ready in 2009.
- The dam of Piros-Parapiros (Peloponnesus), for the water supply of the city of Patra, covers the
needs of about 300,000 permanent inhabitants, 11,000 seasonal inhabitants, 2 million passengers
of the Patra port per year as well as the water supply needs of Patra Industrial Area (4.04 million
m2).
To this direction, an important example is the case of the capital city of Greece, Athens. In Athens, a
city with a dry climate, an explosive increase of water demand that emerged during the 20th century,
31
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
forced the Governments to build an extensive water resource system conveying water from surface
reservoirs from long distances. A persistent drought that started in the late 1980s almost vanished
every surface water resource available. At that time, a new project (Evinos project) was studied and
its construction began. Simultaneously, severe water conservation measures were studied and
implemented. These included two drastic increases in water price, with simultaneous discount for
significant water conservation. The pricing measures were accompanied by a massive water saving
information campaign. At a later stage, severe restrictive regulations were also introduced, which (a)
prohibited and fined the use of treated water for irrigation, car and road wash and swimming pools,
and (b) restricted the private consumption to an upper limit, which was 70-100% of the consumption
of the previous year, and fined heavily the exceedance of this. The results of these measures were
impressive as water consumption was reduced by a third. At the same time, individuals and
municipalities searched for alternative local water sources, mostly groundwater from lower quality
local aquifers to irrigate private and public gardens, to wash roads and cars and to use in industry.
The entire experience shows the significant elasticity of water demand and its direct linkage to water
pricing.
ii. Agricultural Sector
Measures and actions listed below are indicatively selected from the OPADRC 2000-2006 as well as
from the Agro-environmental Measures of the “Agricultural Development Plan Document” (ADPD) also
under the 3rd Community Support Framework (CSF) for 2000-2006; funds spent for the
implementation of the Agro-environmental Measures in general reached EURO 122 million for the
same period. (See also from more details Country Profile’s Chapter I: “Agriculture-Rural
Development”).
(a) Organic farming and husbandry
This Measure aims to the reduction of pollution of agricultural origin, the protection of wild flora and
fauna, the preservation of biodiversity of agricultural ecosystems and landscapes, the sustainable
management of soils, the protection of public health and the creation of solid areas biologically
cultivated in small scale economies. In terms of biological stock-breeding, it aims to the production of
integrated products of high alimentary quality while protecting the environment, preserving
biodiversity of agricultural ecosystems and landscape and sustainable managing of soils. Organic
farming is one of the key priorities promoted under the various OPs during the 3rd CSF for 2000-2006,
such as the ADPD but also the OPADRC and the OEP. Moreover, organic farming is continuing to be
promoted under the OPs during the 4th Programming Period 2007-2013 (i.e. NSPAD and OPESD).
Owing to this considerable financial support from both EU and national funds, organically cultivated
crop areas have increased markedly in Greece, at a 60% annual average rate, reaching 4% in 2007 of
permanent crop area (about 290,000 ha).
(b) Long period set-aside of agricultural lands
This Measure aims in reducing surplus agricultural production and at the same time conserving soil
and water resources.
(c) Reduction of ground water nitrate pollution of agricultural origin
In the context of implementing EU Directive 91/676 on nitrate pollution in Greece, 7 vulnerable zones
prone to nitrate pollution have been designated and enacted, coupled by 7 respective enacted Action
Plans for their protection. Activities to reduce groundwater pollution of agriculture origin corresponds
to Measure 3.5 of ADPD: initially, in 2000, activities would cover 35,100 ha, whereas today they are
implemented by 10,900 farmers for an area of 114,000 ha, indicating that the initial aim was overcovered by 225%. During 2001-2004, 2,480 contracts were signed for participation to these activities
corresponding to 24,800 ha, whereas during 2005-2006, 10,768 additional contracts were signed,
corresponding to 112,800 ha, thus indicating an increase in contracts that exceeds 330% in two years.
Activities similar to the ones included under ADPD’s Measure 3.5 for the reduction of nitrate pollution
will be continued under NSPAD 2007-2013.
(d) Livestock’s intensification reduction
This ADPD Measure aims at soil protection from erosion and conservation of biodiversity. It subsidises
farmers to reduce their livestock capital in islands facing overgrazing problems as well as to increase
the pasture land in areas facing erosion problems or of ecological interest.
(e) Protection of wetlands
Significant wetlands in Greece, such lakes Volvi-Koroneia, several lagoons of the Region of Thrace,
lake Doirani etc have managed to preserve their ecological functions and values throughout the
32
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
centuries due to the traditional and environmentally friendly agricultural practices that farmers
followed. However, over recent decades, intensive patterns of cultivation resulted in a deterioration of
their environmental status that required the enactment and implementation of several Measures under
ADPD for restoration of the ecological status of these wetlands through, inter alia, promotion of
environmentally friendly practices (fallowing, development of ecological compensation areas, croprotation etc) and reduction of the use of water for irrigation and fertilisers’ run-offs. Measure 3.6
regards the protection of lake Pamvotis, with a total original budget for five years amounting to EURO
4 million and an area coverage of 1,300 ha. Measure 3.6 will be continued under NSPAD 2007-2013
covering an area of 3,000 ha. Measure 3.9 regards the protection of the lakes and lagoons in the
Region of Thrace. During 2000-2006, 870 farmers participated in the Measure with an area coverage
of 9,726 ha, while for 2007-2013, the expected area to be covered will reach 20,000 ha. Measure 3.10
regards the protection of lakes Volvi & Koroneia and during 2000-2006, 120 farmers representing an
area of 1,400 ha participated in its implementation. During 2007-2013, this Measure will be
incorporated into the above mentioned Action Plans for the protection of water resources vulnerable to
nitrate pollution of agricultural origin. Measure 3.16 regards the protection of lakes and lagoons of the
Region of Western Macedonia, with emphasis on lakes Vegoritida, Himaditida and Zazari. In 2006, a
total of 29 beneficiaries representing an area of 229.5 ha participated in the Measure that will be
continued under NSPAD 2007-2013 with an area coverage of 10,000 ha. Measure 3.17 regards the
protection of lake Doirani, a transboundary lake shared with FYROM. In 2006, a total of 42
beneficiaries representing an area of 450.8 ha participated in the Measure that for the period 20072013 will be incorporated into the above mentioned Action Plans for the protection of water resources
vulnerable to nitrate pollution of agricultural origin. All these Measures will cover new additional areas,
apart from the ones currently designated, under NSPAD 2007-2013.
(f) Maintenance of traditional agricultural landscape
Measures 3.14 and 3.15 of ADPD regard the protection of the traditional olive grove in the area of
Amfissa near the famous Delphi archaeological site (Central Greece) and the preservation of the
traditional vineyards in the Aegean island of Santorini, respectively. Both agricultural lands offer
ecological and high cultural/traditional functions as they are areas where both practices, i.e. olives and
vines growing, are considered historically ancient and are conducted through traditional methods.
Farmers participating in these Measures are subsidised to preserve traditional agricultural practices
facing extinction, help protect the soil from erosion and land use change and development of ecologic
compensation areas.
(g) Conservation and reconstruction of terraces on sloping lands for erosion protection
This Measure aims at soil protection from erosion, the increase of groundwater water storage and the
natural replenishment of aquifers, especially in arid areas, as well as the preservation of agricultural
landscape.
(h) Amendment of Codes for Good Agricultural Practices (CoGAPs)
With the CAP revision with Agenda 2000, the implementation of CoGAPs started aiming at a
sustainable management of agricultural land, conservation of natural resources, protection of
agricultural landscape and safeguarding of farmers’ and consumers’ health. Thus CoGAPs represented
a decoupling of subsidies to farmers and stock breeders from the volume of production and/or the
area cultivated or number of animals raised that were instead linked to the level of environmental
protection of agricultural practices. Therefore, CoGAPs represented the minimum requirements for
environmental protection based on which the potential loss of income of farmers abiding to these
stricter environmentally friendly practices could amount to so as to calculate their consequent state
financial support. CoGAPs have been revised and updated in Greece, through JMD 125347/2004 as
amended by JMD 140920/2005, to satisfy current demands for environmental protection and to
ensure compatibility to the CAP’s most recent revision. CoGAPs implementation is obligatory for all
farmers receiving direct subsidies according to EU Regulation 1259/1999 as well as to those that the
measure of “equalising balancing compensation” applied (2nd axis of action under the ADPD) or those
that implemented “agro-environmental measures” (3rd axis of action under the ADPD). CoGAPs apply
to a very wide spectrum of the agricultural and husbandry activities as well as to various specialised
cases, such as: soils with plant coverage with slope over 10%; strip rotation along contour lines with
legumes alternating with other annual crops; areas that are plowed along contour lines in fields with
slope over 10%; areas of alternating cultivated and fallow strips; sloping land where non soil eroding
irrigation systems are applied; areas where grazing density reduction is implemented; soils with slope
over 10% where the burning of crop residues is prohibited; areas where deep plowing to more than 40
cm depth is prohibited unless required.
33
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
iii. Forestry (See also from more details Country Profile’s Chapter I: “Agriculture-Rural Development”)
(a) National Forest Registry
The National Forest Registry is underway and is expected to be finalised by 2013. The Hellenic
Constitution prohibits the conversion of forestland to other uses, however, forested areas, notably
those close to Athens and in coastal areas, in some cases might be receiving pressure from building
activities. Through the completion of the National Forest Registry (i.e. the identification of all forest
areas), it is expected that public property will be safeguarded and forest fires by arson will be limited.
(b) Research related to desertification
Several research projects are being financed by the Greek Government and realised by NAGREF and
the Universities of Thessaloniki and Thessaly (Forestry and Agricultural Departments). These research
units have developed initiatives, inter alia, in the fields of public consultation procedures regarding the
rational sustainable management of forest ecosystems and natural renewable resources, protection of
natural environment etc.
(c) Forest management and protection
Regional Forest Services are in charge of managing forested areas, including ranger services, and of
developing ad hoc management plans. These plans regulate tree cutting, grazing, hunting (on the
basis of annual ministerial decisions), use of chemicals, collection of herbs and other plant species.
Around 4% of forested land (about 160,000 ha) is managed for biodiversity protection, 20% of which
for in situ conservation of genetic resources. Even though, to date, only one productive forest is ecocertified (by the Forest Stewardship Council), covering about 31,500 ha, national policy strongly
promotes the implementation of a national forest certification system. Moreover, several programmes
and actions to prevent degradation are being implemented in regions where wildfires (e.g. Mountain
Partnitha in Attica Region, Eastern Peloponnesus Region, Chalkidiki in Central Macedonia Region) or
other causes (drainage, overgrazing, etc) have adverse effects on the natural ecosystems.
iv. Biodiversity
The decrease of loss and of degradation of natural habitats is achieved through the establishment of
protected sites. The progress in establishing Management Bodies for Protected Areas, as well as in the
issuing legislative regulations have been significant so far in Greece, especially in recent years, with
considerable positive effects with regard to desertification and drought mitigation in several areas.
Moreover, these measures also contribute to the active involvement of all relevant stakeholders and to
the decentralisation of competencies to the lowest appropriate level (i.e. Local Authorities,
Prefectures, Management Bodies, etc).
Currently, YPEHODE is at the final stages of compiling, for the first time, the draft of a comprehensive
integrated “National Strategy for Biodiversity” along the lines of the UN Convention of Biological
Diversity (UNCBD). The Strategy’s main objective is the halting of biodiversity loss in Greece with an
implementation period of 15 years, 2009-2023. The Strategy, once finalised through a public
consultation process and officially adopted by the Government, will encompass 23 policy targets
categorised in 4 broad strategic objectives: protection of genetic resources, species and habitats;
integration of biodiversity protection objectives into climate change adaptation policies, into physical
planning, into urban planning and into tourism policies; cross-sectoral objectives like research,
information, awareness raising, public participation, funding, governance strengthening etc;
prevention of impacts from alien invasive species sprawling and Genetic Modified Organisms (GMOs).
Implementation oversight and monitoring of the Strategy will be undertaken by a new special InterMinisterial Committee of 10 co-competent Ministries (YPEHODE, MRDF, Mercantile Marine and Aegean
Islands, Foreign Affairs, Interior, National Economy and Finance, Education, Culture, Tourism). The
elaboration of an Operational Biodiversity Action Plan and Roadmap for the implementation of the
Strategy will follow suit.
This National Biodiversity Strategy which is underway will effectively complement and be integrated
into other already existing strategic Plans and Frameworks apart from the NAPCD (2001), the OPADRC
(2000-2006), the OEP (2000-2006), the NSPAD (2007-2013) and the OPESD (2007-2013), like the
“Master Plan for the Natural Environment for the period 2000- 2006”, the “Strategy for Wetland
Resources” prepared in 1999 in accordance to the country’s obligations as a party to the Ramsar
Convention, the “2nd Revised National Action Plan for the Abatement of CO2 and other Greenhouse Gas
Emissions 2000-2010” (NAPCC, originally drawn up in 2002 and revised in 2007) and of course the
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Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
“National Strategic Reference Framework” (NSRF, 2007-2013) representing the overall strategic
framework for Greece for the 4th Programming period of financial perspectives (2007-2013).
v. Socio economic sector
In this context, MRDF’s main objective is the retention of population in rural areas, especially remote
ones, through provision of technical support, health and social benefits, while encouraging
investments targeting the development of additional or alternative economic activities, and thus
income, for local populations either employed in the agricultural sector or not. These activities are
encompassed in OPADRC’s integrated agricultural development programmes.
Moreover, MRDF, within ADPD’ 1st pillar, implements the “early retirement” scheme for farmers at an
advanced age, since the ageing population in rural areas as well as the small-sized agricultural
holdings are two of the most significant structural problems of the farming sector in Greece. Through
this scheme, MRDF aims to progressively replace old aged farmers with younger ones, so that the
average age of agricultural population be decreased. This is expected to contribute, in parallel, to the
modernisation of the cultivation techniques and the creation of larger agricultural and economically
viable exploitations, with emphasis being given to remote, disadvantaged areas.
