FEATUREARTICLES
The Global Problem
of Poaching
South Africa’s Rhinos &
the Asian Market
by
33 | Harvard Science Review
Caitlin Andrews
The whir of helicopter blades and the rumble of chainsaws
are not the sounds one imagines when one thinks of a South
African savanna. Yet, all too frequently in the South Africa—
and other African countries—of today, these are the sounds
which define the landscape. If the country’s distinctive
baobabs or forest trees were the target, then it would be tragic
enough, but these are the sounds of rhino poaching.
Though South Africa saw a decline in poaching through
the 1990s, poaching has been steadily rising over the past
decade, contributing to the $20 billion worldwide industry
that is the illegal wildlife trade (1). With 668 rhinos killed in
2012—up 50% from 2011—most rhino species are now critically endangered, as individuals are left maimed and most
often fatally injured when their horns are poached for sale on
the black market (2). All the while, the South African government’s attempts to save one of the most iconic species in the
world are largely foundering as they are overwhelmed by the
sheer numbers of poachings. The problem is now beyond a
mere national concern; it is a global issue linking biodiversity
and public policy. The driving force behind it all is a growing
economy halfway around the world in China and lingering
beliefs in the healing powers of rhino horns in traditional
Asian medicine (1).
Traditional Asian Medicine –
The Demand for Rhino Horns
Rhino horns are made of keratin—a structural protein so
ubiquitous that it is found in human hair, fingernails, and
skin (3). Yet, a single kilogram of rhino horn can sell for
$50,000—about the same price as a kilogram of gold (1). At
the root of this conundrum is a repeated pattern of unsupported—and, in some cases, disproven—hypotheses. Along
with other ingredients derived from exotic animals from
tigers to bears, rhino horns have been an accepted ingredient
in Asian medicine for over 2,000 years, purported to relieve
everything from fever to hemorrhage and from infection to
gout (1, 4). In China, these beliefs stem from the earliest
texts on herbal medicine and have been passed through the
millennia (1). However, with advances in modern technol-
ogy, scientists have been able to more accurately test these
hypotheses in controlled laboratory settings. The conflicting
data that has resulted from these studies has only lent itself to
one conclusion—that the medicinal worth of horns is, at best,
inconclusive (4, 5).
One might think that as Southeast Asian countries have
become more economically developed, they might have
adopted a more “Western” view—which, for all intents and
purposes, would reject the use of primitive ingredients derived from exotic animals. In part, this appears to be the case.
China banned the sale of rhino products in 1993, and the
government has made an active effort to punish those caught
smuggling rhino products across the border. Additionally,
Chinese officials have worked to promote the use of cheaper,
more effective alternatives to rhino horn and other medicines
derived from exotic animals (1).
These efforts to curtail a market in China for rhino products have been largely superficial. Despite seizures of these
products at the border, China has done little to combat the
trade within the country (1). Furthermore, as the Chinese
economy continues to grow, increased affluence means
that more people are able to afford expensive treatments,
and instead of turning toward the alternatives that modern
medicine have brought them, many are opting for the more
expensive—and illegal—traditional medicines. To complicate
matters further, in 2009, a Vietnamese official was reported
to have been cured of liver cancer by a treatment including rhino horn powder. Though official representatives of
traditional Asian medicine now deny these claims—and there
is no previous evidence of a connection between rhino horns
and cancer treatment—this rumor has only acted to further
stimulate the demand for rhino horns (3, 6).
South Africa’s Poaching
Problems and Efforts
Home to over 75% of Africa’s approximately 25,000
rhinos, South Africa is a region which continues to struggle
with the poaching problem despite its efforts to change (8,
9). Since 2006, 95% of all rhino deaths have occurred in
Image from Wikimedia Commons.
Harvard Science Review | 34
FEATUREARTICLES
Zimbabwe and South Africa; of those, the majority have been
shot by poachers on foot or in helicopters while others have been
trapped in snares or attacked with chainsaws destined for illegal
export to Asia (9, 1).
