SHELL LPG STUDY
LPG as energy carrier and fuel
English summary
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WHAT IS LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS?
SHELL LPG STUDY
Shell Deutschland, Hamburg
Dr. Jörg Adolf (project lead); Dr. Christoph Balzer; Dipl.-Ing. Arndt Joedicke; Dipl.-Ing. Uwe Schabla
Prognos AG, Basel
fka mbH, Aachen
Dipl.-Physiker Samuel Straßburg
Dr. Bruno Gnörich; Dipl.-Ing. Markus Thoennes
OWI, Aachen
Dip.-Soz. Michael Ehring; Winfried Koch, M.Sc.; Dr. Klaus Lucka
In the past few years, Shell has produced a number of scenario studies (see below). Some have
examined the passenger car and goods vehicle sectors as energy consumers, plus domestic
heating of private households (Shell/BDH 2013; Shell 2014). Other Shell studies have analysed
the present situation and prospects for certain energy sources and fuels, especially biofuels and
natural gas (Shell 2012; Shell 2013).
One energy source which has hitherto received little attention is Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
It is used in nearly all sectors of consumption, for a wide variety of applications – as a source
of energy, but also as a base material for other products. In the more recent past, use and consumption of LPG have increased steadily. At the same time, global supply and thus availability
of LPG are improving as well.
The Shell LPG study therefore deals with the current state of LPG use and LPG application technologies. It also considers the question of what potential and perspectives exist for LPG,
especially as an energy source. Apart from non-automotive applications, the focus is on the use
of LPG in road transport, especially as an automotive fuel in passenger cars.
The term Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
comprises mainly the two gases propane and
butane, and mixtures of the two, because
of their properties and characteristics. Both
gases exist in the liquid state under relatively
low pressure, of less than 9 bar, at room
temperature. That is why they are also known
as liquefied petroleum gases. Liquefaction
reduces the volume of LP gases by a factor of
approximately 250 (Hempel 2007).
Propane and butane are both short-chain
saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes). Propane
is a molecule with three carbon and eight
hydrogen atoms (C3H8). Butane consists of
four carbon and ten hydrogen atoms and has
two isomers, normal butane and isobutane;
n-butane and isobutane share the same
chemical formula (C4H10), but display different
spatial arrangements of their atoms and
also have different properties, for example
a boiling point at –0.5°C for n-butane vs.
–12.8°C for isobutane. Due to their material
and combustion properties, both liquefied
petroleum gases suit many possible applications. When being used as a fuel in vehicles
with an internal combustion engine, LPG is
also called autogas.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) should not be
confused with Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
or Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), both
of which consist mainly of the natural gas
methane (CH4). LNG is stored as a cryogenic
liquid cooled at –161°C; CNG is kept under
high pressure of at least 200 bar (Shell 2013).
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS
PROPANE C3H8
BOILING POINT –42.1 ºC
n-BUTANE C4H10
BOILING POINT –0.5 ºC
iso-BUTANE C4H10
BOILING POINT –12,8 ºC
VOLUME REDUCTION THROUGH
LIQUEFACTION
Volume in gaseous state
PROPANE
266:1
BUTANE
228:1
Volume of both gases in liquid state
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5
Top 5 LPG Producer
A fundamental feature of liquefied petroleum
gases is that they are not main products,
but mostly occur as by-products or joint
products in combination with other hydrocarbons (gases or liquids). They accrue from
crude oil and natural gas extraction and from
processing of the crude oil into petroleum
products in refineries. Worldwide, around
60 % of LPG derive from crude oil and natural
gas extraction and around 40 % from refinery
production. Whereas refining dominates in
Western Europe, gas processing is the main
source of LPG in North America and in the
Middle East.
Gases occurring in crude oil extraction are
also known as Associated Petroleum Gas
(APG). In natural gas production, liquid
hydrocarbon components are often extracted
together with the natural gas. These components are known as Natural Gas Liquids
(NGLs). Liquefied petroleum gases are
obtainable both from APGs and NGLs. NGLs
are increasingly important in global oil and
gas supply. They currently represent 15 % of
global crude oil and 20 % of global natural
gas production (IEA 2010; IEA 2014b).