Furthermore, MRDF continues to promote development of agrotourism activities in mountainous and
other marginal lands by providing financial support for creating supporting infrastructure, mainly
through the “LEADER+” Programme (2000-2006) which constitutes an EU initiative designed to
improve the quality of life of the population of the rural areas and to attract young people into the
rural economy, by implementing a set of actions which meet both national and EU priorities under the
3rd Programming Period, namely employment, equality, environmental protection, etc. In this respect,
the Greek LEADER+ Operational Programme, had two general development objectives:
- Promote an integrated, high-quality, sustainable development of the rural areas, by means of pilot
implementations;
- Support efforts to end the isolation of various regions, on all levels of economic and social life.
vi. Governance issues include promotion of efficient operation mechanisms of competent agencies
aiming at the effective combating of desertification, including through reinforcement of research,
exchange of information and training, organisation of monitoring mechanisms using appropriate
indicators, etc.
Specific Framework for Spatial Planning of Coastal Zones and Islands
Greece has the biggest length of coastline in Europe and its coastal zones are in cases subject to
development pressures (e.g. pollution, exploitation of natural resources, urbanisation for tourism and
holiday homes) as well as natural adverse phenomena (desertification, erosion, salination of soils,
etc). An estimated 85% of the Greek population lives less than a 45-minute drive away from the
seashore and one-third live in a 2 km-wide coastal strip. Also, an estimated 80% of industrial
activities, 90% of tourism and recreation, most of fisheries and aquaculture, 35% of agricultural land
(often of high productivity), and a significant part of infrastructure (e.g. harbours, airports, roads, the
electricity network, telecommunications) are situated in the coastal zone.
The coastal and marine environment of Greece, with its beautiful landscapes and important
ecosystems hosting numerous rare species, is one of the country's major economic and environmental
assets. Greece has therefore been an active participant in the European Union's activities to
implement
Integrated
Coastal
Zone
Management
(ICZM)
in
accordance
with
EU
Recommendation 2002/413, as well as in various projects through the Mediterranean Action Plan of
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP/MAP). Also, during its latest Presidency of the EU
in 2003, Greece convened an International High Level Conference on “Coastal Areas and Cities in
Europe”. In the context of the above mentioned EU Recommendation 2002/413 on ICZM, Greece
through YPEHODE has prepared and submitted, in 2006, to the Commission of the European Union
(CEU) its national report including a wide range of specific actions focusing on strategic planning for
preventive future problems, active stakeholder participation in decision making and policy
implementation, and promotion of research, information generation, data collection and related
monitoring systems.
Currently, YPEHODE promotes a National “Specific Framework for Spatial Planning of Coastal Zones
and Islands” that, apart from guidelines, also provides operational specifications and is coupled with a
practical action programme. The implementation of this Framework is expected to greatly improve
35
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
integration of environmental concerns in sectoral policies, in coastal areas, through a holistic
approach. At the same time, an extensive and detailed mapping exercise of all property rights along
the country’s coasts is also at its final stages, aiming to further support integrated coastal zone
management in Greece. Furthermore, a “Specific Spatial Framework Plan for Tourism” has also been
elaborated and is expected to be approved during the first months of 2009. This Plan effectively
complements the “Framework for Spatial Planning of Coastal Zones” in further promoting integrated
management of areas near the coast by balancing all associated economic, social and environmental
aspects. The main aim of this Plan is to offer guidelines, rules and criteria for the spatial articulation,
organisation and development of tourism in Greece and for the respective infrastructure, as well as
the setting out of a realistic action programme for the next 15 years (2008-2023). Both Frameworks
effectively encompass national desertification abatement objectives as above mentioned as well as
other complementing environmental objectives related to climate change mitigation and adaptation,
biodiversity conservation etc.
■
Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training and AwarenessRaising
Research related directly or indirectly to desertification has been conducted by the various Greek
Institutes (e.g. NAGREF) and Universities (e.g. Agricultural University of Athens, Departments of
Agriculture and Forestry of Aristotle University, etc) through funding mainly provided by MRDF and
the CEU.
In particular, NAGREF (http://www.nagref.gr), acting as a technical support secretariat for MRDF,
carries out research in various field related to desertification such as:
- Soil survey, evaluation and classification,
- Soil fertility and plant nutrition,
- Agricultural usage of sewage sludge and other liquid wastewaters,
- Soil pollution,
- Soil degradation,
- Soil erosion,
- Land reclamation,
- Efficient water use (i.e. mainly reuse of treated urban and industrial wastewater in agriculture to
avoid fresh groundwater abstraction as well as water desalination),
- Analysis and ecosystems’ sustainable management, including forest ecology, forest management
and economy, pastures and management of natural biotopes,
- Forest policy and socio-economic research of forestry and rural economy,
- Preservation, restoration and rehabilitation of forests and natural environment including prevention
and suppression of forest fires, forest protection,
- Development of environmentally friendly cultivation processes,
- Development of organic farming protocols,
- Sociological and demographical analysis of rural areas and rural population,
- Economic efficiency of alternative agricultural production technologies,
- Rehabilitation of excavation sites.
The Agricultural University of Athens (http://www.aua.gr/) and other Departments of Agriculture and
Forestry of several other Greek Universities in collaboration with other Greek and European Institutes
and Universities are conducting research, financed through national and/or EU funds, in topics related
to the:
- Use of indicators for defining land sensitivity to desertification through EU research projects such as
DESERTLINKS, PESERA, etc. A system of desertification indicators for European Mediterranean
countries (DISMED, http://dismed.eionet.eu.int/index_html) has provided a tool to enable users
from a wide range of backgrounds, including scientists, policy makers and farmers, to identify where
desertification is a problem, assess how critical the problem is, and better understand the processes
of desertification.
- Future of olive plantations on sloping and mountainous land and to the possible management
scenarios for production and natural resources conservation (OLIVERO).
- Development of decision support systems for the integrated management of olive groves (DESIRE)
and sustainable use of water resources (IMAGE).
- Development of surveillance system for assessing and monitoring desertification (DESURVEY,
GEOLAND).
- Definition of soil erosion hot spots in Greece (by the Agricultural University of Athens) based on the
available soil, vegetation, climate, topography and management characteristics using the PanEuropean Soil Erosion Risk Assessment model PESERA.
36
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
Research activity is also carried by the National Observatory of Athens (NOA) (http://www.noa.gr/)
through collaborative projects aiming to understand desertification in a systemic and dynamic way. As
a first step, desertification and land degradation status are assessed, including diagnosis of driving
forces and identification of areas currently vulnerable. The second step is the desertification
forecasting using selected future climatic and socio-economic scenarios. The third step involves
monitoring of desertification and land degradation status over large areas using objective and
reproducible methods such as vegetation density remote sensing. These activities aim to bridge the
gap between the knowledge generated on the processes underlying desertification and the practice of
formulating policy to detect, prevent and resolve desertification risks.
YPEHODE’s (http://www.minenv.gr/) activities focus greatly, especially through OEP 2000-2006, on
promoting all dimensions of environmental information, such as monitoring systems, reporting and
assessment mechanisms, data quality and access to information for the wider public. In parallel the
country through YPEHODE, is fully participating to the operation of the European Environment Agency
and the respective network EIONET by providing data and information to its data flow mechanisms, by
applying the EIONET structure in the cooperation at national level and by preparing for the new
concepts of the Shared Environmental Information System (SEIS) for Europe.
A wide range of data bases and information systems for environmental information broadly related to
desertification have been developed by YPEHODE, including a National Data Bank for Hydrological and
Meteorological Information, a National network for protected NATURA 2000 sites, a CORINE LAND
COVER data base, a Clearing House Mechanism on Biodiversity, etc.
The horizontal connecting mechanism for the above databases, including also other thematic areas
like legislation, environmental impact assessment studies and geographical information, is the
National Environmental Information Network (NEIN), developed and operated by YPEHODE, as a wide
network area including also an internet site for providing environmental information to the general
public while currently adapting it to new web technologies and enriching it with a GIS aspect. NEIN
also serve as a tool for implementation of the Aarhus Convention for public access to environmental
information in Greece as well as relevant EU and national legislation while ensuring compliance of the
environmental spatial information with the EU INSPIRE Directive.
Selected qualitative indicators, inter alia, on desertification, soil, land, climate change impacts etc
were also presented and analysed by the National Centre for Environment and Sustainable
Development’s (NCESD) (http://www.ekpaa.gr/), supervised by YPEHODE, “Report on Sustainable
Development Indicators of Greece” (2004); a similar more extended and comprehensive report is
currently being finalised. NCESD is also conducting a wide range of information and awareness raising
activities on desertification related issues by organising Roundtables, consultation events, publications
and distribution of printed material etc.
■
Financing
Measures and related financial support for combating desertification in Greece have been incorporated
in various other thematic OPs under both the 3rd CSF 2000-2006 (e.g. OPADRC, OEP) and the 4th
Programming Period 2007-2013 of EU Financial Perspectives (e.g. NSPAD, OPESD), in the various
Regional OPs as well as in the NSSD (see also under Chapter “Strategies, Plans, Programmes and
Projects”). Therefore, distinctive activities and budgets allocated to specific measures only for
desertification is difficult to discern from other related activities and measures.
Since 2003, a wide array of desertification-specific projects have been carried out to assess better the
extent and impacts of desertification within the country, estimate the effectiveness of policies and
measures already undertaken; and propose new remedial and preventative steps. In addition,
substantial levels of funding is being allocated to other projects that contribute to the antidesertification fight, but which are not designated as purely desertification-related activities in the
budgets and respective OPs of implementing Ministries and Institutes. For example, EURO 650 million
has been allocated by the Greek Government (MRDF) for re-establishment of lands impacted by forest
fires over the 2007-10 period; EURO 236 million in 2006 to support early retirement of aged farmers
(of which EURO 130 million corresponded to funding from the EU); EURO 19 million in 2006 for
afforestation of agricultural land (plus EURO 10 million from the EU); and EURO 16 million of public
expenditure for biological agriculture in 2006 (plus EURO 13.5 million from the EU. Regarding agri-
37
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
environmental measures in which organic farming is included, EURO 870 million have been allocated
for the years 2007-2013, while EURO 122 million were spent between 2000 and 2006.
Moreover, the OEP 2000-2006 managed by YPEHODE has allocated, inter alia, EURO 190.13 million to
activities related to water resources infrastructure, soil protection and protection from natural
disasters, EURO 6.9 million for landscape protection and restoration as well as EURO 115.11 million for
the re-creation of Karla lake. For the period 2007-2013, YPEHODE’s OPESD has a total budget of
EURO 2.77 billion (of which 80% from the EU Structural and Cohesion Funds) and focuses on several
desertification related fields of action, like water resources protection and management (EURO 1.28
billion), soil protection (EURO 290 million), protection of natural resources and biodiversity (EURO 180
million), efficient tackling of environmental risks e.g. desertification, droughts, fires, floods and marine
pollution (EURO 40 million).
NAGREF is also carrying out several research projects which are directly or indirectly related to
desertification. In particular, its Institute for “Soil survey, evaluation and classification” based in the
city of Larissa; its Institutes for “Soil science”, for “Forest Research” and for “Land reclamation” in
Thessaloniki, its Institute for “Soil science” in Athens as well as its “Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems
Institute” have participated in 85 research activities, between 2002-2006, broadly related to
desertification of a total amounting to EURO 3.51 million.
■
Cooperation
Greece is regularly contributing to all the replenishments of Global Environment Facility (GEF), the
international independent financial mechanism which provides developing countries with grants for
programs that aim at the improvement of environment globally and promote sustainability of local
communities through activities related to biodiversity, climate change, international water resources,
land degradation, ozone depletion and persistent organic pollutants. For its current fourth
replenishment (2007-2010) is contributing EURO 5.73 million in four equal annual installments.
Greece’s bilateral official development assistance (ODA) activities, in the fields of agriculture, rural
development, desertification and drought management for the years 2002-2007 are as presented in
the following table.
Table 2.1: ODA distribution in related thematic fields
in EURO
2002
Agriculture
17,500
Rural Development
986,871
Desertification
1,474,991
Drought
2,357,163
Soil protection
138,518
Total
4,975,043
Source: Hellenic Aid, Hellenic Ministry of
2003
615,870
1,301,037
3,703,340
1,899,463
235,318
7,755,027
Foreign Affairs,
2004
360,500
804,860
928,300
1,505,401
_
3,599,062
2008
2005
112,500
512,500
140,929
1,201,362
453,000
2,420,291
2006
481,700
600,640
458,600
1,273,571
266,652
3,081,163
2007
2,384,925
460,000
7,326,645
1,975,562
202,000
12,349,132
More specifically, during the period 2002-2005 sixty programmes were implemented in Ethiopia,
Albania, FYROM, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Mauritius, Jamaica, Kiribati, Syria and
Turkey. These development assistance projects mainly focused on activities such as construction of
water reservoirs, provision of water supply to rural communities, combating drought, water storage,
forest management, food technology, management of natural resource and crop and animal
production, management of transboundary waters, rivers’ protection, environmental impact
assessment, education on water management etc.
On the regional level, Greece together with Italy, Portugal, Spain, Monaco and Turkey constitute an
the Annex IV Group of countries under the UNCCD, having agreed to co-ordinate their unilateral
activities to combat desertification within the “Northern Mediterranean” geographic sub-region.
Moreover, Greece participates in the DISMED network project (Desertification Information
System for the Mediterranean) coordinated by the European Environment Agency (see also
under Chapter “Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training and Awareness-Raising).
This network aims to improve the capacity of national administrations of Mediterranean
countries to plan measures and policies to combat desertification and the effects of drought.
This aim is pursued by reinforcing communication amongst them, facilitating the exchange of
information, and establishing a common information system to monitor the physical and socio-
38
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
economic conditions of areas at risk, assessing the extent, severity and the trend of land
degradation.
