Sun Symbolism
and Cosmology
in Michelangelo’s
“Last Judgment”
Habent sua fata libelli
SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS & STUDIES SERIES
General Editor
RAYMOND A. MENTZER
Montana State University—Bozeman
EDITORIAL BOARD OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS & STUDIES
ELAINE BEILIN
Framingham State College
MARY B. MCKINLEY
University of Virginia
MIRIAM USHER CHRISMAN
University of Massachusetts—Amherst
HELEN NADER
University of Arizona
BARBARA B. DIEFENDORF
Boston University
CHARLES G. NAUERT
University of Missiouri, Colmubia
PAULA FINDLEN
Stanford University
THEODORE K. RABB
Princeton University
SCOTT H. HENDRIX
Princeton Theological Seminary
MAX REINHART
University of Georgia
JANE CAMPBELL HUTCHISON
University of Wisconsin—Madison
JOHN D. ROTH
Goshen College
CHRISTIANE JOOST-GAUGIER
University of New Mexico
ROBERT V. SCHNUCKER
Truman State University, emeritus
ROBERT M. KINGDON
University of Wisconsin, Emeritus
NICHOLAS TERPSTRA
University of Toronto
ROGER MANNING
Cleveland State University
MERRY WIESNER-HANKS
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Copyright © 2000
Truman State University Press, Kirksville, MO 63501
www2.truman.edu/tsup
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Shrimplin, Valerie
Sun-symbolism and cosmology in Michelangelo’s Last Judgment / by Valerie
Shrimplin.
p.
cm. — (Sixteenth century essays & studies ; v. 46)
Based on the author’s thesis (doctoral—University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, 1991).
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-943549-65-5 (Alk. paper)
1. Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475–1564. Last Judgment. 2. Michelangelo
Buonarroti, 1475–1564 Themes, motives. 3. Cosmology in art. 4. Symbolism
in art. 5. Judgment Day in art. I. Title. II. Series.
ND623.B9 A69 2000
759.5—dc 21
98-006646
CIP
Cover: Teresa Wheeler, Truman State University designer
Composition: BookComp, Inc.
Printing: Sheridan Books
Body text: Berkeley
Display type: Morticia
No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any format by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording or by an information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
⬁ The paper in this publication meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of the
䡬
American National Standard—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI
Z39.48 (1984).
Photo Credits
Figs. 1, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,
62, 63, 112, 113, 114, 124. Monumenti e
Gallerie Pontificie, Città del Vaticano.
Fig. 70, RIBA.
Fig. 2, Houghton Library, Harvard University.
Figs. 87, 89, British Museum.
Figs. 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31,
33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46,
47, 48, 63, 66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 81, 83, 87,
107, 112, 117, 118. Alinari/Art Resource,
New York.
Fig. 89, Royal Library, Windsor Castle,
reproduced by permission of Her Majesty
the Queen.
Fig. 6, Bayerisches National Museum.
Fig. 7, Prado, Madrid.
Figs. 14, 15, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
Figs. 16, 65, 78, 95, Biblioteque Nationale de
France.
Fig. 82, Staatliche Graphische Sammlung,
Munich.
Fig. 91, Barry Moser/University of California
Press.
Fig. 97, Biblioteca Trivulziana/Foto Saporetti
Milan.
Figs. 98, 103, 104, 105, 107, Bildarchiv
Preussischer Kulturbesitz Berlin.
Fig. 17, Herzong Library, Wolfenbuttel.
Fig. 99, Biblioteca nationale Florence/Donato
Pineider, Florence.
Figs. 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 68, Giraudon, Paris.
Figs. 101, 102, 106, 108, British Library.
Fig. 25, Katy Shrimplin.
Fig. 117, Kunshistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Figs. 27, 81, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fig. 41, Pinacoteca, Bologna.
Fig. 116, Courtesy of Museum of the Jagiellonian
University, Kracow. Photo by Janusz
Kozina, 1992.
Figs, 42, 69, 84, 118, Bayer, Staatgemaldesammelugen, Munich.
Figs. 119, 120, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,
Munich.
Fig. 46, Chapin Library, Williams College, Mass.
Fig. 125, Huntington Library, San Marino,
California.
Fig. 50, Doucet, S.P.A.D.E.M.
Figs. 51, 52, 126, 127, Valerie Shrimplin.
Contents
Illustrations ix
Preface xiii
1
2
Introduction
1
Theology, Cosmology, and Christian Iconography
Cosmology and Religion 11
Cosmology and Christian Iconography
Cosmology and the Last Judgment 18
The Meaning of the Last Judgment 24
3
Iconography of the Last Judgment
13
39
Origins and Early Examples 39
The Last Judgment in Northern Europe 47
The Last Judgment in the Italian Renaissance
Influence of Changes in Cosmology 70
4
Michelangelo’s Last Judgment
Religious Sources
55
79
The Commission of the Last Judgment
Formal Analysis 80
Previous Interpretations 96
Twentieth-Century Criticism 104
Current State of Research 111
5
11
79
129
Christian Light Symbolism 129
Michelangelo and Catholic Revival of Early Christian Ideas
Michelangelo and Early Christian Iconography 138
Continuation of the Sun-Christ Tradition 147
6
Literary Sources
169
Italian Renaissance Literature
169
134
The Divina Commedia of Dante Alighieri 170
Visual Images 171
Dante’s Cosmology 173
Sun-Symbolism and Cosmology in Dante 178
Michelangelo and Vittoria Colonna 195
7
Philosophical Sources
211
Florentine Neoplatonism 211
Michelangelo and Neoplatonism 213
Neoplatonic Themes 215
Ficino’s Cosmology 219
Michelangelo’s Hell and Plato’s Cave 228
Other Philosophical Sources; the Hermetic Writings.