Just as China has enacted legislation aimed at their end of the
trade, South Africa has also taken legal steps to protect its rhino
population. In 2008, the “Threatened or Protected Species regulations” were enacted requiring individuals wishing to hunt rhinos
or harvest their horns to purchase a permit. However, there have
been very few successful prosecutions, and these laws have not
been consistently enforced across the provinces (9). Additionally, the recovery of rhino horns by officials has decreased from
68% in 2001 to less than 8% in 2009, all while poaching rates
have increased—suggesting that South Africa’s law enforcement is
becoming overwhelmed by the problem (9)
Meanwhile, the problem is being approached from other
angles. The National Biodiversity Investigators Forum was established in 2009 to specifically focus on the investigation of rhino
crimes, and there has been increased investment in conservation
efforts, sanctuary development, and snare removal (9). Scientists
have also investigated and begun to implement more unconventional measures. The Rhino Rescue Project is one such organization looking to deter poachers by making rhino horns less
appealing. In their current research, they are exploring the possibility of treating rhino horns with ectoparasiticides—pesticides
aimed at parasites such as ticks; since ectoparasiticides are toxic—
but not lethal in small quantities—to humans, ingestion of horns
from treated rhinos will result in severe side effects. By marking
treated horns with a dye, the researchers not only provide a way
of warning poachers that these horns are toxic and should be left
alone but also allow airport security to detect dyed horns, as the
dye can be detected with X-ray scanners (10).
While scientists and legislators work to find new solutions to
the poaching problems, some find that, at present, there is little
hope of prevention. Some organizations have begun inserting
microchips into rhino horns and taking DNA samples from rhinos so that the rhino horns that do inevitably make it to the black
market can be traced back to the source (11). Perhaps the most
desperate of measures, others have decided that dehorning rhinos before poachers can get to them is the only hope of peaceful lives for the animals. Horns may be important for attracting
mates and fending off predators, but rhinos are able to survive
35 | Harvard Science Review
without them. However, because the horns do regrow, dehorning
is a costly measure and must be repeated every one to two years
to be most effective. Additionally, the sad truth is that, in the end,
even this may not protect rhinos as poachers may still go after the
small stub of a horn that is left after dehorning (12).
A Grim Future
While the noble efforts of scientists and organizations may be
helping in certain cases, there has been no reversal of the upward trend of rhino poaching. South African efforts continue to
struggle to keep up with the increased poachings, and in some
places violence has erupted between people (11).
When one looks at the strength of the demand for horns in
China, it is clear that the battle to end poaching is going to be
long and difficult. In addition to importing rhino horns, China
has also been importing live rhinos from South Africa—121
rhinos from 2006 to 2009 alone. Although officials initially
denied accusations that there were any plans to farm rhinos for
their horns, TIME Magazine exposed an entirely different story
in 2011. The same Chinese officials who had defended China
against accusations only a year earlier have since changed their
stories, now denying that they had ever said that rhino farming
was not in China’s plans (6). The consequence is that it is now
easier than ever for the Chinese to poach rhino horns, directly
from the source and within their own borders. And although
farming rhino horns does not necessitate permanent harm to the
animals, the lives of these rhinos will be far from natural, and it
is unlikely that farming will make a dent in the illegal importation
of rhino products from abroad (11, 13).
There is also a theory circulating that China may be
stockpiling rhino horns in anticipation of the extinction of the
animal. Referred to by some as “investing in extinction,” this
theory is based on the idea that hunting a species toward or to
extinction decreases supply and increases demand, driving up
prices and making the market more economically beneficial.
Although this theory has not been proven in the case of rhinos,
there is evidence that Chinese tiger farms have acted similarly
with tigers (8). And if the same is true for rhinos, then the future
for the animal has never looked grimmer.
Spotlight on Success: West Bengal, India
The poaching problem is not unique to South Africa—or even
the African continent. Asian rhinos have also been the targets
of poaching, and alternative strategies have been used in different countries to try to eliminate poaching. West Bengal, India
once struggled with rampant poaching as well but has seen an
entirely different trajectory of change. Since 1990, rhino populations have been on the rise. Through increased government
investment in staffing protected areas, poaching levels have fallen
dramatically.