Moreover, as regards ICZM, the Mediterranean experience, defined in the context of UNEP/MAP, the
Barcelona Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea and its Coastal Zones and its
related Protocols, has been reflected in several MAP publications including guidelines for good
practices. In 2003, the Contracting Parties of the Barcelona Convention agreed officially to establish a
new Protocol for ICZM and erosion aspects in coastal zones. The new Protocol would target the
implementation of Article 4, Paragraph 3 of the Barcelona Convention, which invites signatory parties
to promote the integrated management of the coastline, taking account of the protection of areas of
ecological and environmental interest and the rational use of natural resources.
This new Protocol on ICZM was approved by the 15th Meeting of the Contracting Parties to the
Barcelona Convention in Almeria in January 2008. It was then adopted by the Conference of
Plenipotentiaries in Madrid also in January 2008. The new Protocol provides, inter alia, for
environmental impact analysis, protection and sustainable use of coastal areas, particular coastal
ecosystems, coastal landscapes and islands, economic activities and cultural heritage, governance and
climate change, with main objectives as follows:
- to facilitate, through the rational planning of activities, the sustainable development of coastal
zones by ensuring that the environment and landscapes are taken into account in harmony with
economic, social and cultural development;
- to preserve coastal zones for the benefit of current and future generations;
- to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources, particularly with regard to water use;
- to ensure preservation of the integrity of coastal ecosystems, landscapes and geomorphology;
- to prevent and reduce the effects of natural hazards and in particular of climate change, which can
be induced by natural or human activities;
- to achieve coherence between public and private initiatives and between all decisions by the public
authorities, at the national, regional and local levels, which affect the use of the coastal zone.
Greece, being the host country of UNEP/MAP’s Coordination Unit since 1981 and a Mediterranean
country very actively involved in all Barcelona Convention’s activities, has already signed the new
Protocol on ICZM and is currently promoting its ratification.
Since the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002 (WSSD), the Greek
Government (YPEHODE and Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, with the support of a Secretariat
undertaken by the “Global Water Partnership-Mediterranean”) has undertaken the responsibility of
leading the Mediterranean Component of the EU’s Initiative “Water for Life” (MED EUWI).
The MED EUWI represents a strategic partnership among all related stakeholders in the Mediterranean
region, aiming at contributing to the implementation of the water-related Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) and WSSD targets in the region, complementing at the same time all other relevant
regional on-going processes and initiatives. In this regard, it aims to assist national efforts and
strategies of the Mediterranean partner countries (N. Africa, East Mediterranean, SE Europe) to
achieve their commitments under the MDGs and Johannesburg targets on water supply and sanitation
and on IWRM by 2015.
The MED EUWI is an open ended partnership, open to all actors in the region sharing the same visions
and goals and wishing to practically and actively contribute to the achievement of the water related
MDG and WSSD targets in the Mediterranean, a unique but also vulnerable area both from an
environmental and a political point of view. Cooperation between countries, within the MED EUWI, can
thus significantly contribute to poverty eradication, enhancement of livelihoods and sustainable
economic development, providing a catalyst for peace and security in the region.
Its main aim is to assist the design of better, demand-driven and output-oriented water programmes
in the region, and to facilitate the effective coordination of water programmes and projects, targeting
more effective use of existing funds, through identification of gaps.
In this respect, synergies and complementarity are systematically sought and ensured between MED
EUWI and any other related new Initiatives that are launched in the Mediterranean; for example MED
EUWI contributes to the “water pillar” of the new Initiative launched by the CEU in 2005 to “De-pollute
the Mediterranean by 2020 – Horizon 2020” which represents, consequently, an instrument for the EU
to identify priority actions in Mediterranean countries for funding during 2007-2013. Moreover,
39
Chapter II: Drought - Desertification
coordination and cooperation is also ensured with the new GEF Strategic Partnership for the
Mediterranean (2007-2012).
The means to achieve MED EUWI’s targets mainly rely on the achievement of effective “donor
coordination” on country level. In this regard, a strategic process entitled “Country Dialogues” was
initiated in late 2005 with Lebanon, then in November 2006 the Country Dialogue of Egypt
commenced which is also referenced as one of the key elements included in the Protocol on economic
and technical cooperation between the Arab Republic of Egypt and the Hellenic Republic, singed at
Ministerial level in June 2006. Several other Mediterranean countries had followed suit thereinafter
with similar on-going Country Dialogue processes. These processes constitutes a multi-stakeholder
one, led by the countries themselves and aiming to assist formulation of national roadmaps for
meeting the MDG and WSSD water targets as well as defining and prioritising the interventions
required and the needed funding.
In terms of funding, YPEHODE supports the MED EUWI with a core annual budget reaching
approximately EURO 100,000 to cover “horizontal” activities. In 2006, a co-funding by the CEU was
activated to financially support selected MED EUWI activities, for 2 years (2006-2008), with the
amount of approximately EURO 1.07 million. Moreover, the MED EUWI has managed to mobilize and
coordinate considerable matching funding for the region. Key contributors in the process include, apart
from the CEU, bilateral EU ODA, the World Bank, the GEF, Development Banks, UNEP etc.
In the context of the MED EUWI, increasing emphasis is being given to assisting the efforts of
Mediterranean countries to increase their capacities to adapt to changing climate conditions in the
Region. More specifically, Greece / YPEHODE, through the MED EUWI, has:
- Prepared a Position Paper on “Climate Change Adaptation and Integrated Water Resources
Management in the Mediterranean” in December 2007 that has been widely distributed and
discussed among Mediterranean partners aiming to provide a background of the current condition
regarding impacts of climate change in the Mediterranean with emphasis on water resources, to
assist Mediterranean countries with a systematic framework for developing national adaptation
strategies linked with national IWRM plans as well as to promote a harmonised regional approach to
address adaptation to climate change, under the MED EUWI umbrella.
- Organised, together with the CEU and MAP/UNEP, a Side-Event on “Addressing Climate Change
Adaptation Challenges in the Mediterranean”, during the 16th Session of the UN Commission for
Sustainable Development (UNCSD), aiming at addressing issues pertaining to the special
Mediterranean circumstances, which already a water-scarce region, is expected to face even more
challenges with regard to its water resources in the near future due to the looming climate crisis
(e.g. increasing frequency and severity of droughts, floods and other extreme weather events that
lead to increased water supply-demand gap, desertification, infrastructure damage, loss of land due
to landslides, saltwater intrusion due to sea-level rise, health issues, etc.), jeopardising the region’s
overall well-being.
- Organised, in the context of MED EUWI, an International Workshop on “Water and Climate Change
in South-eastern Europe: Understanding Impacts & Planning for Adaptation” in June 2008, in Tirana,
Albania, targeting SE European Countries.
- Submitted a project proposal in the context of the “Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean”
that was launched at the Paris Summit on 14 July 2008, that aims to support a “Multistakeholder
Cooperation for the promotion of Sustainable Development in the Mediterranean with emphasis on
water”. This project proposal focuses, inter alia, on assisting, in practical terms, Mediterranean
countries to build greater resilience of their water resources to climate change impacts.
- Prepared a detailed Technical Background paper on “Climate Change Adaptation and Integrated
Water Resources Management in the Mediterranean” that was presented and adopted by EuroMediterranean Water Ministers at their Ministerial Conference on Water, in Jordan (Dead Sea), in 22
December 2008. This Ministerial Euro-Mediterranean Conference on Water also decided the
elaboration of a “Mediterranean Strategy on Water” to be adopted by the next such Conference to
take place during the first semester of 2010, that would focus mainly on drought mitigation and
prevention through water savings and water demand management.
40
2006
Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
CHAPTER III: Land – Physical Planning
■
Status
General
The geography of Greece consists of a very large number of small islands and a hilly or mountainous
terrain with steep slopes. More than 40% of the land is over 500 metres in altitude, with several
peaks reaching an elevation of more than 2,000 metres. Greece’s extensive coastline ‑the longest in
Europe with its nearly 14,000 km length is equally distributed between the mainland and some
3,000 islands which cover approximately 20% of the territory. These physical characteristics have
economic repercussions in terms of transport infrastructure and represent a significant challenge
regarding sustainable land use.
Urbanisation
Figure 3.1: Land uses in Greece
Since the beginning of the 1970s, the country’s urban system has transformed into a highly
concentrative one, with the cities of Athens and Thessaloniki holding the primary role at the
functional and economic levels. Nearly 50% of the urban population in the country live in these two
metropolitan areas, while around 80% of the urban population live in the 11 largest cities and 20%
in the 72 cities with a population of between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants. Two-thirds of the
largest urban centres are located in coastal areas, and most of them host important harbours.
The growth of urban areas can be attributed to the urban sprawl and the development of services in
existing urban centres, as well as the development of tourist destinations and related infrastructure,
including summer houses, and the modernisation and extension of transport infrastructures (roads,
ports, airports). The rate of urban growth has slowed significantly in recent years, however, the
urbanisation trend has led to significant land use changes during the last decades and has often
produced incompatible land uses, the extension of urban activities beyond designated urban zones,
traffic congestion, a lack of communal and green space, and even put pressure to sensitive natural
areas. These changes have also mostly occurred at the expense of agricultural and pasture lands
close to urban centres and coastal areas.
Countryside
In the countryside, about half of Greece’s territory is not or only very limited exploited (mountain
areas, grasslands and areas with infertile soils). Agricultural regions cover about 40.2% of the
country’s total surface area, forest regions about 17.9%, natural regions occupy about 38.5%,
artificial regions around 2.2% and inland waters account for the remaining 1.2%. The majority of
forests is managed for production purposes, while other uses include hunting, grazing and tourism
or recreation. Almost one-fifth of the country’s land area (predominantly land covered in forest and
garrigue) has been incorporated in the NATURA 2000 Network.
In the period 1990-2000, the increase of artificial surfaces was the most relevant land cover change
in Greece, corresponding to an increase of urban areas of nearly 14%. In the same period,
agriculture in Greece was characterised by a great modernisation effort, in the framework of the
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), involving irrigation projects, changes in practices on agricultural
land and decrease in employment in the sector. Land use changes involved vineyards, olive groves
and wetlands. A decrease of the vineyard area may be attributed to their conversion in built-up
areas as many of the vineyards have historically been located close to urban centres. The growth in
the area of olive groves may be a consequence of the related subsidies, while the conversion of
wetlands into agricultural land may be attributed to large-scale agricultural developments occurring
in the period 1990-1993. The total forest area slightly increased, as fellings were compensated by
forest creation (European Environment Agency, 2007).
Soil Resources
In general, in Greece, soils are characterised by low organic matter content. About two thirds of the
cultivated soils contain only 1% of organic matter (very low content), whereas only less than 14% of
the soils contain more than 3% of organic matter (medium content). The decrease of the organic
matter content causes structural degradation and soil erosion as well as nitrogen deficits, which
41
Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
characterize the soil in 87% of the cultivated areas. Many soils in Greece, both in the uplands and
the lowlands, originate from calcareous deposits and are rich in calcium carbonate (CaCO3). About
70% of the soils have an alkaline or very alkaline reaction, 12% have neutral reaction and 18%
have acid reaction. Fixation of phosphorous as well as zinc, boron and other elements is common in
alkaline soils.
The steep slopes, combined with the loss of natural vegetation (due to forest fire, cultivation and
overgrazing), have facilitated severe soil erosion processes in the uplands — and the formation of
cambisols, luvisols and regosols— to an extent that the parent rock is often exposed at the surface—
as in the case of lithosols. Erosion and salinisation are the two most important threats to soil
resources in Greece. The progressive degradation of the soil has led, among other consequences, to
the reduction of the soil productive capacity and to more visible impacts on water resources (both in
terms of quantity and quality). In the most severe cases, soil degradation has given way to
desertification.
In Greece, soil degradation is brought about by a combination of natural causes (steep relief,
vulnerable soils and harsh climate), unsuccessful land management and high pressures from human
and animal population. Degradation is favoured by the frequent climate extremes such as droughts,
aridity and irregular precipitations. The natural erosion processes have been accelerated in the past
decades by the large-scale deforestation of hilly areas accompanied by intensive cultivation and
overgrazing.
The country’s geological formation also plays a role, especially in areas with landforms on limestone.
These areas are the most sensitive to desertification due to the shallow soils and the slow rates of
recovery of the vegetative cover, which may be destroyed by fires or droughts. Sloping land on
schists, gneiss or granites - which can be found mainly in the southeastern part of the mainland, in
areas of lower relief - is also vulnerable to degradation due to the high soil erodibility. Similarly, in a
significant part of the country covered by soil on tertiary marly deposits, severe geological erosion
processes have locally led to desertification (Kosmas et al., 2006).
Soil contamination is not a major problem in Greece as compared to other European countries. It
mainly originates from local sources associated with waste disposal, industrial activities and mining
operations. Contamination from diffuse sources is less extended. It is observed in the largest urban
areas, due to the atmospheric deposition of pollutants from traffic and industry. Diffuse
contamination is also observed around power stations, which use lignite combustion (Western
Macedonia and Western Peloponnesus). Soil contamination, associated with agricultural practices,
especially overuse of nitrogen fertilizers, mainly affects water quality. This process is primarily
observed in the Thessaly plain (UN, 2005).
Soil sealing is reported to be a threat, especially around major urban centres and along the coasts.
The portion of urban areas is relatively low, also due to the country’s geo-morphological conditions
and the limited space available. Urban centres and economic activities are mainly localised along the
coasts. In the past decades, the rate of growth of built-up areas has been high as a consequence of
the rapid economic development and, in particular, the rapid expansion of the tourist sector and
transport infrastructures.
Greece is also characterised by the presence of zones of high seismic risk. In the past 40 years, nine
major earthquakes occurred, causing over 250 deaths, several hundreds people injured and
extensive damages to buildings and infrastructures.
Protected Areas
Since 1999, additional areas of 105,000 hectares (ha) and 1,075,000 ha have been designated as
Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs), respectively. As of
2008, the Greek list includes 239 SCIs and 163 SPAs. When overlapping is excluded, the NATURA
2000 Network of Protected Areas covers 21% of the Greek land surface and 5.5% of the territorial
waters.