The other main source of LPG is crude oil
processing. Using temperature and pressure,
oil refineries convert crude oil into useful oil
products. LPG is one of the lightest petroleum
products (light distillate), boiling off at low
temperatures. Its share in the range of oil
products depends on the type of the refinery;
on average LPG accounts for 2.5 to 3 % of
refinery output (FE 2014). In principle, LPG
is also obtainable from biomass, though
biogenic LPG has hitherto played no role on
the market.
The largest producer of liquefied petroleum gases is by far the USA, at around 60
million tonnes per year. In the USA, substantial
quantities of LPG are released in the extraction
of unconventional natural gases. The USA
are followed by the oil and gas producers of
the Middle East (Saudi Arabia, United Arab
EUROPEAN REFINING OUTPUT
STRUCTURE 2013, IN %
Refinery Gas 3.4
TOP-5 LPG PRODUCER, mln t
Naphtha 5.7
Petrol 19.2
Kerosene 6.8
USA 52.8
SAR 24.7
CHI 27.6
CHI 24.6
SAR 17.6
RUS 14.2
JAP 16.9
UAE 12.2
IND 16.3
Emirates), China and Russia. The largest consumers of LPG are the USA, China and Saudi
Arabia, and other mainly Asian countries such
as Japan, India, Thailand and South Korea
(WLPGA/Argus 2014).
JAP 16.9
LPG
STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
IND 16.3
WLPGA/Argus 2014
Diesel 39.0
Fuel Oil 13.0
Other Prod. 10.4
Top 5 LPG
Consumer
TOP-5
LPG
CONSUMER, mln t
USA 59.4
Nearly half the world’s supply of LPG is consumed by the domestic sector, in heating and
cooking.
Another major customer for liquefied
Top 5 LPG Consumer
petroleum gases is the petrochemical industry.
ByUSA
contrast,
52.8 the transport sector accounts for
only about one-tenth of world LPG consumpCHI 27.6
tion. Main centres for LPG applications to
SAR 17.6 are Asia and Europe.
transport
LPG 2.5
FuelsEurope 2014
LPG: ORIGIN AND MARKETS
Liquefied petroleum gases do not occur in
pure form, neither in oil and gas production
nor in refineries. They generally contain other
hydrocarbons, accompanying substances and
also impurities. Therefore, as for other products,
there are standards and technical rules which
set requirements for LPG and how to handle it.
The International Standardisation Organisation
(ISO) has developed two standards for LPG:
ISO 8216 contains a classification of petroleum
fuels including light distillates (Part 3), whereas
ISO 9162 specifies required characteristics
WLPGA/Argus 2014
and additional information of commercial
propane and commercial butane. ISO LPG
standards are mainly meant for international
trade and not specifically for product use. The
American standard for Liquefied Petroleum
Gases ASTM D1835 covers liquefied
petroleum gases that are intended for use as
domestic, commercial and industrial heating,
and engine fuels (IEA/AMF 2008).
There are no global standards for gaseous
fuels, only for liquid ones (WFCC 2013).
However, there is a European LPG automotive
fuel standard: ‘EN 589: Automotive fuels –
LPG – Requirements and test methods’.
For non-automotive applications, only national
product standards have hitherto been valid.
Moreover, when liquefied petroleum gases
are used in public gas networks, certain quality
requirements for combustible gases must be
fulfilled.
Product standards directly determine the composition of liquefied petroleum gases. One
way they do this is by prescribing maximum
and minimum proportions of individual components, in particular respective shares of propane and butane as well as the shares of the
alkenes propene (C3H6) and butene (C4H8).
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NON-AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS
Liquefied petroleum gases are used in nearly
all sectors of consumption, in almost all
regions of the world, for a wide variety of
applications. A distinction should be made
between energy and non-energy (material)
applications.