However, money is not the only ingredient in successful
conservation, and West Bengal has learned and acted upon
this alternative approach. Many locals living in villages around
national parks live in poverty, which may lead some to collaborate with poachers. The government has worked to improve its
relations with villagers and has also trained many local to work
in eco-tourism—another positive influence in the anti-poaching
movement, as the constant presence of visitors and others deters
poachers and makes it more difficult for them to act without
being seen. Through rhino awareness programs, the government
has also worked to educate locals about the importance of protecting rhinos; not only do rhinos help the economy by attracting
tourists, but they are also an important part of the ecosystem and
a representative of the great biodiversity that must be conserved
within India (14).
A Worthwhile Cause
By following the examples of those countries that have had
success—such as India—South Africa and other nations struggling with the poaching problem can hopefully come to a turning
point at which they begin to have success of their own. South Africa must continue to enforce and expand its anti-poaching laws,
all while continuing to protect living rhinos and prevent rhino
horns from being smuggled out of the country. Investment in
anti-poaching efforts must be universal and exhaustive in order
to bring poaching to an end and help rhino populations recover.
However, the other side of the trade must not be forgotten
and is perhaps even more important to address. If the deeplyingrained cultural beliefs of traditional Asian medicine are not
changed, then demand is unlikely to come down. In this case,
education is the key to success and perhaps the only hope for
changing minds and teaching people that there are more effective and humane technologies available for treating illnesses than
using rhino horns. In order to eliminate motivation for poach-
ers, demand must first decrease, which can only be achieved by
getting to the root of the problem in traditional Asian medicine
beliefs.
At the start of the 20th century, there were 500,000 rhinos
worldwide. Today, there are fewer than 30,000 (12). If South
Africa, China, and other nations do not carry out the necessary
measures of public policy needed to save the rhino species,
then extinction will be nearly—if not certainly—inevitable. Losing
rhinos would not only represent a tremendous failure in conservation policy, but it would also signify an irreparable blow to
biodiversity worldwide. As one of Africa’s most iconic species,
rhinos are vital members of an ecosystem that is already fragile
and vulnerable. Without them, the African landscape would be
forever changed and scarred by the reminder that our shortcomings led to their demise.
Caitlin Andrews is a freshman in Grays.
References
1. D. Graham-Rowe, Biodiversity: Endangered and In Demand, Nature (2011).
2. M. McGrath, "Rhino Poaching in South Africa Reaches Record Levels", BBC News (10
Jan. 2013).
3. P. Viscardi, "The Horns of a Dilemma", NatSCA News 22 (2012): 8-13.
4. H. P. Laburn, D. Mitchell, Extracts of rhinoceros horn are not antipyretic in rabbits,
Journal of Basic & Clinical Physiology & Pharmacology 8.1-2 (1997), pp. 1-11.
5. P. P. But, Y. Tam, L. Lun, Ethnopharmacology of Rhinoceros Horn, Journal of Ethnopharmaculogy 33 (1991): pp. 45-50.
6. H. Beech, "Killing Fields: Africa's Rhinos Under Threat”, TIME (13 June 2011).
8. African Rhino Programme. (World Wildlife Fund South Africa, 2013).
9. T. Milliken, R. Emslie, B. Talukdar, African and Asian Rhinoceroses – Status, Conservation and Trade, IUCN Species Survival Commission (2009).
10. About the Project. (Rhino Rescue Project, 2013) <http://www.rhinorescueproject.
com/>.
11. M. Frank, J. Hopper, "Spike in Rhino Poaching Threatens Survival of Species", NBC
News (21 Feb. 2012).
12. Rhino Info. (Save the Rhino) <http://www.savetherhino.org>.
13. R. Dewsbury, "Farming rhinos and legalising sale of their horns worth more than
gold 'will save them from extinction', claims farmer”, DailyMail.co.uk. (30 Aug. 2012).
14. E. Martin, L. Vigne, Successful rhino conservation continues in West Bengal, India,
Pachyderm 51 (2012): pp. 27-37.
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