In order to award legal status for the designation of Protected Areas, 87 Special Environmental
Studies were drafted or under preparation, covering 53% of the area of the NATURA 2000 Network.
The country plans to designate 24 new protected areas in the 2008-2013 period, representing an
additional 20% of NATURA 2000 areas and to implement conservation measures in all SPAs.
42
Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
Table 3.1: Protected areas, 1998-2008
Yeara
Competent
Authority
Ministry of
Rural
Development
and Food
(MRDF)
Sites
1999
Surface area
(ha)
(%)
Sites
2008
Surface area
(ha)
(%)
10
68,900c
0.6
10
19
32,500
0.2
19
32,500
0.2
-
-
-
1
41,742
0.4
MRDF
51d
16,700
0.1
51d
16,700
0.1
YPEHODE &
Min. of Culture
264
..
..
507
..
National forest parks
(inland)
1938
Aesthetic forests
1973
MRDF
Protected forests
2006
Regional
Authorities
Natural monuments
1975
Landscapes of natural
beauty
1950
68,900c
Controlled hunting areas
1975
MRDF
7
107,090
8.2
7
102,812
Game reservese
1979
MRDF
584
964,400
7.4
-
-
0.6
..
0.8
-
Game breeding stations
1976
MRDF
20
3,160
0.2
21
3,603
..
Zones of urban controlf
1989
YPEHODE
10
14,700
0.1
12
6,382
..
Nature reservesg
2006
YPEHODE
-
-
-
1
163
-
h
0.1
g
National marine parks
1992
YPEHODE
2
254,100
0.1
2
National parksg
2004
YPEHODE
-
-
-
9
754,280
5.6
Eco-development areasg
2003
YPEHODE
-
-
-
1
41,829
0.3
Wildlife refugees
1998
Regional
Authorities
-
-
-
606
1,028,057
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
225,946
7.79
Year of establishment of the first area in the category.
% of total land area; some protected areas overlap.
Including 34,300 hectares of peripheral zones.
15 areas and 36 historic trees or coppices.
The category “game reserves” has been replaced by the category “wildlife refuges”
Including areas designated as Strict Nature Reserves and Nature Reserves.
Including peripheral zones.
The boundaries of the marine parks were redefined in 2003.
Source: YPEHODE
Figure 3.2: Evolution of Designation of Protected Areas
Number of protected areas
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006/2007
Source: YPEHODE, 2007
43
Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
■
Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework
Spatial Planning and the Environment
The link between environment and spatial planning was explicitly established in 1976 in the
country’s first dedicated planning Law entitled “Regarding Spatial Planning and Environment”.
Structural spatial plans were drawn up for all prefectures in the mid-1980s, and even though they
never acquired legal status, these plans served for more than a decade as a coherent spatial
reference for investment and project decisions at prefecture level, as well as for lower level spatial
or environmental studies, e.g. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs).
In Greece, the Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works (YPEHODE) is
responsible for spatial planning at the national and regional level. In 2002 the National Coordination
Committee of the Government Policy in the field of Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development
was established, with representation from the Secretary-Generals from all relevant Ministries. An
advisory council, the National Council for Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development was also
created as a statutory stakeholder forum with the role of advising the Government on spatial
planning issues. In line with the concept of the “Europe of Regions”, the country consists of 13
regions (decentralised administrative units of the state), which have decisive authority on the
exercise of the executive responsibilities of the estate; they contribute to national planning and
within this framework, design, programme and implement policies for their financial, social and
cultural development. In particular, the regions are responsible for vetting the General Town Plans
of the municipalities, approving development proposals (with associated EIAs), and the supervision
of municipal and prefectural planning authorities.
Concerning strategic sectoral plans and programmes, the 2006 Joint Ministerial Decision (JMD) on
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) transposed the European Union’s (EU) Directive
2001/42. Through SEA, the qualitative and quantitative assessment of environmental impacts from
large area projects is ensured and the cumulative assessment of a project, in conjunction of other
ones, as well as the examination of alternatives, is fulfilled. Concerning projects, the Law on
Environmental Impact Assessment amended the previous 1986 Law on Environmental Protection
and integrated the EU Directive 97/11.
In 2002, the Hellenic National Strategy for Sustainable Development (NSSD) was approved by the
Council of Ministers, aiming at promoting economic growth in Greece, while safeguarding social
cohesion and environmental quality. It articulated a set of principles for the formulation of an action
plan in line with international challenges and commitments, including EU policy and legislation. The
NSSD set three basic principles for environmental policy – the precautionary principle; the polluter
pays principle; and the equity and shared responsibility principle – and identifies the main sector for
action for each environmental issue. It further addressed the integration of sustainable development
into sectoral policies, such as spatial planning (regional development, physical planning and urban
planning), energy, transport, agriculture, fisheries, industry, tourism and employment policies.
In 2007, the National Strategy was revised, based on proposals from Ministries and extensive
consultations with regional and local officials, and with a broad range of private stakeholders. The
revision encompasses the priorities of the 2006 Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy, as
well as four additional chapters on issues of national priority: physical planning, culture, tourism and
agriculture.
Legal and Regulatory Framework
Law 2508/1997 on the Sustainable Development of Towns is the key law for the organisation of
built-up areas, provides for public participation, and promotes the reuse of the built space to prevent
urban sprawl. The law specifies the following two types of plans:
i. Plans with a broader character that include:
- The Master Plans, i.e. “Structure Plans and Programmes for the Environmental Protection” for
major cities like Patra, Larissa, Volos, Ioannina
- The Municipal Spatial Plans, which are named, depending on the size of the settlement, as
“General Town Plans” (for a main town above 2,000 inhabitants) or “Plans of Spatial and
Settlement Organization for Open Towns” (for a main town under 2,000 inhabitants).
44
Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
ii. Plans that are the equivalent of the conventional municipal land use plans found in most countries;
all urban areas operate this type of plan.
Until the approval of (new) town plans, construction is allowed within the borders of villages and in
non-urban areas, provided there are no restrictions to building rights by an Urban Control Zone.
YPEHODE was until recently engaged in approving Urban Control Zones in crucial areas, as in the
case of islands (e.g. Myconos in 2005) and mountains (e.g. Parnitha in 2008). From now on the
prospect is that, through the General Town Plans, land uses and environmental protection zones will
be specified for the whole of Greek territory. Therefore, the direction is towards the organisation of
land uses and the planned regulation of urban development.
Law 2508/1997 further provides for subsidies to local authorities to enable them to rehabilitate
neglected urban areas, upgrade buildings, protect the environment and conserve energy and natural
resources. In addition, the Building Permits Law 3212/2003 and the General Building Construction
Code, on quality and safety of construction and allowable building surface on pieces of land
(Presidential Decree 14.07/1999), define building permitting procedures and building construction
standards.
The key feature of Law 2742/1999 is the creation of the National Framework for Spatial Planning
and Sustainable Development consisting of: i) a General Framework Plan (the "National Plan"), ii)
Specific Framework Plans, and iii) Regional Framework Plans for each of the regions, except Attica
(Athens region) which has its own structural plan. The planning horizon for all these plans is 15
years. Local master and land use plans under Law 2508/1997 must be consistent with the
Framework Plans.
Table 3.2: System of spatial and urban planning
Law 2742/1999 on Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development
National Framework for Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development
General Framework Plan (National Plan)
National plan sets out policy regarding competitive land uses,
requirements for EIA, national transport links, etc.
Regional Framework Plans
Regional elaboration of national plan
Specific Framework Plans
Sets out development goals for special areas of the country
(e.g. coastal areas and islands, mountainous and lagging
zones), sectors of activities (e.g. industry) of national
importance or networks and technical social and administrative
services of national interest
Law 2508/1997 on the Sustainable Development of Towns
Policy on land uses, population forecasts & housing needs,
Master Plans (for large areas around a major
transport & other infrastructure, environmental protection, etc.
urban centre) and General Town Plans (for
the entire municipality territory)
Land use plans for built-up areas
Plans with more details, designation of sites for specific uses,
building regulations, etc.
Law 2742/1999 on Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development deals with strategic spatial
planning of the entire territory at a national and regional level. The law is consistent with the
European Union's European Spatial Design Perspective adopted earlier in the same year. Its three
main goals are: i) promotion of economic and social cohesion; ii) rational management and
protection of natural resources and cultural heritage; and iii) promotion of an integrated and
competitive regional development.
Objectives regarding spatial planning can also be found in the 2002 NSSD, which recommends a
poly-centric urban structure. For urban areas the NSSD advocates adoption of a “solid city”
approach adapted to Greek particularities, and reduction of urban sprawl by means of low-density
peri-urban settlements. Regarding rural areas, the key NSSD objectives include the suppression of
uncontrolled urban sprawl outside existing towns, the creation of dedicated zones for specific
purposes such as commerce, industry or animal husbandry, and the reduction of dispersed tourism
facilities.
Concerning Law 2508/1997, about 30% of the country's municipalities had elaborated General Town
Plans, in the early 2008, although few have been so far approved by the regions, as required. In
2007, the studies for four Master Plans for the major cities of Ioannina, Patra, Larissa and Volos,
went on tender and are currently in their final stage of elaboration, according to the provisions of
Law 2508/1997. Consequently they will be accordingly enacted in the form of Presidential Decrees.
In addition, Presidential Decrees for the establishment of four respective Organisations for the
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
implementation of these Master Plans have been prepared and are currently in the final phase of
their legal elaboration. Concerning Law 2742/1999, all Regional Framework Plans had been adopted
by 2003 and are now operational. The first General Framework Plan (the National Spatial Plan) and
the Specific Framework Plan for Renewable Energy Resources were enacted in 2008. The Specific
Framework Plan for Industry is in phase of approval by the Government Committee. The Specific
Framework Plan for Tourism will be approved and published in 2009.
Two other Specific Framework Plans (i.e. for Coastal Zones and Islands and for Mountain Areas) are
expected to be finalised in 2009. The implementation of these plans will be closely monitored, in line
with Article 13 of the General Framework Plan, using, where available, qualitative or quantitative
indicators.
i. National Spatial Plan
The General Framework Plan aims at the formation of a spatial development pattern, promoting the
social and economic cohesion, competitiveness, and administration, the maintenance of biodiversity
the physical and cultural environment in the direction of sustainable development. The National
Spatial Plan was adopted and put into force in 2008 (OJG 128A/2008).
ii. Specific Framework Plan for Renewable Energy Sources
The regulatory framework concerning the Renewable Energy Resources (RES) aims, first of all, at
increasing the country’s electricity generating capacity from RES, so as to meet its indicative target
of 20.1% by 2010, and promoting investment in the energy sector, including through simplification
of permitting procedures for RES projects. Within the overall regulatory framework for RES, the
Specific Framework Plan for Renewable Energy Sources deals specifically with issues surrounding the
location of RES installations. Approved in 2008 (OJG 2464B/2008), it establishes location rules and
criteria that aim to balance the need for viable RES facilities and the protection of the natural and
cultural environment.
The guidelines of the Specific Framework for Spatial Planning of the RES are distinguished with
respect to the RES category and the specific location. Exclusion areas and incompatibility zones are
determined, excluding the planning of wind energy facilities. More specifically, as exclusion zones
are defined those with listed (classified) buildings, with priority habitats, nature areas with a status
of full protection, the core of the national forests, areas within the limits of city plans and
settlements prior to the year 1923 or settlements with a population of less than 2,000 inhabitants,
the Areas for the Development of Integrated Productive Activities of the third sector, tourism and
housing areas, swimming beaches etc.
The Framework will serve as guide to licensing authorities as well as investors, so that the latter will
be oriented to locations they know to be suitable from a spatial planning perspective. It is
considered to be a coherent decision-making process for the development of RES that will allow all
economic, social and environmental considerations to be evaluated together and submitted to public
scrutiny, and for decisions to be taken without avoidable conflicts and undue delays.
iii. Specific Framework Plan for Industry
Greece has a relatively small industrial sector, consisting primarily of small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs). In 2006, the manufacturing sector employed 11.6% of the labour force,
whereas construction accounted for 7.3% and mining 0.4%. Industry is highly concentrated in
certain areas with around half of the value added located in the wider Attica area and Central
Macedonia. On the other hand, a close-up view of the location of industrial plants shows that as
many as 90% of sites are highly scattered throughout urban and peri-urban areas, giving rise to
nuisances and incompatible land uses.
The Specific Framework for Industry incorporates guidelines referring to the macro-spatial
organization of the industry, as well as to its location on a local level, in connection to land uses.
Namely, it provides guidelines for the spatial organization of industry: a) at national level by
defining the main poles and development axes, the areas where specific policies should be applied
and by including provisions for the development of industries in specific types of areas (coastal,
island and mountain areas), b) at regional and sub-regional level. The Framework Plan also provides
sectoral guidelines for industries with specific needs as regards spatial location (e.g. firms engaged
in processing, storing and trading of sensible agricultural produce or in need of coastal location).
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
A major part of the Framework’s provisions concerns Industrial Parks. During the last years, 48
industrial parks of different types have been established most of them often complete with shared
environmental infrastructure. For the moment, few enterprises have settled in these areas, but the
intention is that, in the long term, many of the industries now located at inappropriate locations,
would move to these parks. The Framework Plan also sets directions for local and urban plans and
provides an Action Programme.
Concerning industrial risks, lists of all "Seveso" installations across the country have been compiled
and hazard maps of three extensive industrial areas (two in Attica and one in Thessaloniki) and
some smaller ones are available and are used in land use planning. They are part of the emergency
planning to protect the population against large-scale technological accidents.
iv. Specific framework plan for tourism
The tourist sector constitutes for Greece one of the main sources of national wealth, contributing
directly and indirectly about 18% of GDP, generating approximately 850,000 jobs and contributing
significantly to regional development. The tourist infrastructure in Greece is broadening its base to
such areas as cultural, eco- and agro-tourism. Also, the sector is highly concentrated geographically,
with 65% of hotel beds and 70% of independent rooms located in the South Aegean, Ionian, Crete,
Attica and Central Macedonian districts. Efforts to achieve a more even geographic spread of tourist
areas date from at least 1994 (Development Law 2234/1994).