Christian Neoplatonism 237
8
Scientific Sources
232
251
The Importance of Copernicus 251
Tolnay, Copernicus, and Michelangelo 252
The Waning of Medieval Cosmology 253
Renaissance Predecessor of Copernicus 255
Neoplatonic Influences on Copernicus 256
Copernicus and His Writings 258
Copernicus in Art 260
Reaction of the Church 263
Clement VII and the Vatican Lecture 266
Paul III and the Heresy Question 270
9
The Central Point
287
Art Historical Method 287
The Centralized Format Around Christ 288
Fresco Construction—Formal and Iconological
The Symbolism of Revelation 19:16 298
10
New Hypotheses
290
307
Art Historical Interpretation
Hypothesis or Truth? 310
A Valid Framework 311
307
Appendix 1 Selected Versions of the Last Judgment 321
Appendix 2 Important Dates 325
Appendix 3 Letter of Nicholas Schönberg 327
Appendix 4 Copernicus’ Preface to De Revolutionibus 328
Bibliography 331
Index 361
Illustrations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Michelangelo, Last Judgment
Copernicus, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Houghton Library, Harvard
University
Sistine Chapel, interior, looking toward the altar
Sistine Chapel, reconstruction of its fifteenth-century appearance
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna
Resurrection of Christ, fifth century
Zanobbi Strozzi (or Fra Angelico), Annunciation
Andrea Verrochio, Baptism of Christ
Unknown Sicilian-Byzantine artist, God Creating the Universe
Christ Enthroned on the Sphere of the Universe
Theophany
Joshua Stopping the Sun
Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography
Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography
Cosmas Indicopleustes, Last Judgment
Sacra Parallela
Last Judgment, 1194
Last Judgment, 1110
Last Judgment, 1072–87
Last Judgment, twelfth century
Last Judgment, twelfth century
Last Judgment, 1130–1140
Last Judgment, c. 1140
Last Judgment, 1135–1140
Last Judgment, 1163–1250
Last Judgment, 1230–1265
Jan van Eyck, Last Judgment
Rogier van der Weyden, Last Judgment
Giovanni Pisano, Last Judgment
2
3
4
14
15
16
17
17
18
19
19
20
41
42
42
44
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
50
51
51
54
54
56
ix
[
x
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
]
Illustrations
Last Judgment, before 1246
Lorenzo Maitani, Last Judgment
Pietro Cavallini, Last Judgment
Coppo di Marcovaldo (attributed), Last Judgment
Detail of fig. 33, Christ in Judgment
Cimabue, Last Judgment
Giotto, Last Judgment
Nardo di Cione, Paradise
Nardo di Cione, Hell
Andrea Orcagna, Last Judgment
Francesco Traini, Last Judgment
Unknown Bolognese artist, Last Judgment
Master of the Bambino Vispo or Gherardo Starnina, Last Judgment
Fra Angelico, Last Judgment
Fra Angelico (otherwise attributed to Zanobi Strozzi), Last Judgment
Fra Bartolommeo, Last Judgment
Illustration to Savonarola, Predica dell’arte del ben morire
Luca Signorelli, Resurrection of the Dead
Luca Signorelli, The Damned
Michelangelo, Sketch for the Composition of the Last Judgment
Michelangelo, Study for the Last Judgment
Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with circles)
Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with diagonal rays)
Detail, inner circle of figures, Christ the Judge and the Virgin, with Saint John the
Baptist, Saint Peter, with other apostles, saints, and the saved
Detail, Christ
Detail, Saint John the Baptist
Detail, Saint Peter
Detail, Saints Lawrence and Bartholomew
Detail, outer circle of figures
Detail, the left lunette (showing the cross)
Detail, the right lunette (showing the column)
Detail, group of trumpeting angels
Detail, group of rising figures
Detail, group of falling figures
Marcello Venusti, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo
Martinus Rota, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo
Jacopo Pontormo, study for Christ in Glory
Giorgio Vasari, Last Judgment
Jacopo Tintoretto, Paradiso
Peter Paul Rubens, Last Judgment
Detail from a plan of the Vatican
The Good Shepherd, detail
Christ in Majesty
57
58
58
59
60
60
61
64
64
65
65
66
66
67
68
68
70
71
71
82
83
84
86
87
88
89
90
90
92
93
93
94
94
95
98
99
100
101
101
102
132
140
141
Illustrations
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
[ xi ]
The Raising of Lazarus
Christ as the Sun-God
Abraham and Three Celestial Visitors
Unknown Syrian artist, Crucifixion
Christ enthroned as Master of the Universe, detail from the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
Christ in Majesty
The Creation and Fall of Man, Pantheon Bible
Christ the Saviour, thirteenth century
Albrecht Dürer, Sol Iustitiae or The Judge
Albrecht Dürer, St John devouring the Book
Andrea del Castagno, Resurrection
Sandro Botticelli, Lamentation
Sandro Botticelli, Transfiguration
Domenico Ghirlandaio, Trigram and Solar Symbol
Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ
Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ
Michelangelo, Crucifixion (for Vittoria Colonna)
Domenico di Francesco (called Michelino), Dante and his Poem
Modern Diagram of Dante’s system of the Universe, drawn by Barry Moser
Modern Diagram of Dante’s system of the Universe (Provenzal)
Diagram of the Cosmos
Dante Confronts the Three Beasts in the Dark Wood
Bartolommeo di Fruosino, Topography of Hell
Charon ferries Dante, Virgil and Some Souls across Acheron, illustration to Inferno III
Minos, illustration to Inferno V
Sandro Botticelli, Lucifer, illustration to Inferno XXXIC
Topography of Hell, schematic diagram of Dante’s Inferno and Purgatorio
Dante before Beatrice, who points to the Stars and the Sun, illustration to Purgatorio
XXXIII, North Italian, 1456
Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover beside the Heaven of the Sun, illustration to
Paradiso X
Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover beside a circle of stars surrounding Christ,
illustration to Paradiso X
Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXIII
Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXIV
Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXVI
Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover before Christ within the Heaven of the
Primum Mobile
Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXVII, detail
Giovanni di Paolo, Heaven of the Primum Mobile, with God in the Centre
Pietro Buonaccorsi, Diagram of Paradiso, from Il cammino di Dante, Florentine