Apart from road transport, LPG is used as an
energy source in cooking, domestic heating, hot
water supply and heat generation for work processes. Flexibility of energy supply often plays a
key role. As LPG is easy to store and carry, it
can be deployed even at locations unconnected
to public energy networks. LPG is therefore also
known as a ‘mobile energy source’.
In industrialised countries, LPG plays only a
subordinate role in heating and hot water
for private households, while it is used for
cooking primarily in the leisure sector. The
situation is the opposite in many emerging and
developing economies, where LPG offers an
alternative to traditional biomass and open
fireplaces. In these countries, LPG is widely
viewed as a transition fuel pending a more
sustainable energy future (IEA 2006;
World Bank 2011; UN 2015).
For non-energy purposes, liquefied petroleum gases are used as coolants with low
greenhouse and ozone depletion potential,
in refrigerators and air conditioning systems.
Liquefied under pressure, propane and butane
are also used as propellants in spray and
aerosol cans.
Finally, as an alternative to or substitute for
naphtha, ethane and others, LPG can be
used as a feedstock in the production of
intermediate petrochemicals, such as ethylene
and propylene. Intermediate petrochemicals
such as olefins and aromatic hydrocarbons
are used to produce all kinds of plastic and
other materials. Today (2013), petrochemical
industry uses approximately 1.3 million barrels
of LPG per day i.e. 60 million tonnes of LPG
per year. As world demand for petroTotal
chemicals is growing,
rising demand for
9.7 mb/d
LPG can be expected from the petro-
chemical industry (IEA 2013; IEA 2014b).
LPG IN TRANSPORT
After technical modifications, it is possible to
Naphtha
mb/dpropellant
= 51%
use LPG (autogas)
as a 4.94
fuel and
in
1.26 mb/d
= 13% engines
combustion driveLPG
systems
(combustion
Ethane 2.71
= 28%for use in
and turbines). However,
itsmb/d
suitability
Other
0.78
mb/d
=
8% Though
individual means of transport varies.
GLOBAL DEMAND FOR PETROCHEMICAL FEEDSTOCK 2013
Naphtha 51%
4.9 mb/d
LPG 13%
1.3 mb/d
Total
9.7 mb/d
Ethane 28%
2.7 mb/d
Other 8%
0.8 mb/d
IEA 2014b
the application of LPG to rail transport and
shipping is technically feasible, it has been
used little (if at all) in practice. By far the most
important application of LPG as a transport
fuel are road transport vehicles with internal
combustion engines.
LPG vehicles offered in Europe are technically
bi-fuel capable, i.e. they normally run on LPG,
but can also be fuelled with petrol from a
smaller fuel tank. LPG systems for passenger
cars, ex-works or as retrofits, are available
in various technical configurations. So far,
LPG systems have used LPG port injection in
gaseous or sometimes liquid phase. More
recently, LPG direct injection in liquid phase
has entered the market; these systems use the
existing petrol injectors also for LPG. Today’s
LPG vehicles comply with the Euro 5 exhaust
emission standard, and some even with Euro 6.
There are estimated to be 16.7 million vehicles
driven by LPG worldwide. Most LPG vehicles
run in Europe and Asia. The main autogas
fleets in the European region can be found in
Turkey, Russia, Poland and Italy, while in Asia
LPG vehicles are most numerous in South
Korea, India and Thailand. In many of these
countries, LPG cars are the most important
alternative drivetrain, second to petrol and
diesel cars, and ahead of e-mobility. In Turkey,
the LPG consumption for road transport is even
higher than the petrol consumption (IEA 2014a).
For heavy lorries, dual fuel systems based on
diesel drivetrains have been developed. Dual
fuel vehicles replace some of the diesel fuel
with an air/LPG mixture. However, so far, they
have been almost unknown in road haulage
(trans aktuell 2013).
LPG vehicles are typically passenger cars.