Tourist activities are putting pressure on coastal resources. To address this challenge, an important
spatial planning measure is the designation of Areas of Integrated Tourism Development (POTA).
This tool aims at creating from the outset a small number of areas of integrated tourist development
oriented from their initial stages of planning towards a high level demand, and this in areas
endowed with rich natural resources but not having a satisfactory tourist infrastructure so far. The
approval of such areas is granted as part of the implementation of the national or regional spatial
plans, after a global and coherent assessment of the social, economic and environmental
parameters. The Specific Spatial Framework Plan for Tourism represents a right step in this
direction, for it explicitly brings the environment into the equation.
The aim of this Specific Plan is to offer guidelines, rules and criteria for the spatial articulation,
organisation and development of tourism in Greece and for the respective infrastructure, as well as
the setting out of a realistic action programme for the next 15 years (2008-2023). This Specific Plan
aims additionally at improving the competitiveness of the tourist product, ensuring protection and
sustainability of the natural resources related to tourism, enforcing the policies of regional
development and cohesion, as well as at putting in place a clearer framework of guidance to the
lower level planning, the competent authorities for permits and the interested companies. As the
vehicle dealing with the spatial dimension of the sector's development, it will allow the balancing of
the associated economic, social and environmental aspects.
v. Coastal zones and islands
The coastal and marine environment of Greece, with its landscapes and ecosystems hosting
numerous rare species, is one of the country's major economic and environmental assets. Greece
has therefore been an active participant in the EU’s activities to implement Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM) in accordance with EU Recommendation 2002/413, as well as in various
projects through the Mediterranean Action Plan of the United Nations’ Environment Programme
(UNEP/MAP). Also, during its latest presidency of the EU in 2003, Greece convened an International
High Level Conference on “Coastal Areas and Cities in Europe”.
Greece’s coastal zones are subject to development pressures (e.g. pollution, exploitation of natural
resources, urbanisation for tourism and holiday homes) as well as natural hazards (e.g. erosion). An
estimated 85% of the Greek population lives less than a 45-minute drive away from the seashore
and one-third live in a 2 km-wide coastal strip. Also, an estimated 80% of industrial activities, 90%
of tourism and recreation, most of fisheries and aquaculture, 35% of agricultural land (often of high
productivity), and a significant part of infrastructure (e.g. harbours, airports, roads, the electricity
network, telecommunications) are situated in the coastal zone. Islands are however often presenting
indicators of development under national average, as they often suffer from geographic isolation and
lack of economic opportunities (besides tourism).
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
To deal with this concentration of uses, the Specific Framework for Spatial Planning of Coastal Zones
and Islands is under preparation, which includes an action programme and incorporates the
principles of the EU recommendation on ICZM, as the fulcrum of coastal zone management.
vi. Mountain areas
Mountain regions cover 70% of mainland Greece and flat land is restricted to many small coastal
plains. The mountains, which form part of the Alpine system, generally stretch from northwest to
southeast. They are highest and most rugged in the northwest, where the Grammos Mountains rise
to 2,519 m and the Pindos mountains to over 2,285 m, although the highest mountain in the
country, Olympus at 2,917 m, is in east central Greece.
Greek mountain regions are amongst the poorest areas in the country and suffer from geographic
isolation and lack of economic opportunity. To promote the future development of these areas, the
Specific Framework for Spatial Planning of Mountainous Areas is currently under preparation and
expected to be concluded by the end of 2009. Its purpose is the definition of guidelines for the
sustainable, balanced and competitive development of the mountainous area, spatial integration into
the national network and development centres, the strengthening of demographic and production
base and the protection, and enhancement of natural and cultural assets and natural resources with
a view to sustainability. The country’s development efforts focus on improving accessibility (e.g.
construction of the north-south Ionian highway in the West of the country and east-west Egnatia
Highway in northern Greece) and extending water and electricity supply. In all mountain areas,
measures have been taken for the conservation, regeneration, and expansion of forests. Measures
have also been taken to induce the local population, especially the young, to remain in mountain
areas by promoting alternative livelihood opportunities through the development of eco- and agrotourism, as well as mountain and cultural tourism, and the promotion of the use of local resources,
for example mineral resources.
Mountain areas are also prone to a variety of natural hazards, such as erosion and landslides. Law
3013/2003 for Civil Protection has charged the General Secretariat for Civil Protection (under the
Ministry of Interior) with the formulation of prevention plans and programmes for all kinds of natural
and technological risks, taking appropriate preparedness measures and undertaking prevention,
preparedness, response and recovery actions. Hazard maps based on geological, slope gradient,
rainfall and seismic hazard data (identifying 3-4 levels of hazard) have been prepared for the whole
territory of Greece (1:100,000). The entire country has also been mapped (1:200,000) in terms of
the risk from forest fires. The Ministry of the Interior is funding a programme to assess earthquake
risks at the local authority level. Beyond these efforts, the Specific Planning Frame work for
Mountainous Areas is a high priority, since its adoption and implementation should contribute to the
economic, social and environmental development of mountainous areas.
vii. Biodiversity
The main piece of forest legislation is the 2003 Forest Law, which adopts the principles of
sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation and multiple uses of forest lands. A Forest
Functional Plan is in place, including measures for burnt land restoration, fire protection,
improvement of degraded forests, designation of protected forests, and completion of the National
Forest Registry (by 2012). A Thematic Strategy for Forests and Mountainous Ecosystems is currently
being developed to improve the integration of biodiversity issues in forest management.
Regional Forest Services are in charge of managing forested areas, including ranger services, and of
developing ad hoc management plans. These plans regulate tree cutting, grazing, hunting (on the
basis of annual ministerial decisions), use of chemicals, collection of herbs and other plant species.
Forest management plans do not always fully integrate biodiversity conservation objectives. One
productive forest is eco-certified (by the Forest Stewardship Council), covering about 31,500 ha, but
there are plans to implement a national certification system.
The 1999 Law on Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development marked a turning point in the
management of protected areas, providing for the establishment of independent and multistakeholder Management Bodies. Forest Services are responsible for the management of forests
according to forest legislation, but Management Bodies have an overall responsibility for the
conservation of nature. In the Advisory Boards of the Management Bodies representatives of Forest
Services participate, achieving thus integration of management policies. The Management Bodies
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
are responsible for a wide range of activities, and primarily for drafting and implementing five-year
management plans (prioritising activities and specifying conservation measures. They contribute to
wardening and executive control, although the Forest Services remain the primary enforcement
authorities. By 2008, 27 Management Bodies were established, covering about 1.7 million ha of
protected areas.
The NATURA 2000 Committee (established in 2002) is an inter-ministerial advisory body to
coordinate and evaluate activities of Management Bodies. With a chair appointed by YPEHODE, the
Committee also includes representatives of university and research centres and environmental
NGOs.
■
Strategies, Programmes and Projects
The basic rules and priorities of the spatial planning are the following:
- Reassurance of equal conditions of existence and chances for work for all the citizens in all the
entire territory, in connection with the aim of population arrangement and demographical
renewal.
- Maintenance, amplification and emergence of housing and productive polymorphism, and the
natural diversity in the urban and interurban areas, seaside, mountainous, islands and areas
with increased industrial and tourist development.
- Complete protection, development, and emergence of the islands, mountainous and remote
areas, maintenance and encouragement of the traditional productive branches and also the
protection of their natural and cultural sources.
Cadastre and National Forest Registry
For more effective control of land development, Greece is now accelerating the completion of its
National Cadastre which constitutes a strategic tool, together with spatial planning, for integrated
planning and development. As of 2008, the system had been established and was operational in 6%
of the total area of the country and incorporated approximately 6.3 million property rights, or about
17% of the expected total number. Of the 340 municipalities that had been included in the initial
cadastral survey projects, 326 now have an operational cadastre and are served by the 95 cadastral
offices that cover their jurisdiction.
In 2008, a new set of cadastral survey projects was launched, covering 107 municipalities with an
area of 3,100 km2 and a total number of 7.3 million rights. So far 5.8 million rights have been
declared within the scope of those projects. These projects are expected to finish by 2011 and cover
the metropolitan areas of Athens and Thessaloniki (the two largest metropolitan areas of Greece), as
well as, the 22 remaining prefecture capitals that had not been surveyed in the first series of
cadastral survey projects.
In 2009 another set of cadastral survey projects will be launched that will cover 11 more
municipalities having area of 485 km2 and a total number of 103,000 rights. Those municipalities
cover the mount “Parnitha”, which was damaged by fire in 2007. Completion of the cadastre had
initially been anticipated for 2010, but due to the fact that the process of validating ownership
claims and subsequently, processing appeals takes longer than originally anticipated, the whole
project is expected to be completed by 2018. By that time the system will cover 132,000 km2 and
about 35 million property rights, covering the entire country.
The National Forest Registry is also underway and its completion is expected by 2012. The Hellenic
Constitution prohibits the conversion of forestland to other uses, but there still is no official record of
what land is considered forestland and what is not. Forested areas, notably those close to Athens
and in coastal areas, are receiving pressure from building activities. Through the completion of the
National Forest Registry (i.e. the identification of all forest areas), it is expected that public property
will be safeguarded and forest fires by arson will be limited.
Within the scope of developing the Hellenic National Cadastre, Greece is currently carrying out a
cartographic project that aims at mapping forests and forestland for the whole country at a scale of
1:5,000. This on-going mapping project would be complete within 2009 and its outcome could be
used as a first approximation to adjudicate property rights in forest areas.
Also, within the scope of developing the Hellenic National Cadastre, Greece, carries out a extensive
cartographic project that aims at mapping all the coastal zone (as well as the rivers and lake banks
zone) of the country, including the coastal zone of the islands. The mapping project would be
49
Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
complete within 2009 and could be used, in addition to adjudicating property rights along the coast,
to support coastal zone management.
Soil Protection programmes
In order to control non-point source pollution, an increasing number of areas of agricultural land are
included in nitrate pollution reduction programmes. Greece has declared seven vulnerable zones
(corresponding to the main country’s fertile plains under intensive agriculture) under the EU Nitrates
Directive 91/676 and has formally adopted the Action Plans required for each area: the Thessaly
Plain, the Kopaida Plain, the Argolic Plain, the basin of Pinios river in Ilia, the Thessaloniki-KilkisPella-Imathia Perfectures plain, the Strimonas river basin and Arta-Preveza plain. The Actions Plans
require farmers to, among other things, respect maximum rates and timing of fertiliser application,
depending on local conditions (such as crop type, soil type, ground slope, and irrigation system).
There are also rules about the management of farm waste, erosion prevention, winter soil cover,
and the transport and storage of fertilisers. Also, farmers in vulnerable zones must follow the official
Code of Good Agricultural Practices (CoGAP). These programmes are expected to continue during
the 4th Programming Period 2007-2013, with an expansion to new areas.
Urban Interventions for the Environment
In the framework of the EU urban policy, via Integrated Urban Interventions, programmes were
carried out in areas in need of regeneration, through the EU Initiatives URBAN I (1994-1999) and II
(2000-2006) as well as the 2nd and 3rd Community Support Frameworks (CSF) for the same periods
respectively. The largest and most important part of all the programmes of Integrated Urban
Interventions deals with the improvement of the urban environment, with particularly positive
results.
The objectives of the URBAN Initiative are:
- To help seek integrated, sustainable interventions to address the particularly acute social
problem of the many urban centres in crisis, through actions to restore their social and economic
health, renew infrastructures and equipment and improve the environment;
- To promote the creation and implementation of particularly innovative strategies for sustainable
economic and social regeneration of small and medium-sized towns and cities or of distressed
urban neighbourhoods in larger cities; and
- To develop knowledge and exchange experience and good practice in the urban space, in
relation to economic, social, environmental and administrative issues, for sustainable urban
regeneration and development in the European Union.
Through the URBAN II Initiative, a new approach to urban development is being promoted. While
retaining an integrated approach to social, economic and environmental problems, the basic
objective of URBAN II is innovation. Accurate selection of problem neighbourhoods is one of the
essential conditions for an effective development policy.
An indicative example is the programme of integrated intervention at the North east part of the
urban space of Heraklion, in the island of Crete, which was financed partly by Community Initiative
URBAN II (budget of EURO 12 millions) and partly by the Community Support Framework (budget of
EURO 8 million). The area was characterized by a particularly degraded environment; lack of public
spaces; presence of abandoned industrial sites; and the coastal zone was taken up by illegal
constructions. With the interventions that took place, illegal constructions were taken down and the
freed area was transformed into a green space for entertainment purposes. Public spaces were
organized, landscaped and upgraded while existing buildings were restored and reused as part of
the programme (e.g. Museum of Natural History) and, separately, by the private sector (e.g. cinema
multiplex, gathering places, cultural buildings).
Similar results came out of the implementation of the URBAN programme in the city of Volos, at the
area of Palies, where the “Tsalapata Brick and Pottery” Industry and several smaller ones were
restored and given for cultural, entertainment and social uses, being today a centre for cultural
activities in the area.
Desertification programmes
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
Since 2003, a wide array of desertification-specific projects have been carried out to assess better
the extent and impacts of desertification within the country; to estimate the effectiveness of policies
and measures already undertaken; and to propose new remedial and preventative steps.
In addition, substantial levels of funding are being allocated to other projects that contribute to the
anti-desertification fight, but which are not designated as desertification-related activities in the
budgets of implementing ministries and institutes. For example, EURO 650 million have been
allocated by the Government for re-establishment of lands impacted by forest fires over the 2007-10
period; EURO 236 million in 2006 to support early retirement of aged farmers; EURO 19 million in
2006 for afforestation of agricultural land (plus EURO 10 million from the EU). Regarding agrienvironmental measures in which organic farming is included, EURO 870 million have been allocated
for the years 2007-2013, while EURO 122 million were spent between 2000 and 2006.