Domenico Ghirlandaio, Ficino, Landino and Poliziano. Fresco, detail from Scenes in the
Life of John the Baptist
Raphael, School of Athens
142
144
144
145
146
148
149
150
151
151
152
153
153
154
155
156
156
172
174
175
177
180
181
182
182
183
184
185
186
188
188
189
189
191
192
193
194
212
218
[ xii ]
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
Illustrations
Detail, rear of nude figure in the Cave
Detail, figures emerging from the Cave
Detail, altar of the Sistine Chapel, in front of the Cave
Unknown Sienese master, Hermes Trismegistus
Anonymous, Portrait of Nicholas Copernicus
Giorgione, Three Philosophers
Albrecht Altdorer, The Battle of Alexandeer
Codex Graecus Monacensis 151, title page showing inscription
Codex Graecus Monacensis 151, detail
Domenico Ghirlandaio, The Confirmation of the Rule of Saint Francis
Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper
Raphael, Disputa (Disputation over the Sacrament)
Michelangelo’s Last Judgment, detail of Christ’s thigh
Gregor Reisch, Margarita Philosophica, detail, The Human Body and Signs of the Zodiac
Florence Palazzo della signoria
Photographic study of sun and cloud effects
230
230
231
235
261
261
262
267
268
293
294
295
297
299
301
313
Preface
Michelangelo has imitated those great philosophers
who hid the greatest mysteries of human and divine
philosophy under a veil of poetry that they might not
be understood by the vulgar.
Pietro Aretino on Michelangelo’s Last Judgment
Contemporary comment by Pietro Aretino on Michelangelo’s fresco of
the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel indicates an awareness of hidden
symbolic meaning in the fresco soon after its completion and unveiling
in 1541. Explanation of the “most profound allegorical meanings,
understood by few” and the identification and importance of biblical and
literary sources which Michelangelo might have used for the Last Judgment
continue to provoke discussion as further attention is focused on the fresco
since its cleaning and restoration in the early 1990s. The question remains
as to whether the hidden symbolism of the fresco and the meaning of its
thematic deviations from the norms of Last Judgment iconography might
ever be fathomed by anyone except the artist—and especially at a distance
of more than four hundred fifty years.
Problems of art historical interpretation are concerned with the
innate meaning of a work in the context of its time and place of creation.
Difficulties arise as the attempt is made to determine the intention of the
artist and the possible underlying meaning in the work by an elaborate
reconstruction of the sources and influences which had contemporary
significance and which might have contributed to the formation of his
thinking. No single source of religious, philosophical, or cultural influence
may be argued for Michelangelo’s Sistine Last Judgment, but the attempt can
be made to consider the broad spectrum of the complex prevailing theories
and ideas of his age which contributed to the multilayered intention of the
fresco’s final program.
xiii
[ xiv ]
Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”
An interdisciplinary approach to the art historical problem of
Michelangelo’s Last Judgment can shed new light on the work in question
and increase our understanding of the artist himself. Meaning derives
from the historical or intellectual context from which a work emanates.
However, as Erwin Panofsky, Ernst H. Gombrich, and others have pointed
out, it is important to remain wary of reading too much into a work or of
forcing it into a predetermined scheme. The writer should always consider
the extent to which the interpretation is in keeping with the known
personality and tendencies of the master, and also remain aware of the
difference between what may be regarded as hypothesis and what may be
regarded as truth. On the other hand, is unwise to accept unquestioningly
traditional interpretations of famous works and simply reiterate the
usual platitudes.
After examining the background to Last Judgment iconography
in general and the existing interpretations of Michelangelo’s fresco in
particular, consideration is given to the sources—religious, literary, and
philosophical, for instance—which likely contributed to the final program
of the work. A major problem with this approach (which is broadly
concerned with the history of ideas as much as the history of art itself) is
that each section or chapter of this book easily could be developed into
a separate volume. As the discussion ventures into other disciplines, the
attempt is made to be as thorough as possible within the constraints of
a single work in order to demonstrate the ubiquity of the concepts and
motifs being examined. The main viewpoint remains that of an art historian
rather than theologian, historian, philosopher, or still less a scientist; but
an interdisciplinary, sixteenth-century outlook has been assumed as far as
this is possible.
This work is based on my doctoral thesis (University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, 1991) which was supervised by Professor Elizabeth Rankin,
whose helpful criticism and suggestions are gratefully acknowledged. I am
also particularly indebted to a number of anonymous readers and referees
who provided valuable comment and suggestions as the work progressed,
and to those who helped see the work through to publication, particularly
Professor Charles G. Nauert and Professor Robert V. Schnucker. Assistance
received from libraries, museums, and art galleries in Rome, Florence,
London, Cambridge, Munich, and Bayonne as well as in Pretoria and
Johannesburg is also acknowledged. I am particularly grateful to the
Vatican authorities for cooperation in providing illustrations for the work
and for enabling me to visit the Sistine Chapel and view the restorations
from the scaffolding in March 1989 (before the submission of my thesis)
and again in July 1993, when the Last Judgment was undergoing cleaning
and restoration. I should also like to acknowledge discussion of my
ideas held with the late Dr. Fabrizio Mancinelli as the fresco underwent
Preface
[ xv ]
the cleaning and restoration process. Financial assistance in the form
of research grants from the University of the Witwatersrand, the South
African Human Sciences Research Council, the University of Luton, and the
Dr. M. Aylwin Cotton Foundation all helped to make this work possible.