Apart from passenger cars, LPG is only used in
significant volume in light commercial vehicles
using powertrains similar to passenger cars.
The LPG systems applied to passenger cars
are all based on spark ignition engines. All
In emerging and developing economies, LPG
vehicles are used for passenger and goods
transport in the form of three-wheelers
such as motor rickshaws and tuk-tuks (ICCT
2012). LPG is also of some importance as a
LARGEST LPG FLEETS BY COUNTRY 2013
mln
4.0
TUR
RUS
3.0
2.0
PL
KOR
IND
IT
THA
1.0
USA
DE
AUS
WLPGA/Argus 2014
The standards also specify certain characteristics such as density, vapour pressure or volatility.
The aim is to assist trade in the product and
facilitate the safe, technically reliable and
environmentally friendly handling of LPG.
4400
33
480
5
57
However, there are some fuel-specific
differences: The octane number of LPG is
higher than for petrol, which can result in
efficiency benefits at high engine loads. On the
other hand, the additional LPG components
(especially the LPG fuel tank) add weight to
the vehicle which can lead to increased fuel
consumption. Overall, the specific energy
consumption of similar cars per kilometer
(megajoule per km) is roughly the same.
However, because LPG has a lower volumetric
energy density, about 25 % more LPG fuel is
used, in litres per 100 km, than petrol.
440
5520
1850
1711
9
205
6750
725
2750
1185
12
207
1750
40
96
75
3250
330
1205
324
700
2970
280
574
LPG FILLING POINTS IN EUROPE
590
10,089
WLPGA /Argus 2014, mylpg.eu 2015
low-emission fuel for industrial lift trucks
(fork-lift trucks).
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF
AUTOGAS
In many European states, the LPG infrastructure
is well developed, in particular in Central and
Eastern Europe. A total of around 25,000 to
30,000 filling points exists in wider Europe.
For a long time, LPG was thought to have
positive effects on the environmental impact
of road traffic. To some extent, this view is
still held. The environmental impacts of LPG
fuelled passenger cars are largely determined
by their energy consumption and emissions of
greenhouse gases and air pollutants.
In countries with larger LPG vehicle fleets,
the number of LPG vehicles per LPG filling
point ranges from about one hundred to
several hundred vehicles per LPG filling point.
However, there are some countries, where
LPG filling stations are few and far between,
e.g. in Scandinavia, Austria or Switzerland.
As engines for LPG vehicles are based on
spark ignition engines, there is little difference
in engine efficiency between LPG and petrol
powertrains (DLR 2013; JEC 2014a).
Diesel vehicles are up to 20 % more efficient
than cars with spark-ignition engine. Only dual
fuel lorries based on the diesel principle can
approximate to the efficiency of a diesel lorry.
With regard to greenhouse gas emissions,
a distinction must be made between direct
emissions (Tank-to-Wheels) from fuel
combustion, and upstream emissions from
the production of the fuel (Well-to-Tank) (JEC
2014b; JEC 2014c).
In terms of direct greenhouse gas emissions,
LPG generates about 10 % less CO2 per
unit of energy (1 megajoule, MJ) than
pure fossil petrol (E0) or diesel fuel (B0),
due to its lower carbon content. Even when
compared with petrol containing 10 % bioethanol (E10) or diesel with 7 % biodiesel (B7),
fossil LPG shows lower direct greenhouse gas
emissions per 1 megajoule (see graph above,
biofuel advantage from biomass capturing CO2
while growing allocated to direct greenhouse
gas emissions).
TANK-TO-WHEELS GREENHOUSE
GAS EMISSIONS OF FUELS
CO2 emissions per 1MJ
Petrol E0 = 100
120
Biofuel advantage
100
80
60
40
20
Petrol
E5
Petrol
E10
Diesel
B7
LPG
JEC 2014c
8
A state of the art compact passenger car
fuelled by petrol directly emits around
120 g CO2/km vs. 105 g CO2/km for an
LPG vehicle, as shown in the figure on the
next page. An LPG vehicle offers similar
CO2 advantages in relation to mileage as
in relation to energy content, because petrol
and LPG vehicles operate nearly equally
efficient. However, LPG vehicles offer no
greenhouse gas advantages over diesel cars,
as the diesel engine is much more efficient and
thus over-compensates the greenhouse gas
advantage of the LPG fuel.