Soil-Resources Protection Programmes
The basic measures to combat intensive use and degradation of soil resources include the expansion
of organic agriculture and livestock farming, extensification of livestock farming, maintenance and
restoration of hedgerows, conservation and repair of terraces in sloping areas as well as adoption of
the Codes of Good Agricultural Practice (CoGAPs 568/125347/2004). In particular, there has been
substantial development of organic agriculture in recent years. Indicatively, it’s worth mentioning
that in 2004 it slightly exceeded 1.5% of the total farmland, rising to 4% in 2007.
It is also worth mentioning that the promotion of organic agriculture, in conjunction with the
restrictions in nitrogen fertiliser use and the establishment of systems for the wet treatment of
waste, are all included in the basic measures taken for the reduction of GHG emissions from
agriculture, taking into account the fact that agriculture accounts for 8.7% of the total GHG
emissions.
Biodiversity Conservation and Management
Greek objectives on nature conservation encompass the international commitments to 2010 set by
the United Nations’ Convention of Biological Diversity (UNCBD) and the EU Biodiversity Action Plan.
Protecting biodiversity and ecosystems is one of the main objectives of the 2002 NSSD. The relative
objectives and action lines in NSSD have been integrated into the various national Operational
Programmes (OPs) financed by EU and national Funds, including the Operational “Environment”
Programme (OEP) 2000-2006, the OP on “Environment and Sustainable Development” (OPESD)
2007-2013, the OP “Agricultural Development and Reform of the Country-side” (OPADRC, 20002006), the “National Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development” (NSPAD, 2007-2013) as well as
the various Regional OPs.
Other actions that have been developed for the protection of biodiversity deal with specific flora and
fauna species, ecosystems, as well as the organisation and operation of a National System for the
Management of Protected Areas. Greece ratified the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in 2004.
Greece has transposed all Community Directives for the Environment Sector except for one
(2004/035 on Environmental Liability, the transposition of which is under way). Actions to protect
species and habitats included in integrated Management Plans are being implemented in various
regions of the country. A National Strategy for Biodiversity is being drawn up by YPEHODE, in order
to support an integrated approach for biodiversity conservation, and an Internet portal is under
construction for the dissemination of information on biodiversity, so that the public can have access
to credible data. An assessment of the conservation status of the habitat types and of species of
Community Interest has already been launched an action that will determine the directions for
further studied actions and conservation measures. Moreover, the specification of the Thematic
Strategies for coastal and rural areas, the drafting of an Action Plan for Biodiversity, the setting-up
of a national framework for biodiversity monitoring, as well as specific actions for threatened species
and habitats, have been scheduled within the framework of the OPESD 2007-2013.
Conservation and management of forests
Forests and forest areas cover 58% of the area of the NATURA 2000 Network, a fact that depicts
their importance for Greek biodiversity. During the 2002-2005 period, the area of forests and forest
areas burned by fires were cut down by 90% in comparison with the previous four-year period.
However, the country was ravaged by extensive wildfires in the summer of 2007, mainly due to
prolonged water scarcity, drought and arson, which resulted in the loss of 2,700 Km2 of forest land
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
and estimated to be responsible for the emission of 4.5 million tones of CO2 in the atmosphere
(European Forest Fire Information System - ΕFFIS, 2007).
Procedures for the identification of the basic criteria and indicators for sustainable forest
management have already started. Moreover, actions being taken for the development of a
certification of products from sustainable forestry constitute a major challenge. The development of
a Thematic Strategy for Forests and Mountainous Ecosystems has also been scheduled within the
framework of the Operational Programme on Environment and Sustainable Development, 20072013, in order to support an integrated approach in the conservation of biodiversity and the services
provided by Greek forests. Yet, the completion of the National Forest Registry remains a challenge.
Figure 3.4: Forests and forest areas burned by fires
70000
Hectares (Ha)
60000
50000
40000
Forests
Forest area
30000
20000
10000
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Source: Ministry of Rural Development & Food, 2007
■
Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training and
Awareness-Raising
The URBACT Programme is implemented as part of the URBAN EU Initiative. URBACT
(www.ggea.gr/nea/URBACT_180107.pdf) involves joint actions to create networks, exchange
experiences and create good practice guidelines for the “integrated upgrading of the urban space”
through the experience gained from implementing the URBAN I and URBAN II Programmes and the
URBAN PILOT PROJECT.
■
Financing
Greece is a beneficiary of EU funding and with respect to the environment, Greece has benefited in
particular from Cohesion and Structure Funds, Rural Development Aid and the LIFE programme.
Environmental objectives have been largely integrated into development programmes promoting
economic and social cohesion. In 2006, EU funds for about EURO 2.7 billion were allocated to
environmental infrastructure and nature protection (EURO 3.6 billion including national co-funding),
representing about 10% of the total EU support available for Greece and averaging at 0.23% of GDP
(or 0.30% of GDP in national co-financing is included).
In the OEP of YPEHODE, in the context of the 3rd CSF 2000-2006, the proposed objectives included
in the priority sector ”Physical and Urban Planning and Regeneration Actions” for the period 20002006, were as follows:
- Promotion of strategic physical planning.
- Completion of urban planning in the new spatial units.
- Improvement of the efficiency of the physical and urban planning.
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
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Implementation of the national policy for sustainable urban development of the cities and
settlements, in the framework of the country’s fulfilment of relevant EU and national obligations
(implementation of Habitat II Agenda).
Under the JMD 69269/5387/1990 (”Classification of activities into categories, content of
Environmental Impact Studies etc.”), the responsible authorities, that is the YPEHODE and other
Ministries, the Regions and the Prefectures (depending on the capacity and the kind of activity),
examine for every activity all information related to physical and urban planning and land use in the
proposed (for a new activity) area of the activity. This examination occurs at the stage of the
decision making for the location of the activity and if contaminated land is a factor, it is then taken
into account.
The URBAN II Community Initiative is financed exclusively by the European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF), one of the European Structural Funds. URBAN is one of four Community Initiatives
within the EU Structural Funds. Recognising that more attention must be paid at Community level to
the problems of cities, the Commission of the EU (CEU) has taken up the URBAN Community
initiative with regard to the economic and social revitalisation of towns and settlements in crisis, so
as to promote sustainable urban development.
More specifically, URBAN II finances programmes for the renovation of building stock, creates jobs
(mainly via information technology), combats social exclusion, reinforces democratic processes and
improves transport and communications. Environmental concerns are also a top priority for the
URBAN II Programme, with measures such as reduction and better management of waste and
restriction of noise pollution and consumption of hydrocarbons. Following a public invitation, Perama
and parts of Komotini and Heraklio, Crete were selected for Urban II.
The management of protected areas and the implementation of the NATURA 2000 network have
generally been financed on a project-basis. Expenditure for about EURO 50 million were financed
through the Operational “Environment” Programme 2000-2006; since 2000, the EU financial
instrument LIFE has co-financed 19 projects totalling EURO 28 million. Limited national funding
(EURO 7.5 million in 2000-2006) was granted through the YPEHODE Special Fund for the
“Implementation of City Master Plans and Town Plans” (ETERPS or “Green Fund”). Since 2004, the
Management Bodies responsible for the protection of protected areas, have received state financial
support, as they have rarely adopted self-financing instruments (e.g. entrance fees and
merchandising); they have also relied on EU funds to cover their operational costs (which are
excluded from the State budget).
The OPESD 2007-2013 of YPEHODE has a total budget of EURO 2.8 billion for the period 2007-2013
(of which 80% from Structural and Cohesion Funds). The programme focuses on: integrated solid
waste management, a rational use of water resources, modern wastewater facilities, protection of
natural resources and the efficient tackling of environmental risks (e.g. desertification, droughts,
fires, floods and marine pollution). OPESD and the Regional OPs allocates EURO 225 million to
support the existing Management Bodies, as well as three more that will be soon established.
■
Cooperation
Regarding bilateral development cooperation, YPEHODE was, until 2002, responsible for the
designing and implementation of the "Bilateral Programme of Development Assistance and
Cooperation in the Field of Environment and Sustainable Development of Greece". In this context, in
1999, when Greece first became an OECD DAC member and began its development assistance
activities at full scale, YPEHODE launched the implementation of 22 projects of a total budget of
EURO 1.87 million, disbursed over a period of 2-5 years. Around 30% of this budget was allocated
to projects related to physical planning, most of which where implemented in partner countries of
SEE-Balkans.
In 2000, YPEHODE commenced 38 new projects, with the involvement for the first time of NGOs as
implementing agencies, and a time span of implementation of 4-5 years, with a total budget of
EURO 6.16 million. Again priority was given in SE European countries and around 20% of projects
were broadly related to physical planning mainly with respect to biodiversity protection.
Greece has been actively involved in the European Ministerial Initiative “CEMAT” in the framework of
the Council of Europe. CEMAT is responsible for Regional/Spatial Planning, since 1970, and brings
together representatives of the 46 Member States of the Council of Europe, united in their pursuit of
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Chapter III: Land – Physical Planning
a common objective: sustainable spatial development of the European continent. Fundamental
documents, which have been adopted and have guided Greece’s national spatial planning policies,
include:
- The European Regional/Spatial Planning Charter, adopted in 1983 at the 6th Session of the CEMAT
in Torremolinos;
- The European Regional Planning Strategy presented at the 8th Session of the CEMAT in Lausanne
in 1988;
- The Guiding Principles for Sustainable Spatial Development of the European Continent, adopted at
the 12th Session of the CEMAT held in Hannover in 2000.
54
Chapter IV: Africa
CHAPTER IV: Africa
 General introduction
Greece’s long-standing cooperation with countries of the African region is channelled through a
number of different processes and is especially characterized by the social, economic, commercial,
cultural and environmental links induced by sharing the Mediterranean sea. The different levels of
cooperation between Greece and the African countries can be summarized as cooperation at
international level, cooperation at regional level, with emphasis on the Mediterranean region, and
cooperation at bilateral level. It should be noted that there also exists cooperation between the
European Union (EU) and African countries, especially at the international level but also at the regional
level, where Greece, as a Member State of the EU, is also actively involved. In the following text
emphasis on political, economic and technical cooperation will be provided at the bilateral level, while
environmental cooperation will be examined at all levels.
 Cooperation on political, economic and technical level
Introduction
Greece has political, economic and technical cooperation with most countries at the African region, at
bilateral level as well as through international organisations. Greece is assisting efforts for the
promotion of peace and stability at the region at all levels (bilateral, regional and international).
Stability in the African countries is a prerequisite for the improvement of economic development and
the effective promotion of bilateral economic and commercial development.
Especially in relation to African countries bordering the Mediterranean, and therefore being in the
same geographical region with Greece, it has consistently been the policy of Greece to maintain and
develop relations of friendship and good neighbourliness on both the bilateral and multilateral levels.
These relations are now governed by a comprehensive framework of treaties and agreements, which
facilitate close cooperation in areas of common interest. Furthermore, as a member of the EU, Greece
attaches particular importance to the “Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean”, with its
common goals of peace, security and prosperity for the Mediterranean region.
Specific areas of co-operation
(a) Political relations
As noted above, Greece holds good political relations with countries in the African region and
especially with countries in North Africa, due to their proximity and the increased collaboration,
commercial relations and cultural links. Good political relations between Greece and countries in the
region are expressed both through bilateral cooperation as well as through cooperation in international
fora, especially the United Nations as well as the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, Francophonie etc.
Furthermore, in many cases there is mutual support between Greece and African countries for
candidacies in various international organisations.
(b) Institutional framework
Regarding the Institutional framework and bilateral Treaties, Greece has established intergovernmental Agreements with a number of African countries on several sectors, such as:
economic / scientific / technical cooperation (e.g. Ethiopia, D.R. Kongo, Kenya, Nigeria,
Mautiritius, Burundi, Nigeria, S. Africa, Uganda, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Egypt);
cooperation on tourism (e.g. Ethiopia, Kenya, Mautiritius, S. Africa, Uganda, Tunisia, Morocco,
Egypt),
cooperation on health issues (e.g Ethiopia, S. Africa, Seychelles);
commercial / trade cooperation (e.g. D.R. Kongo, Nigeria, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Burundi,
Tunisia, Morocco);
education / cultural cooperation (e.g. Ethiopia, Burundi, Nigeria, S. Africa, Seychelles, Tunisia,
Morocco, Algeria, Egypt);
air transport cooperation (e.g. Ethiopia, D.R. Kongo, S. Africa, Uganda, Tanzania, Morocco, Libya,
Egypt);
agricultural cooperation (e.g. Mautiritius);
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Chapter IV: Africa
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maritime cooperation (e.g. Nigeria, Madagascar, S. Africa, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt);
cooperation on legal issues (e.g. Kenya, S. Africa);
cooperation on promotion / mutual protection of investments (e.g. S. Africa, Tunisia, Morocco,
Algeria, Egypt);
cooperation on taxation issues (e.g. S. Africa, Morocco, Egypt);
sports cooperation (e.g. Tunisia) etc.
(c) Economic / commercial relations and Official Development Assistance (ODA)
Greece has developed bilateral economic and commercial relations with a number of African countries.
Greek exports to African and Middle East countries for 2007 (latest data available) were of the order of
EURO 1,112 million. Furthermore Greece has provided development assistance to many countries in
the region. The total Greek ODA granted to African countries for 2007 was EURO 22.84 million. The
main sectors at which development assistance aimed, include environment and climate change,
education and training, health, culture, water, employment and food/humanitarian aid.
Some indicative, more specific, information on the economic and commercial relations between Greece
and African countries, as well as ODA provided by Greece, follows:
i. North Africa / Mediterranean
- Tunisia: Tunisia holds the 10th place among Greece’s trade partners in the Middle East and N. Africa
on the basis of the volume of trade and imported products, and it holds the 9th place in terms of
exported products. For 2007, imports from Tunisia were of the order of EURO 26.2 million, while
exports were of the order of EURO 35.1 million. Exports from Greece concern mainly iron
pipes/tubes, cotton and cotton fabrics, gas hydrocarbons and chemicals. Imports from Tunisia
concern mainly fertilisers, fish and seafood. A number of Greek companies – especially small
enterprises - are active in Tunisia, especially in the food, clothing and mineral sectors.