Special thanks are due to Dr. E. A. Evangelidis and to my children, Anna
and Aleko.
Chapter 1
Introduction
In the midst of all assuredly dwells the Sun. For in this
most beautiful temple who would place this luminary
in any other or better position from which he can
illuminate the whole at once? Indeed, some rightly
call Him the Light of the World, others, the Mind or
the Ruler of the Universe: Hermes Trismegistus names
him the visible God, Sophocles’ Electra calls him the
all-seeing. So indeed the Sun remains, as if in his
kingly dominion, governing the family of Heavenly
bodies which circles around him.
—Nicholas Copernicus
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium1
L
ines that seem to be descriptive of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment (fig. 1)2
were in fact written by Nicholas Copernicus in his revolutionary
heliocentric cosmology, published in 1543 (see diagram, fig. 2). The
idea that Michelangelo’s equally revolutionary design for the traditional
scheme of the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel (fig. 3) was an
expression of the Copernican theory of the sun-centered universe was first
considered by Charles de Tolnay as early as 1940.3 Commenting on the
fresco’s remarkable deviation from the usual Last Judgment iconography
and composition,4 Tolnay’s interpretation here concentrated upon his
argument that Christ is unusually depicted in Michelangelo’s fresco in the
form of the pagan sun god Apollo, in the center of a circular composition.
He is situated as if “in the center of a solar system . . . in the unlimited
space of the universe.”5
In the final paragraph of his paper, Tolnay suggests that the cosmic
scheme seems to form an analogy with Copernicus’ theory of heliocentricity
in which the sun, rather than the earth, was situated in the center of the
universe. It seemed to Tolnay that Michelangelo, in placing Christ in
1
[
1
2
]
Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”
Michelangelo, Last Judgment (1536–41). Fresco (13.7
x 12.2 m), Sistine Chapel, Vatican City Rome. This and
all other details of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment (figs.
51–63, 112–13, and 124) have been reproduced from
photographic material supplied by Monumenti e Gallerie
Pontificie, Città del Vaticano.
Introduction
[
3
]
2
Copernicus, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium,
book 1, chapter 10, in its
printed form. Houghton
Library, Harvard University
the form of a Sun-Apollo in the center of a “macrocosmic” view of
the universe, had arrived in his own way at a vision of the universe
which “curiously corresponded” to that of Copernicus. According to
Tolnay, both Michelangelo and Copernicus had taken up the heliocentric
hypothesis formulated in antiquity. Tolnay wrote that Michelangelo, by
his representation of unlimited space in the fresco, was anticipating the
concept of the infinite universe as formulated later in the sixteenth century
by men like Giordano Bruno.6
Subsequently, in 19607 Tolnay developed the theme he had raised in
this early paper. He again drew attention to his concept of the depiction of
Christ in the form of a sun symbol and commented further on what he had
[
4
]
Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”
3 Sistine Chapel, interior,
looking towards the altar.
Vatican, Rome.
viewed as a curious correspondence between Michelangelo’s vision and
that of Copernicus. Tolnay expanded his hypothesis of the cosmological
depiction of Christ as a sun symbol, but he now explicitly dismissed the
possibility of any direct Copernican influence on Michelangelo on the
grounds that the date of publication of Copernicus’ theory postdated the
creation and completion of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment. In volume 5 of
his definitive work on Michelangelo he wrote:
By means of the central place which Michelangelo reserved in
his composition for the Sun (Christ-Apollo) whose magic power
determines the unity and the movement of his macrocosmos, the
artist came of himself to a vision of the universe which, surprisingly,
corresponds to that of his contemporary Copernicus. Yet he could
not have known Copernicus’ book which was published in 1543—at
least seven years after Michelangelo conceived his fresco.8
In the accompanying notes, he added his conclusion that “Michelangelo’s
Last Judgment is a heliocentric image of the macrocosmos anticipating
Introduction
[
5
]
the Copernican universe” [italics added].9 He also commented that
heliocentrism was “rejected by the official theology of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.”10
Because of the apparent discrepancy Tolnay found between the dating
of Copernicus’ book and Michelangelo’s fresco, he felt forced to dismiss the
idea of direct Copernican influence on Michelangelo and implied only that
Michelangelo “of himself” came to the same conclusions as Copernicus
and independently devised the heliocentric astronomical theory. Tolnay
therefore pursued the specifically Copernican and heliocentric argument
no further, but, unwilling to abandon his cosmological view of the “SunChrist,” he looked elsewhere for explanations and sources and proceeded
to develop an alternative, complex argument for this symbolic depiction
of Christ. Considering the fresco in terms of a cosmological vision,
his perception of the overall composition based on circles and circular
movement around a central Sun-Christ was finally related to ancient astral
myths and legends derived from pagan sources but also linked to certain
medieval concepts.11
Although Tolnay’s study of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment embraced
many other aspects of the work,12 his interpretation of the fresco as a
cosmic view of the Sun-Christ remained his predominant theme. In his
later (1975) summary publication of this extensive five-volume work,13
the major stress in the interpretation of the Last Judgment is still placed
on the circularity of the composition and its cosmological overtones.
Describing the work as “the grandiose vision of a heliocentric universe,”14
he still appeared unwilling to dismiss the heliocentric idea as a force
in the composition of the fresco; but, because of the discrepancy in
dating with Copernicus’ publication, he again reverted to the astral myths
of antiquity to support his cosmological interpretation.15 He gave little
detailed explanation or further references for these ideas, but they are
emphasized and proposed as source material for Michelangelo’s fresco
in the absence, in Tolnay’s opinion, of the possibility of a more direct
contemporary cosmological basis for the work.