Around 15 to 20 % of total or Well-to-Wheels
greenhouse gas emissions originate from the
Well-to-Tank part. As there is little difference
in the Well-to-Tank emissions of LPG vs. fossil
petrol and diesel fuel, LPG cars retain their
advantage over petrol fuelled vehicles – 125
vs. 140 g CO2/km. LPG vehicles emit even less
60
40
10
11
20
0
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS OF COMPACT VEHICLES BY DRIVETRAIN
ECONOMICS OF AN LPG VEHICLE RETROFIT
g CO2eq/km
Operating costs in €
LIQUEFIED
PETROLEUM GAS
140
PURE FOSSIL
FUELS
FOSSIL FUELS WITH
BIOFUEL SHARE
JEC 2014b, 2014c;
based on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)
120
100
80
60
20,000
Tank-to-Wheels
Well-to-Tank
40
20
0
LPG
Petrol
greenhouse gas per kilometre than a petrol
vehicle operated with E10. In total, an LPG
vehicle still emits slightly more greenhouse gas
per km than a more efficient diesel vehicle
(100 g CO2/km).
With regard to local air quality, burning
LPG (without exhaust cleaning technology)
in principle generates fewer air pollutants
than liquid fuels. In addition, stricter exhaust
emission standards have been implemented.
Exhaust gas cleaning systems for vehicles have
become much more advanced and diesel and
petrol fuels have been reformulated to burn
cleaner.
Hence LPG vehicles in road transport offer
hardly any advantages in terms of air pollutant
emissions when compared to new state of the
art petrol and diesel cars. Only the particulate
emissions are significantly lower for LPG than
for liquid fuels if no particulate trap is applied.
Diesel
Petrol E5
Petrol E10
Diesel B7
In summary, regarding energy and the environment, LPG vehicles offer two advantages:
LPG vehicles may help to diversify the energy
mix in road transport and LPG will reduce
greenhouse gas emissions of road transport,
if LPG vehicles replace petrol cars.
OPERATING COST OF AUTOGAS
VEHICLES
An important criterion, though not the only
one, for retrofitting a petrol car or buying a
new car powered by LPG is an economic
advantage over similar reference vehicles. The
cost-effectiveness of LPG vehicles depends on
the added costs of LPG engineering, on engine
efficiency, fuel prices, and vehicle mileage
(Wietschel et al. 2013, ADAC 2015).
A total cost of ownership analysis can help to
calculate the economic advantage of a vehicle
engine type. However, often a simplified
ownership or operating cost comparison
15,000
Petrol
10,000
LPG
5,000
Amortisation LPG vs. Petrol
0
Total mileage, kms
–5,000
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
allows an approximation. It compares only the
most important cost items. One is the one-off
LPG retrofit cost, or the cost differential of a
new LPG car vs. a reference vehicle. The other
are running costs, consisting largely of fuel
cost per kilometre.
A suitable vehicle to use as a reference is a
C-segment or compact car like the VW Golf,
which is the most common class in many
European countries. Its base version’s price is
around 20,000 Euro. A compact car uses 5 litre
of diesel, 6.3 litre of petrol and nearly 8 litre of
LPG per 100 km under real driving conditions.
A retrofit of a petrol car to LPG costs between
2,000 and 2,500 € nowadays. With LPG retail
prices at 0.75 € and petrol prices at 1.55 € per
litre, the retrofitting costs are written off after just
under a total of 60,000 km on the road; here
LPG and petrol vehicle operating cost curves
(including retrofit expenses) intersect each
other and the amortisation curve crosses the
100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000 180,000 200,000
x-axis. Depending on the LPG vehicle’s annual
mileage, amortisation times range from three to
seven years.