- Morocco: The volume of bilateral trade has followed an upward trend in the past five years, with
the exception of 2005. For 2007, imports from Morocco were of the order of EURO 63.0 million,
while exports were of the order of EURO 46.5 million. Exports from Greece concern mainly cotton
fabrics, refrigerators, pesticides, gas hydrocarbons and electricity cables. Imports from Morocco
concern mainly mineral oils, fish, seafood, chemical pulp, marble and limestone.
- Algeria: Greek imports from Algeria were of the order of EURO 187.2 million in 2006 and EURO
208.87 million in 2007, while exports were of the order of EURO 222.9 million in 2006 and EURO
111.5 million in 2007. Exports from Greece concern mainly copper, iron and tobacco. Imports from
Algeria concern mainly natural gas (87.7% of total imports in 2007) and, to a smaller extent, oils
from petrol and minerals.
- Libya: For 2007, imports from Libya were of the order of EURO 1,000.16 million, while exports were
of the order of EURO 113.39 million. Exports from Greece concern mainly fossil fuels but also
chemicals, vegetables, fruit, medicine, plastic etc. Imports from Libya concern mainly petrol
products (91.9% of total imports in 2007). A number of Greek companies are currently active in
Libya, especially in the construction, hydrocarbon and telecommunications sectors.
- Egypt: For 2007, imports from Egypt were of the order of EURO 307.90 million, while exports were
of the order of EURO 104.73 million. Exports from Greece concern mainly cotton, tobacco, electrical
and mechanical equipment, plastics, fuels, iron, paints, vehicles/vehicle parts, chemicals and
aluminum. Imports from Egypt concern mainly fossil fuels, mineral oils, industrial fertilisers, steel,
vegetables/potatoes, plastics, textiles and construction material. Greek investments in Egypt have a
total value of approximately USD 700 million and concern mainly the following sectors: paper
industry, cement, petrol, construction, food, paint and construction material, banking, transport,
education etc.
ii. Sub-Saharan Africa
- Ethiopia: Commercial relations/trade include exports mainly of food, medicine and construction /
furniture materials and imports of coffee, sesame seeds, leather and wax. There is a number of
Greek companies active in Ethiopia. Latest available information suggests that, for 2007, imports
from Ethiopia were of the order of EURO 4.6 million, while exports to Ethiopia were of the order of
EURO 6.072 million. Development assistance is mainly focused on health (e.g. construction of a
model Medical Centre in the town of Nazareth), water (e.g. construction of reservoirs for drinking
and irrigation purposes in Damot Gale area, construction of irrigation systems) and education (e.g.
construction of school buildings in Amhara region and elsewhere). Development assistance of
Greece to Ethiopia for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 9.59 million. In Ethiopia, as in
some other countries of the region, the Greek Orthodox church is very active, with a large number
of believers and important humanitarian work.
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Chapter IV: Africa
- Zambia: Assistance to Zambia is provided mainly through government support and the activities of
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), such as the Greek branches of the International NGOs
“Medecins sans Frontiers” and “World Pharmacists”. It is focused mainly to health related issues,
with emphasis to HIV/AIDS. Development assistance of Greece to Zambia for the period 1997-2007
was of the order of USD 0.7 million.
- Zimbabwe: Economic and commercial relations have been limited so far. Development assistance
to Zimbabwe has increased only recently and is focused on health issues and especially HIV/AIDS.
Greece has also provided funds to the World Food Programme (EURO 130,000 for the period 20057) for food support to Zimbabwe. Development assistance of Greece to Zimbabwe for the period
1997-2007 was of the order of USD 1.64 million.
- Kenya: Commercial relations / trade include exports mainly of food, medicine and cosmetics. For
2007, imports from Kenya were of the order of EURO 3.89 million, while exports to Kenya were of
the order of EURO 7.9 million. Tourism cooperation has been increasing recently. Development
assistance from Greece is mainly occurring through the EU. Development assistance of Greece to
Kenya for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 2.1 million.
- Democratic Republic of the Congo: Commercial relations and trade so far remain to relatively
low levels. Exports form Greece concern mainly food, medicine and vehicle parts and imports
concern mainly timber and wood artifacts. Development assistance from Greece is mainly channelled
through the EU. Development assistance of Greece to D.R. Congo for the period 1997-2007 was of
the order of USD 4.76 million.
- Madagascar: Economic and commercial relations have been limited so far. For 2006, imports from
Madagascar were of the order of EURO 1.02 million, while exports to Madagascar were of the order
of EURO 2.35 million. Development assistance of Greece to Madagascar for the period 1997-2007
was of the order of USD 0.73 million.
- Malawi: Greece supports the activities of NGOs regarding health related issues, with emphasis to
HIV/AIDS. Greece has also provided funds to the World Food Programme (EURO 150,000 since
2007) for food support to Malawi. Development assistance of Greece to Malawi for the period 19972007 was of the order of USD 1.27 million.
- Mauritius: Economic and commercial relations have been limited so far. Visits of Greek tourists to
Mauritius have also increased recently. For 2007, imports from Mauritius were of the order of EURO
2.249 million, while exports to Mauritius were of the order of EURO 0.828 million. Development
assistance of Greece to Mauritius for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 1.83 million.
- Mozambique: Exports from Greece concern mainly telecommunication equipment, electrical
appliances, clothing and food. Imports concern mainly tobacco, metal (aluminum), wood, home
equipment. For 2007, imports from Mozambique were of the order of USD 0.35 million, while
exports were of the order of USD 0.03 million. Development assistance of Greece to Mozambique for
the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.02 million.
- Botswana: Exports from Greece concern mainly hot water tanks, electric appliances and textiles.
Imports concern mainly beef. For 2007, imports from Botswana were of the order of USD 1.393
million, while exports were of the order of USD 0.118 million. Development assistance of Greece to
Botswana for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.03 million.
- Burundi: Economic, commercial and tourist relations have been limited so far. Development
assistance of Greece to Burundi for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.76 million.
- Namibia: Exports from Greece concern mainly heating and cooling equipment, telecommunication
equipment and medicine. Imports concern mainly beef, fish and internal combustion engines. For
2007, imports from Namibia were of the order of USD 0.798 million, while exports were of the order
of USD 0.035 million. Development assistance of Greece to Namibia for the period 1997-2007 was of
the order of USD 0.10 million.
- Nigeria: For 2007, imports from Nigeria were of the order of EURO 37.08 million, while exports
were of the order of EURO 44.01 million. Exports from Greece concern mainly fertilisers, oil, cement,
medicine, chemicals and electric appliances. Imports from Nigeria concern mainly oil, seafood and
charcoal. Several Greek companies are active in Nigeria, while a very close cooperation exists
between the two countries at the maritime sector. Development assistance of Greece to Nigeria for
the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 3.95 million.
- other West African countries: The Greek Embassy in Abuja has under its responsibility economic
and commercial relations with other countries in West Africa. These include Ivory Coast, Ghana,
Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger, Sierra Leone, and Togo. For 2007, imports
from these countries were of the order of EURO 62.123 million, while exports from Greece to these
countries were of the order of EURO 63.2 million. Development assistance of Greece to the above
countries for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 5.46 million. In the framework of
international efforts aiming at assisting African countries to move towards the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), Greece is financially assisting development projects by Greek NGOs in
collaboration with partners from the recipient countries, in countries such as Liberia, Ivory Coast,
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Chapter IV: Africa
-
-
-
Benin and Nigeria. Furthermore, regarding the food / humanitarian sector, Greece is assisting
countries in West Africa both through NGOs (e.g. in Niger) and the World Food Programme.
South Africa: For 2007, imports from South Africa were of the order of USD 89.92 million, while
exports were of the order of EURO 79.36 million. Exports from Greece concern mainly tobacco,
medicine, food, plastic, cotton textiles, refrigerators, chemicals, telecommunication equipment etc.
Several Greek companies are active in South Africa. There is also a considerable cooperation on
tourism. Development assistance is mainly focused on health (e.g. construction hospitals, HIV/AIDS
information centres), education (e.g. construction of school buildings) and sport infrastructure.
Development assistance of Greece to South Africa for 2006 was of the order of USD 0.6 million and
for 2007 of the order of USD 0.9 million.
Uganda: Economic, commercial and tourist relations have been limited so far. Development
assistance of Greece to Uganda for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.90 million.
Rwanda: Economic, commercial and tourist relations have also been limited so far. Development
assistance of Greece to Rwanda for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.15 million.
Seychelles: Economic, commercial and tourist relations have also been limited so far. Development
assistance of Greece to Seychelles for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.23 million.
Swaziland: For 2007, imports from Swaziland were of the order of USD 0.193 million. Development
assistance of Greece to Swaziland for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.04 million.
Furthermore, Greece assisted financially the work of UNICEF Swaziland for the support of children
orphaned due to HIV/AIDS.
Sudan: Greece has assisted mainly by supporting the work of several Greek NGOs active in the
area, especially during periods of drought, floods, conflicts etc. Development assistance of Greece to
Sudan for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 6.45 million.
Djibouti: Exports to Djibouti include plastic products while imports include mainly leather. There is
a limited number of Greek companies active in Djibouti. Latest available information suggest that,
for the first half of 2007, imports from Djibouti were of the order of EURO 0.101 million, while
exports were of the order of EURO 0.064 million. Development assistance to Djibouti is focused on
health issues, in collaboration with Greek NGOs, and on food support - through the World Food
Programme - especially in periods of drought (2005). Greece has also provided funds to the World
Food Programme (EURO 130,000 for the period 2005-7) for food support to Djibouti. Development
assistance of Greece to Djibouti for the period 1997-2007 was of the order of USD 0.16 million.
Further cooperation with African countries includes grants provided to students from Africa to study in
Greek Universities and Higher Education Institutions.
Greece is also a host country for immigrants from African countries. As a member of the “Barcelona
Process: Union for the Mediterranean”, Greece has signed the Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit
(Paris, 13 July 2008) which underlines the commitment to facilitate legal movement of individuals and
also stresses that promoting orderly managed legal migration is in the interest of all parties concerned
and that fighting illegal migration and fostering links between migration and development are issues of
common interest which should be addressed through a comprehensive, balanced and integrated
approach. Furthermore, by hosting the third Global Forum on Migration in the fall of 2009, Greece
aims to provide a platform to explore solutions and initiatives for the benefit of all countries and
especially for the immigrants themselves.

Cooperation on environmental issues
Introduction
Africa is a region particularly vulnerable to environmental changes. A fundamental issue related to
environmental changes is currently climate change and its related consequences in terms of water
scarcity, land degradation and desertification. The capacity of Africa to deal with the consequences of
environmental changes is to a large extent limited. Within a globalised world, international cooperation
should put emphasis in assisting African countries to meet their special needs and emerging global
challenges, particularly within the context of achieving the MDGs.
Collaboration with Africa is of increased importance in relation to the issues of climate change and
water. Especially regarding climate change, it is necessary for the developed states to provide
sufficient support to Africa in order to prevent further damage, which can lead to human and
environmental crises with far reaching consequences. Africa is expected to be substantially affected by
climate change, but its own ability to adapt to climate change consequences is insufficient. It is
imperative that appropriate tools for Africa’s adaptation to climate change are set up and put into
operation.
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Chapter IV: Africa
Mediterranean sea: linking Greece with North Africa
Greece is linked to the North African region through the Mediterranean sea. Due to this link, a longstanding collaboration exists between Greece and the North African countries on environmental and
sustainable development issues, both bilaterally and through multilateral processes, such as the
Barcelona Convention and the Mediterranean Action Plan of the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP/MAP), the Mediterranean Commission for Sustainable Development (MCSD) and
the “Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean”.
In the Mediterranean region, the consequences of climate change are forecasted to be particularly
severe, increasing the already existing water stress in most parts of the region, including North Africa,
and affecting negatively the biodiversity. Phenomena such as recurrent and persistent droughts, high
variability in precipitation, serious decrease of soil moisture, river flow decrease, extreme weather
events, desertification, etc. are expected to increase significantly in the region and will impact on
freshwater availability in terms of quantity and quality. Other serious effects of warming in the
Mediterranean could be sea level rise resulting inter alia in land erosion and salt water intrusion in
coastal areas, thus in the loss of inhabitable and arable land as well as serious alterations of natural
habitats and damages in important ecosystems.
Water resources being already scarce throughout the whole region, in combination with increased
water demand due to demographic pressure and urbanisation, tourism and development needs in
general, climate change is likely to lead to further environmental degradation jeopardising directly or
indirectly social cohesion, well being and quality of life as well as food and overall security in the
immediate future.
Climate change and water challenges in Africa
In Africa, vulnerability over water and climate change is very high. Climate change impacts on water
are projected to intensify challenges that populations are already facing in overcoming poverty and
ensuring their livelihoods and development. The situation is expected to increase competition over
water resources for agriculture, domestic use, tourism, etc. and to aggravate health issues, thus likely
to exacerbate migrations and creating important risks of conflicts over water in the region and
outside.
The consequences of climate change that especially North Africa is likely to suffer are: more and more
severe droughts, significant reductions (of the order of 50%) in run-off and stream flow and less soil
moisture, due to decreases in rainfall and higher temperatures leading to higher evaporation, aridity
and desertification. More specifically, in the Maghreb, non-irrigated, small-scale farms the
modernisation of which is not fast enough to feed growing populations dominate agriculture. Thus,
increasingly frequent droughts in North Africa may force governments to import more food, placing
their economies under severe strain unless global warming is checked. North Africa is particularly
exposed to water shortages.
In relation to water issues, it is also expected that the already massive extraction of “fossil” water
from non-renewable aquifers (notably the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer and the North Sahara Aquifer)
will continue giving rise to a wide series of secondary problems. Furthermore, according to four
models of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), groundwater recharge will decrease
dramatically – by more than 70 percent – between now and 2050 along the southern rim of the
Mediterranean. Algeria and Tunisia are also vulnerable to natural hazards such as floods and, together
with Morocco, could also be partly affected by sea level rise.