Charles de Tolnay has been recognized as “the great scholar whose
work is the foundation of all modern Michelangelo scholarship,”16 and
his interpretation of the Last Judgment has played a major part in the
Michelangelo literature. His discussion of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment,
from 1940 through to 1975, remained fundamentally cosmological, even
though the possibility of any direct and concrete influence of contemporary
sixteenth-century cosmology was discounted. His perception of the fresco
as a cosmic drama and his assessment of the Apollonian Sun-Christ have
continued to receive a great deal of attention and have exerted enormous
influence on subsequent interpretations of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment.
The cosmological interpretation of the fresco is extremely important
since it appears to have affected the majority of art historians since the
Index
Note: Illustrations are indicated by italic numerals.
A
Adoration of the Shepherds (Ghirlandaio),
145
Advent, 131
Agathon, 225
Age of Enlightenment, 13, 32, 103
Agnello, 112, 113, 126n134
Alberti, Leon Battista, 15, 196, 291–92
Alexander of Aphrodisias, 267
Alighieri, Dante. See Dante
All Saints Day, 300
All Saints Eve, 80
Altdofer, Albrecht, 262
Amiens Cathedral, 49, 52
Anabaptists, 30
Anastasis of Christ, 16, 45–46
Angelico, Fra, 67, 67–69, 68, 73
Angels, 43, 52, 56, 74, 91
Angiolieri, Cecco, 229
Annunciation, 16
Apocalypse, 22–23, 29–30, 35n30, 45, 53,
97, 129–30, 148–49
Apollinare Nuovo, 140–41
Apollo
Christ depicted as, 1, 3, 104–5, 108–9,
112, 138–41, 148, 155, 225, 308
compared to Christ, 1, 55, 130, 146,
149–50, 158, 219, 227
as pagan symbol, 106, 145–46
as sun, 227
Apollo Belvedere, 106, 146, 157, 311
Apostles, 40, 56
Aquilino, Saint, 141–42
Aquinas, Saint Thomas. See Thomas
Aquinas
Archangels, 40
Architecture
of churches, 13–15, 34n19, 34n20, 73,
132–33, 213
in Renaissance, 15, 291
Arena Chapel, Padua, 61, 61, 83
Aretino, Pietro, 100–104, 121n51, 259,
272
Ariosto, Ludovico, 196
Aristarchus of Samos, 254–55
Aristotle, 32, 173–78, 202n37, 216, 222–
23, 253–54, 258
Art historical method, 10n32, 287–88,
291–96, 307–12, 314–17
Art history, 62, 105
Ascension, 16
Asclepius, 234
Assyrians, 130
Astral myths, 5, 6, 106, 107, 116
Astrology, 106, 226
Astronomy
and comets, 268
and Copernicus, 238, 252, 259–60, 264,
289, 301, 327, 329
Dante on, 72, 174, 176
heliocentric theory of, 5, 254
medieval, 178
and pagan theories of, 40
scientific discipline of, 6–7, 255, 275n5
and symbolism, 15–16, 57
Augustine of Hippo
and Catholic doctrine, 133, 226
as Church Father, 174, 179, 227
on circularity, 221
concepts of, 12, 24, 132–34, 187, 233,
288, 289
on creation, 208n127
Neoplationism of, 133
on the universe, 178, 187, 197–99
361
[ 362 ]
Index
Augustine of Hippo continued
writings of
City of God, 133
Confessions, 133
Immortality of the Soul, 133
Magnitude of the Soul, 133
Aureole. See Mandorla
Autun Cathedral, 49
B
Bainton, Roland H., 197
Bandini, Baccio, 173
Baptism, 16
Baptista de Cavalieri, Giovanni, 98
Barnes, Bernadine, 114
Bartholomew, Saint, 74, 89, 113
Bartolommeo, Fra, 55, 68, 69, 311
Basilica of the Santi Quattro Coronati, 55,
56
Basilicas, Cathedrals, Chapels, Churches.
See specific names
Bassus, Junius, 145
Battle of Alexander the Great (Altdorfer), 62,
62
Beaulieu, 49
Beck, James, 95, 110
Bede, The Venerable, 40
Bellini, Jacopo, 149–50, 154
Bembo, Pietro, 196
Benciviendi di Pepo. See Cimabue
Benedictine, 47
Beneficio di Cristo (Mantua), 137
Benesch, Otto, 262–63
Berenson, Bernard, 104
Bertoldo di Giovanni, 67
Bertram, Anthony, 109
Bessarion, Basil, 216
Biagetti, Biagio, 107–8
Bible. See also Gospels; New Testament; Old
Testament
books of
Genesis, 11, 12, 27, 40, 219, 298
Exodus, 13
Job, 22
Psalms, 22, 40, 130
Isaiah, 14, 29, 40, 106
Ezekiel, 22, 29, 97, 106, 178
Daniel, 22, 106
Amos, 29
1 Corinthians, 23, 26, 27, 112
Thessalonians, 23, 106
Revelation, 23, 27, 29, 35n38, 106,
287, 298–302, 316–17
and Christianity, 138
and cosmology, 12–13, 16, 20, 28–29,
62, 73, 176, 177, 254–55, 264
and creation, 12
and forgiveness, 20, 28, 70
interpretation of, 11–12
on judgment, 21–22, 62
Newman on, 21–22
and retribution, 20
and sun-symbolism, 133, 147, 154,
157–58, 179, 199
teaching of, 133
Bibloteca Nazionale, Florence, 183
Birth of the Virgin (Ghirlandaio), 292
Black Death, 62–63, 315