At present, a new LPG compact car also
requires an extra outlay of around 2,000
to 2,500 € compared to a similar petrol
vehicle. A diesel car costs roughly the same
as an LPG car. With fuel prices for LPG and
petrol at 0.75 and 1.55 € per litre, the higher
procurement costs of an LPG in comparison to
a petrol car are again written off at a total of
around 55,000 to 60,000 km driven.
Compared with a new diesel car, for a roughly
similar procurement price and a diesel fuel
price at 1.40 € per litre, LPG offers a slight
energy cost advantage per kilometre. Despite
the diesel engine’s greater efficiency, it is not
competitive under these energy cost structures
from the beginning.
The economic viability of LPG in road transport
depends on the fuel price level and the
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relative fuel prices. With lower petrol and
diesel prices, running an LPG vehicle becomes
less attractive and vice versa. A further key
factor for the economic attractiveness of LPG is
the national energy tax on transport fuels;
throughout Europe, there is a wide range of
energy tax rates on road transport fuels. Often
governments grant energy tax relief for LPG as
a fuel. Mostly, some economic incentive such
as an LPG tax rebate remains necessary to
sustain a critical mass of LPG vehicles and LPG
fuelling infrastructure (WLPGA 2014).
AUTOGAS SCENARIOS
(FOR GERMANY)
After a sharp upturn in the past decade, the
German LPG passenger car fleet has grown
from approximately 20,000 units in 2005
to 500,000 vehicles today. With a share of
1.1 % in the German passenger car fleet of
more than 44 million, LPG vehicles are the
most important alternative drivetrain to petrol
and diesel cars. In fact, Germany owns one
of Europe’s largest LPG fleets. However, the
number of licensed LPG cars in Germany has
recently recorded a slight decline.
95 % of German LPG car registrations are
private. Most are converted petrol vehicles. In
the frequency distribution according to vehicle
age, cars of ‘middle age’ predominate the
LPG fleet. With an average age of just under
ten years, the LPG vehicle fleet is therefore
rather older than the fleet of cars as a whole
(approximately nine years on average).
With a cohort model of passenger cars and
scenario technique, future development paths
for LPG vehicles in the German car fleet and
possible repercussions on the sustainability of
car transport in Germany, measured in terms
of energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions, can be explored. Based on the trend
scenario for auto-mobility in Germany of the
26th Shell Passenger Car Study (Shell 2014),
two mini-scenarios were considered up to
2030: a Pro LPG and a Contra LPG Scenario.
In the Pro LPG Scenario, supported by an
LPG-favourable economic and fiscal environment, it is possible to double the stock of LPG
cars to over a million vehicles by 2030, in
particular through increasing the number of
LPG vehicles entering the LPG fleet to more
than 100,000 per year. By 2030, LPG would
replace 40 petajoules or 1.3 billion litres of
petrol equivalent of petrol and diesel. Annual
Well-to-Wheels greenhouse gas emissions
would be reduced by around 250,000 tonnes.
In the Contra LPG Scenario, the economic
situation for LPG worsens significantly. This
brings LPG retrofits and new registrations down
to almost zero by 2020. As a result, the stock
of LPG vehicles would be almost halved, to just
250,000 by 2030. Largely due to the high age
of the vehicles and correspondingly lower LPG
mileage, the savings of greenhouse gas from
LPG vehicles compared with petrol and diesel
cars would be reduced substantially.
Thus, LPG vehicles can contribute to the diversification of fuel supplies and to the reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions of passenger
car transport. Nevertheless, to achieve a
substantial impact, the stock of LPG cars would
have to grow considerably, even beyond the
Pro LPG Scenario.