Specific sectors of cooperation
(a) Cooperation at the international level
i. UN System
Greece is a member to several international organisations through which engages in cooperation and
mutual support with African countries in promoting environmental protection and sustainable
development. In the UN system, such organisations mainly include the UN Commission on Sustainable
Development, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
UNDP cooperates with a wide range of partners in order to achieve the MDGs. A significant percentage
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Chapter IV: Africa
of UNDP’s core – budget is given in African Programmes. Until 2006, Greece contributed yearly to the
core budget of UNDP the amount of EURO 293,470. In 2007, the Greek Ministry of Economy and
Finance (http://www.mnec.gr) has expressed Greece’s commitment to raise its yearly contribution up
to EURO 350,000.
UNEP assists governments to respond adequately to national and regional environmental problems
and co-ordinates United Nations environmental priority setting and activities in the regions. Africa is a
special priority for UNEP. Until 2005, Greece contributed yearly to the core budget of UNEP the
amount of EURO 175,000. In 2006 and 2007, the yearly contribution of Greece was raised up to EURO
200,000 and in 2008 up to EURO 250,000.
ii. Human Security Network
Greece, having the chairmanship of the Human Security Network during the period 2007-2008, has
chosen to focus its activities on the human security implications of climate change with emphasis on
its impact on the vulnerable population groups of children, women and persons fleeing their homes
due to climate change as well as to the adaptation opportunities. A main consideration of the Hellenic
Chairmanship of the Human Security Network was that adaptation programs to climate change in
developing countries will greatly contribute to limiting the threats against human security, while
increasing the chances for achieving the MDGs. Emphasis in European development assistance should
therefore be given to addressing climate change impacts on vulnerable regions. In this respect,
Greece has already started setting, in cooperation with international and regional organisations,
special trust funds for adaptation programs to climate change in Africa and Small Island States. More
related information is provided in a following section dedicated to bilateral cooperation.
iii. EU-Africa cooperation
Greece, as a Member State of the EU actively participates in the EU-Africa cooperation. In the
framework of implementing the Cairo Declaration as a follow-up of the 2000 EU-Africa Conference,
Greece (through the Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works /
YPEHODE- http://www.minenv.gr) and Finland (through the Ministry of Environment) undertook the
role of “Chef de file” for the subject “Environmental protection, including drought and desertification”.
In this framework, YPEHODE developed four documents that were used as a basis for the bilateral
discussions between EU and Africa on this issue.
iv. Global Environment Facility (GEF):
GEF is an independent financial mechanism, which provides developing countries with grants for
programs aiming at the improvement of the environment globally and promotes sustainability to local
communities. The vast majority of GEF’s projects concern African countries. GEF’s programs deal with
6 complicate environmental subjects: Biodiversity, Climate Change, International Waters, Land
Degradation, Ozone Depletion and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Greece participates to the
GEF’s budget since its First Replenishment. For the Fourth Replenishment, Greek contribution for the
time period 2007-2010 amounts up to EURO 5.73 millions. Contributions to GEF are voluntary and the
Greek contribution is paid in four equal yearly instalments.
v. EU - Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund
Greece participates as a Donor country in the EU–Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund with the amount of
EURO 1 million. The purpose of the Fund is to co-finance infrastructural projects in the sector of
transportation, energy, water and information technology. Criteria for assessing the environmental
impact of the eligible projects are not only included in the selection criteria, but are also integrated
into the main feasibility studies. Financing mainly aims to secure the viability of the projects from the
environmental aspect. For example, in the energy sector this principle is translated into financing
hydropower factories that are expensive (vis-à-vis coal factories) but environmentally cleaner.
(b) Cooperation at the regional level - Mediterranean region
i. Barcelona Convention and UNEP/MAP
Greece has assigned especially high priority to the 1976 Barcelona Convention concerning the
Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution and its implementing programme. The
Mediterranean Action Plan of UNEP, the first-ever plan adopted as a Regional Seas Programme under
UNEP's umbrella, involves 21 countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea (as well as the EU), including
the five North African Mediterranean Countries. Seven Protocols addressing specific aspects of
Mediterranean environmental conservation complete the legal framework of the Barcelona Convention.
Through MAP, the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols are joining efforts
to meet the challenges of protecting the marine and coastal environment while boosting regional and
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Chapter IV: Africa
national plans to achieve sustainable development. Greece is very active within the UNEP/MAP Barcelona Convention system, especially as UNEP/MAP Coordination Unit is based in Athens since
1981. Greece contributes yearly to the UNEP/MAP Coordinating Unit the amount of USD 400,000 and
to the UNEP Trust Fund for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea the amount of EURO 155,653.
ii. Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development (MCSD)
The MCSD, created in 1996 by the Contracting Parties of the Barcelona Convention, is made up of 46
members. The UNEP/MAP Coordination Unit, based in Athens, ensures the role of MCSD Secretariat
and coordinates the different working groups on a permanent basis. In addition to the
recommendations presented to the Contracting Parties on specific Mediterranean challenges (e.g.
energy and climate change; information and communication; integrated coastal zone management;
management of water demand, marine pollution; sustainable development indicators; sustainable
tourism; trade agreements; urban development; etc) the MCSD has provided major inputs to the
formulation of the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD) and spearheads its
implementation at the country level. Greece is actively involved in the work of the MCSD and the
development and implementation of the MSSD.
iii. EU Water Initiative – Mediterranean Component
Since the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD, 2002), the Greek Government
(YPEHODE and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs - http://www.mfa.gr, with the support of a Secretariat
undertaken by “Global Water Partnership-Mediterranean”) has the responsibility of leading the
Mediterranean Component of the EU’s Initiative ‘Water for Life’ (MED EUWI). MED EUWI seeks to
make significant progress in poverty eradication and health, in the enhancement of livelihoods, and in
sustainable economic development in the Mediterranean, providing a catalyst for peace and security in
the region. In terms of funding, the MED EUWI has managed to coordinate individual donors (bilateral
ODA, World Bank, GEF, Development Banks etc) on a demand basis as well as to mobilise
considerable additional funding, e.g. from the Commission of the European Union (CEU) that has
provided approximately EURO 1.07 million, for 2006-2008, in support of MED EUWI activities. These
funds complement MED EUWI’s annual core funding provided by the Greek Government.
In the framework of the MED EUWI Country Dialogues are organised in selected Mediterranean
countries, involving water stakeholders which include government authorities and agencies, local
authorities, water users associations, civil society, academia, the private sector as well as international
and national donors. More specifically:
- Egypt: Activities of the running Phase I (until April 2009) support the preparation of the new 30year Egyptian National Master Plan for Water and Wastewater and the Rural Sanitation Strategy
(that is under development), within the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) framework
of the Egyptian National Water Resources Plan 2017. Activities include (i) an affordability
assessment component, that develops financing scenarios that are socially and politically acceptable
and (ii) a financing strategy component that offers different financing scenarios for discussion
among stakeholders. Activities in Egypt are led by the Egyptian Holding Company for Water and
Wastewater, following an agreement between the Ministers of Housing and of Water Resources and
Irrigation. The Dialogue’s activities are implemented in close cooperation and under the technical
coordination of OECD with the MED EUWI Secretariat. Related assessments and scenaria have been
elaborated in 2008 and a set of public, multilateral and bilateral consultation events and meetings
with the participation of authorities, stakeholders and donors were organized. A foreseen Phase II of
the Dialogue (2009-2010/11) would be based on the results of Phase I. Overall, Phase II will aim to
assist with: (i) building consensus in further identifying financially realistic water supply and
sanitation and IWRM targets and the policies that will support their achievement, (ii) strengthening
the co-ordination of activities taken by different parties involved in the water sector in Egypt, and
(iii) further identifying governance and capacity development needs. For Phase II, core resources for
dialogue activities have been secured through the Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the GEF
Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean. Resources for consultants’ work are under negotiation
with donors at the country level. The EUWI Thematic Budget may also contribute to activities, if so
decided.
- Libya: Targeted consultation activities on water governance in Libya were launched in 2007.
Activities undertaken facilitated the establishment of an IWRM process in the country, through a
structured approach with the collaboration of key national and regional institutions. An agreement
with the Libyan General Water Authority and the African Water Facility on the implementation of
elements of the Libyan Water Strategy is under discussion while additional technical activities are
explored within the MED EUWI framework after request of the General Water Authority. Actions also
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contribute to the linked Rabat Declaration on IWRM Planning in North Africa (a sub-regional process
launched in 2006 together with the UNEP Collaborating Centre on Water and Environment and the
African Development Bank). Envisaged follow-up activities would aim to assist key stakeholders in
Libya to develop a common understanding on critical IWRM planning issues with an emphasis on
institutional settings. Financial support is discussed with the African Water Facility. The EUWI
Thematic Budget (in case Libya is eligible and if so decided) and donors may contribute to activities.
- Morocco: Morocco has also requested the organisation of a country dialogue. More Country Dialogues
are currently implemented in the Middle East, i.e. with Lebanon, Palestine and Syria.
On the Regional level, Greece as a leading country of MED EUWI, contributed actively to the
preparations and organisation of the Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on Water (22
December 2008, Dead Sea). More specific contributions of the MED EUWI include:
- Preparation of the Theme Paper on Water Governance in the Mediterranean, with contributions by
Greece, Palestine and Lebanon.
- Preparation of the Theme Paper on Water and Climate Change Adaptation, with contributions by
Spain, Morocco and Greece.
- Organisation of the Conference of the Euro-Mediterranean and Southeastern European Water
Directors, July 08, Athens, to review the background Theme Papers of the Ministerial Conference.
- Assistance to the preparation of the Civil Society Forum in preparation of the Euro-Mediterranean
Ministerial Conference (Dead Sea, 21 December 2008).
- Preparation of the Regional Assessment on Water Supply, Sanitation and Health in the
Mediterranean, prepared by World Health Organisation (WHO) with several contributions by other
Agencies including from UNEP/MAP.
- Preparation of Mediterranean Country Assessments on IWRM.
iv. “Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean”
Within the framework of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (“Barcelona Process”), launched in 1995,
Greece has been active and remains engaged in cooperation with Mediterranean partners on several
environmental issues including on marine pollution control for the Mediterranean Sea. In 2005,
“Horizon 2020” was launched, with Greece and the other partners agreeing to co-operate to de-pollute
the Mediterranean by 2020, drawing on core EU funding to support the venture. The “Union for the
Mediterranean” launched in July 2008, builds on the “Barcelona Process”, extends co-operation
between the EU countries and Mediterranean countries and includes the de-pollution of the
Mediterranean as one of its 6 priority action projects. In this context, Greece has submitted a project
proposal officially incorporated in the context of the “Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean”,
aiming to support a “Multistakeholder Cooperation for the promotion of Sustainable Development in
the Mediterranean with emphasis on water” with the intention to effectively support the elaboration of
a new “Mediterranean Strategy on Water”.
(c) Cooperation at the bilateral level
In 1999, YPEHODE began a Bilateral Development Assistance Programme within the framework of the
overall national programme. It was built on priorities and obligations associated with OECD DAC, UN
institutions, the Rio Conventions of Biodiversity, Climate Change and Desertification, and Greece's
bilateral environmental Memoranda of Understanding with neighbouring countries. YPEHODE’s efforts
focused on capacity building, and promoted the principles of demand-driven projects and local
ownership. Thematic priorities included water and natural resources management, wastewater and
solid waste management, climate change, and establishment of transboundary networks and
monitoring mechanisms.
The targets set at the WSSD, as described in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPoI),
together with the MDGs, set an integrated and detailed framework for the promotion of important
issues related to the environment and sustainable development regarding the bilateral cooperation of
Greece with Mediterranean countries of North Africa as well as with other African countries. Greece,
through YPEHODE, financed the initial phase of four Type II Initiative Partnerships, which were
launched during WSSD and involved NGOs and other stakeholders as implementation actors. These
four Type II Initiative Partnerships are:
i. The “Euro-Mediterranean Water and Poverty Facility”
This initiative involves cooperation between Mediterranean countries, mainly Greece and Egypt, with
Global Water Partnership-Mediterranean acting as implementation actor and EURO 50,000
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Chapter IV: Africa
financing from YPEHODE.
ii.
“Mediterranean Education Initiative for Environment and Sustainability with Emphasis on Water
and Waste (MEDIES - http://www.medies.net)”
This initiative involves cooperation between Mediterranean countries with the Mediterranean
Information Office (ΜΙΟ-ECSDE) acting as implementation actor and EURO 50,000 financing from
YPEHODE. This action is being effectively promoted in Mediterranean countries and has been
included as a sub-programme in the framework of the National Strategy for Education on
Sustainable Development of Greece, which is implemented through the Hellenic Ministry of
National Education and Religious Affairs (http://www.ypepth.gr).
iii. “Initiative on the assessment of climate change impacts in African developing countries”
This initiative involves cooperation with Egypt during the first stage of the initiative and with
Ghana and Senegal during the second stage of the initiative, with the National Observatory of
Athens acting as an implementation actor and EURO 125,000 financing from YPEHODE.
iv. “Sustainable Water Management in the Balkan and Southeast Mediterranean area”
This initiative involves cooperation with countries of North Africa/Mediterranean, with the Region
of Crete acting as an implementation actor and EURO 60,000 financing from YPEHODE.
Greece is currently further intensifying its efforts regarding ODA focusing at climate change
adaptation. For example, Greece is currently financing programmes for adaptation to climate change
in Least Developed Countries and in regions that, due to their geographical location, are under severe
danger from climate change which mainly include Africa and Small Island States. In order to ensure
the best possible utilisation of funds and distribution to programmes according to the most significant
needs of the threatened regions, the Hellenic development assistance plan is implemented in
coordination with regional organisations of the areas under consideration, such as the African Union
(EURO 3 million in 2007, EURO 1 million in 2008) and AOSIS (EURO 1 million in 2007).
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