Blunt, Anthony, 105, 215, 216
Bober, Phyllis Pray, 145
Boccaccio, Giovanni, 272
Bondone, Giotto di. See Giotto
Borsook, Eve, 292
Bosch, Hieronymus, 53
Botticelli, Sandro
Christ depicted by, 152, 154
as illustrator, 173, 180–83, 187–88, 191,
311
works by
Pietá, 152
Transfiguration, 152, 153, 154
Bourges Cathedral, 49, 51, 52–53
Bouts, Dieric, 53
Boyde, Patrick, 176, 179
Brahe, Tycho, 273
Bramante, Donato, 15, 141
Bratrizet, 98
Bronze Age, 107
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 15, 292
Bruno, Giordano, 3, 233, 236, 273
Buffalmacco, 63
Bull, George, 116
Buonarroti, Michelangelo di Lodovico. See
Michelangelo
Burckhardt, Jacob, 104
Buridan, Jean, 255
Byzantine period
art during, 15, 43, 45–47, 55–57, 140,
143
and Christianity, 21, 63
and cosmology, 40, 70, 72, 74, 216
C
Cabala, 233–34
Caird, George, 298
Calcagnini, Celio, 196, 259
Calvin, John, 25–26, 36n51, 163n61
Camesasca, Ettore, 110
Campanella, Tommaso, 233, 236
Index
Camposanto, 55, 63, 67, 69, 172
Capuchin order, 135–36, 269
Carafa, Paul. See Paul IV
Carennac, 49
Carli, Enzo, 109
Cassirer, Ernst, 213
Castagno, Andrea del, 150, 154, 311
Castiglione, Baldassare, 196
Catherine, Saint, 74
Catholic Missal, 300
Catholic Reformation, 109, 116–17, 134–
38, 196–99, 269–71, 314, 317. See also
Counter-Reformation; Reformation
Catholicism
and Copernicus, 111, 264–66, 272–73
and dogma, 113, 133, 214, 269, 273
and free will, 24–25
Greek concept, 26
and Last Judgment iconography, 24
liturgy of, 131
in Middle Ages, 27, 30
and Purgatory, 25
and resurrection, 20–21, 26, 112–13
and salvation, 24–26, 31
Cavalieri Thomas de’, 115, 198
Cavallini, Pietro, 55, 57
Cellini, Benvenuto, 143
Cennini, Cennino, 291–92
Chain of Being, 13
Chartes Cathedral, 49
Chastel, André, 114, 263
Chosen people, 25, 37n64
Christ
beardless depiction, 140–41, 143, 147–
48, 157, 165n88
compared to Apollo, 1, 55, 104–5, 108–
9, 112, 138–40, 146, 148–50, 155,
219, 225, 227, 308
depicted by Botticelli, 152, 154
depicted in Last Judgment (Michelangelo),
1, 3, 63, 67, 78n54, 81, 83, 85–89,
91, 96–98, 103, 115, 119n24, 138–
39, 142, 199, 222–23, 227, 290,
300–302
depiction of, 49, 52–53, 56, 57, 62–63,
68–69, 74–75, 106, 138–40, 288
as Good Shepherd, 140
as Judge, 22–23, 30–31, 39–40, 45,
52–53, 55, 110, 131, 134, 198,
299, 314–15
life of, 132
as Light of the World, 129, 138
resurrection of, 20–21, 26
as Savior, 20, 23–28, 31, 62, 314–15
[ 363 ]
second coming of, 23–27, 30, 37n63,
45, 129–30
stigmata of, 52–53, 76n23
and sun-symbolism, 3–8, 98, 103, 106–
8, 114, 117, 129–30, 133, 138–40,
147–50, 152, 154–55, 157–58, 169,
171, 199, 212, 232–33, 237–38,
274, 307
thigh of, 112, 184, 295–96, 298, 301,
307–8
and Transfiguration, 131
Christian Topography (Cosmas), 40, 43, 70
Christianity. See also Judeo-Christian beliefs
and cosmology, 40, 234
dogma of, 18, 20–21, 27, 30–31, 45,
130, 212–13
iconography of, 13–16, 18, 20–21, 53,
59, 61 138–47, 220, 298
and Michelangelo, 134–38
and Neoplatonism, 213, 232, 237–38,
257, 314
philosophy of, 116, 130, 132–33, 147,
199, 215–16
and Plato, 237
revival of, 142
traditions of, 131
and view of Hell, 25
and view of universe, 11, 12, 15–16, 18
Christmas, 131, 300, 312
Christus, Petrus, 53
Church Fathers
leaders, 159n15
on universe, 12, 227, 238, 287
writings of, 40, 132, 158, 174–75, 179,
199
Cicero, 106, 254–55
Cimabue, 59, 60
Cione, Andrea di, 55, 63, 65
Circular motion
and Dante, 190, 193
in iconography, 74, 92, 106–9, 171, 233
in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 81, 83,
96–98, 115, 133, 220, 237–38,
291, 295–96, 308
symbolism of, 85–89, 187–88, 217,
221–24
Clement of Alexandria, 40
Clement VII (pope), 79–80, 92, 135–
36, 165n88, 240n14, 264, 266–71,
308–9, 315–17
Clements, Robert J., 111, 199, 214
Colet, John, 233
Colonna, Vittoria
and Michelangelo, 135–36, 155, 157,
170, 195–99, 314
[ 364 ]
Index
Colonna, Vittoria continued
poetry of, 8, 169, 195
Redig de Campos on, 135
“Spiritual Sonnets,” 196, 197
and sun-symbolism, 196, 197
Tolnay on, 135
Triumph of the Cross of Christ, 197
Columbus, Christopher, 72, 253
Commentary (Landino), 182
Commentary on Plato’s Symposium (Ficino),
218–20, 224–26
Commentary on the Divina Commedia
(Landino), 173
Condivi, Ascanio
on Divina Commedia, 170
Hall on, 113
on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 53, 85,
96–99, 101, 103–4, 108–9, 269
on Michelangelo, 53, 85