LPG VEHICLES: RETROFITS, NEW REGISTRATIONS AND FLEET
NEW REGISTRATIONS & RETROFITS
FLEET
mln vehicles 1.2
120 thsd vehicles
Data 2014: KBA 2015
100
1.0
80
0.8
60
0.6
40
0.4
20
0.2
0.0
0
2014
2030
Pro LPG
2030
Contra LPG
2014
2030
Pro LPG
2030
Contra LPG
LPG: FUEL SUBSTITUTION AND GREENHOUSE GAS SAVINGS
LPG SUBSTITUTION OF DIESEL PETROL
CO2-REDUCTION: WtT TtW WtW
50 petajoule (PJ)
thsd t CO2 100
40
50
30
0
20
–50
10
–100
0
–150
–10
–200
–20
–30
–250
2014
2030
Pro LPG
2030
Contra LPG
2014
2030
Pro LPG
2030
Contra LPG
14
15
LITERATURE
ADAC 2015: ADAC Fahrzeugtechnik, Autokosten –
Berechnungsgrundlagen für die standardisierte
Kostenberechnung, München 2015.
DLR 2013: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
(DLR), Institut für Verkehrsforschung, CNG und LPG –
Potenziale dieser Energieträger auf dem Weg zu einer
nachhaltigeren Energieversorgung des Straßenverkehrs,
Berlin u.a.O. 2013.
SUMMARY AND
CONCLUSIONS
Shell 2012: After Super E10 – What role for biofuels?,
Hamburg 2012.
Hempel 2007: Peter Hempel, Flüssiggas. Mobiler, umweltschonender Energieträger für Haushalt, Freizeit und Gewerbe, München 2007.
Shell 2013: Natural Gas – A bridging technology for
future mobility?, Hamburg 2013.
ICCT 2012: International Council on Clean Transportation
(ICCT), A Technical Assessment of Emissions and Fuel
Consumption Reduction Potential from Two and Three
Wheelers in India, Washington 2012.
IEA 2006: International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy
Outlook 2006, Paris 2006.
IEA 2010: International Energy Agency (IEA), Natural Gas
Liquids. Supply Outlook 2008-2015, Paris 2010.
IEA 2013: International Energy Agency (IEA), World
Energy Outlook 2013, Paris 2013.
LPG is used for non-energy or material purposes: as a propellant or coolant, or as a feedstock
in the petrochemical industry. LPG often offers technical, ecological or economic advantages
over alternative substances.
IEA/AMF 2008: International Energy Agency/Advanced
Motor Fuel Implementing Agreement (IEA/AMF), Outlook on standardization of Alternative Vehicle Fuels.
Global, regional and national level. Annex XXVIII. Sub
task Report, Stockholm 2008; http://www.iea-amf.org/
content/fuel_information/lpg.
In road transport, LPG cars are the most prevalent alternative type of drivetrain second only to
petrol- and diesel-engined vehicles in many countries. Most of the LPG vehicles are retrofitted
petrol vehicles. New LPG vehicles represent the latest state of the automotive art.
LPG can help to diversify the energy mix of road transport and reduce its greenhouse gas
emissions. In leading LPG mobility markets, LPG cars offer an economic advantage over
petrol-powered vehicles.
Shell 2010: Shell Lkw-Studie. Fakten, Trends und
Perspektiven im Straßengüterverkehr bis 2030,
Hamburg 2010.
FE 2014: Fuels Europe (FE), Statistical Report 2014, Brussels 2014.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) belongs to the family of hydrocarbons and consists mainly of the
two gases propane and butane, which are easy to liquefy. Liquefied petroleum gases occur in
crude oil and natural gas extraction and are produced in refineries during crude oil processing.
LPG has versatile applications in all sectors of consumption and is used in nearly every area of
daily life today.
As an energy source, LPG has flexible applications and offers emission advantages over liquid
and solid energy sources. In many emerging and developing economies, LPG is a transition fuel
on the way to a more sustainable energy future.
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Published 2015 by Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH
22284 Hamburg
The full edition of the Shell LPG Study is
available in German language.
Please send an e-mail to: [email protected]