Confessions (Augustine), 133
Confirmation of the Rule of St. Francis
(Signori), 292
Consiliun de Emendanda Ecclesia, 136
Constantine I, 132
Contarini, Gasparo, 135–36, 271
Convivio (Dante), 178–79
Copernicus, Nicholas
achievements of, 252, 272, 274
and Aristotle, 258
in art, 260, 261, 262–63
on astronomy, 238, 252, 259–60, 264,
289, 301, 327, 329
birth of, 110
Catholics on, 111, 264–65, 272–73
Church reaction to, 263–66, 275n9, 316
education of, 256
forerunners of, 8, 105, 178, 191, 255–56
on God, 251, 257
heliocentric theory of, 1–3, 107–8, 114,
117, 238, 251–60, 265–66, 269,
288, 310–12, 316
hypothesis as presented, 307–11
influence on Michelangelo, 1, 4–5,
110–11, 115–16, 258, 263, 316
influences on, 8, 233, 255, 328–29
and Paul III, 328–29
on Plato, 251, 257–58
Protestants on, 111
and Schönberg, 327, 329
Steinberg on, 6
Tolnay on, 1, 3–6, 106–8, 125n122, 308
works by
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelstium,
1, 9n1, 106, 251–53, 258, 272,
289, 328–29
Nicolai Copernici de Hypothesibus
Motuum Coelestium a de Constitutis
Commentariolus, 259–60
Coppo di Marcovaldo, 57
Cosmas, 40–43, 45, 52, 70, 143, 176, 216,
253
Cosmology
biblical interpretations of, 12–13, 16, 20,
28–29, 57, 62–63, 73
and Cosmas, 43, 253
and Dante, 72, 169, 172–79, 181–87,
188–95, 202n33, 289, 316
in De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium,
1, 252–53, 289
of Earth, 29, 31–32, 52, 327
Ficino on, 212–13, 216, 219–28, 224,
236, 288–89
and Hermetic writings, 234
and hierarchical schemes, 56
and iconography, 7, 12–16, 18, 74–75,
116, 134, 158
in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 5–
7, 11, 16, 18, 20–24, 31–32, 70,
72–75, 101–4, 112, 115, 158, 212,
219–20, 224, 232, 272, 288, 308
and metaphysics, 171
modern definition of, 6
and philosophy, 6–7
of planets, 178
and Plato, 217–18, 223–25, 232, 289
scientific view of, 8, 11, 12
and sun-symbolism, 158, 178–81, 182–
87, 190–95, 238
themes of, 7, 31–32, 43, 46, 48, 63, 106,
109, 116, 192, 198–99, 234
and theology, 6–7, 11–12, 40, 169,
263–66
Coughlan, Robert, 110
Council of Nicaea II (787), 263
Council of Trent, 108, 137, 163n63,
284n136, 316
Counter-Reformation, 31, 103, 105, 113,
135–36, 237, 316. See also Catholic
Reformation; Reformation
Cracow library, 259
Cracow (Poland), 227–28, 259
Cranach, Lucas, 53
Creation, 7, 11–12, 32, 40, 129, 211, 213
Crucifixion, 16, 22, 150, 155
Crucifixion (Castagno), 150
Curtius, Matthias, 266
Cusanus, Nicholas, 233
D
Daniele of Volterra, 80, 101, 114, 127n146
Index
Dante
on Aristotle, 173–74, 202n30
on astronomy, 72, 174, 176
compared to Ficino, 221–22, 226
condemnation of, 272
and cosmology, 72, 108, 169, 172–79,
181–87, 188–95, 202n33, 289, 316
on Earth’s position, 177–78
and Giotto, 172, 176–17
on God, 174, 176, 184–86, 188–89, 254
on Heaven, 171–72, 177, 186–90
and heliocentric theory, 192–93, 253–54
on Hell, 171–72, 186, 194, 229
and hierarchical scheme, 63
and iconography, 171
and influence on Michelangelo, 8, 104,
114, 169, 173, 175–76, 179–81,
192, 195, 198–99, 287, 300–301,
311–12
Landino on, 173, 175–76
and Neoplatonism, 175–76, 179, 237,
289
on Plato, 173, 175, 179
portrait of, 171, 172
science and, 176, 288
and Signorelli, 172
Steinberg on, 200n15
and sun-symbolism, 117, 154, 158, 169,
194, 199
Tolnay on, 106–7, 170–71
and Traini, 172
on the universe, 176, 178, 182–83, 238
works by
Convivio, 178–79, 202–3n41
Divina Commedia, 24, 158, 169–72,
300–301, 316
Inferno, 63, 97, 170–72, 180–82, 301
Paradiso, 170–72, 180, 185, 187–88,
226, 312
Purgatorio, 171
De Amore (Ficino), 218–21, 225
De Caelo (Aristotle), 216, 222
De Christiana Religione (Ficino), 216, 226
De Lumine (Ficino), 227
De Maio, Romeo, 113, 135
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium
(Copernicus),
condemnation of, 264–65, 272, 284n136
cosmology of, 1, 252–53, 289
dedication of, 272, 328–29
Neoplatonic concepts of, 251–53
Pand Paul III, 328–29
publication of, 258–59, 273, 276n16
text of, 9n1, 307
Tolnay on, 106, 252
[ 365 ]
De Sole (Ficino), 219, 233, 256
De Vecchi, Pierluigi, 114, 115
De Vita Libri Tres (Ficino), 216–19, 226
Delacroix, Eugéne, 103–4
Della Casa, Giovanni di, 98
Diderot, Denis, 103
Dies Irae (Thomas of Celano), 24, 104–7
Dionysius the Areopagite. See PseudoDionysius
Discourse of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius,
234
Disputa (Raphael), 294, 295
Divina Commedia (Dante)
Condivi on, 170
depiction of, 172
figures in, 170–71, 182, 229
Heaven depicted in, 173–74, 176
Hell depicted in, 173–74, 176, 178,
180–81
illustrations to, 173, 180–81, 193
Jerusalem in, 178
Last Judgment motif in, 171, 178
manuscripts of, 172–73
moral allegory in, 174
and pagan legends, 171
Platonic influence on, 179
Satan in, 180
and sun-symbolism, 158, 169, 178–81,
184–87
themes in, 173–74, 176, 179, 190, 193,
216, 238, 300–301, 316
Vasari, 170
visual images in, 171–73
Dixon, John W., 114
Dodd, Charles Harold, 129–30, 158n4
Dolce, Lodovico, 103
Domenico of Novara, 256, 259
Domus Aurea, 142
Donatello, 293
Doni, Anton Francesco, 100, 103, 157, 263
Dorata, Volta, 143
Dotson, Esther Gordon, 134
Dunbar, Helen Flanders, 179
Duomo, Florence, 144–45, 171
Dürer, Albrecht
on Apocalypse, 148–49
and Neoplatonism, 213
and sun-symbolism, 262
works by
Apocalypse, 53
Judge, The, 148
Last Judgment, 53
Melancholia, 53
Nemesis, 53
Passion series, 53
[ 366 ]
Index
Dürer, Albrecht continued
Sol Iustitiae, 148, 149
E
Earth
central position of, 12, 18, 177, 264,
271–73, 280n63
cosmology of, 29, 31–32, 275n10, 327
Dante on, 177–78
flat view of, 12, 16, 29, 32, 52, 72, 176,
253, 274
as spherical, 72, 77n48, 176, 253,
275n13
Easter, 131
Ebreo, Leone, 233
Edict of Milan, 132
Egidio, Bishop of Viterbo, 134–35, 215,
234, 266, 314
Egyptians, 130, 234
Elbag, Poland, 63
Elements of Physics (Proclus), 267
Enlightenment, Age of, 12, 32, 103
Ephraim the Syrian, Saint, 24
Erasmus, 233, 269
Ettlinger, Leopold, 110, 300
Europe
art in, 43, 45, 47, 53
Black Death in, 62
Copernicus’ influence in, 211, 227–28
northern, 47–49, 52–53, 55
religion in, 30, 130, 136, 147
F
Fall of the Rebel Angels, 269, 271
Farnese, Alessandro. See Paul III
Fatum, 105, 106, 111–12
Feldhusen, R., 106
Ferdinandy, Miguel de, 106
Ficino, Marsilio
compared to Dante, 221–22, 226
and cosmology, 212–13, 216, 219–28,
224, 236, 257–58, 288–89
on God, 220
on the Good, 217–20
and Hermetic writings, 213, 234
on hierarchical scheme, 221
and immortality of soul, 113
and influences on, 267, 288
on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 222,
287, 300
and Medici family, 213, 234
and Michelangelo, 220, 226–27, 311
and Neoplatonism, 113, 213, 233
and Paul of Middleburg, 259
on Plato, 212, 216, 219–28, 232, 237–38
and Platonic Academy of Florence,
211–13
and sun-symbolism, 8, 226–27
works by
Commentary on Plato’s Symposium,
217–20, 224–26
De Amore, 217–21, 220, 225
De Christiana Religone, 216, 226
De Lumine, 227
De Sole, 217, 219, 233, 256
De Vita Libri Tres, 216–19, 226
Letters, 216
Liber de Sole, 227
Opera Omnia, 216–17
Orphica Comparativo Solis ad Deum,
227
Phaedrus Commentary, 217, 219, 225
Philebus Commentary, 217
Platonic Theology, 216, 219, 226, 229,
256
Sophist Commentary, 217
Theologia Platonica de Immortalitate
Animorum, 214, 217, 226, 229
‘Theory of Five Substances,” 224–25
Fifth Lateran Council, 113, 215, 259, 312
Filarete, Antonio, 291
Fiorentino, Rosso, 155
Flagellation (Piombo), 155
Flaminico, 137
Flanders Dunbar, Helen, 179
Florence
art in, 186, 300
churches in, 150
and Divina Commedia, 170–71, 180
libraries in, 43, 183
Michelangelo in, 270, 300
Neoplatonism in, 211–15
during Renaissance, 55–57
Florence Bapistery, 57, 62
Florentine Academy, 103
France, 47, 49, 72, 79
Francesca, Piero della, 291
Franciscans, 135
Fréat, 103
Free will, 24–25, 28, 316
Freedberg, Sidney, 110
French cathedrals, 47–49, 52–53
G
Galileo, 265, 273, 282n96, 311
Garden of Eden, 27
Gardner, Edmund G, 179
Geneva, 25–26
Gerbert, 253. See also Sylvester II
Germany, 43, 45, 53
Index
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 291
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 142–43, 145, 154,
291–92
Giese, Tiedemann, 329
Gilio, 103
Ginzburg, Carlo, 310
Giorgione, 260
Giotto, 55, 61, 61–63, 69, 72–73, 77n34,
172, 176–77
Girardi, 198
God
as center, 222, 224, 288, 308
compared to Platonic Nous, 213
Copernicus on, 253, 257
as Creator, 12, 16, 129
Dante on, 174, 176, 188–89, 254
depiction of, 16, 178–79, 238
Ficino on, 220
as good, 219
judgment of, 21, 25–28
right hand of, 46, 52, 53
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 52, 103,
305n48
Golden House of Nero. See Domus Aurea
Goldscheider, Ludwig, 81, 105
Gombrich, Ernst H., 216, 225, 309–10
Gospel of Nicodemus, 129–30, 137–38,
159n12, 230–31
Gospels. See also Bible
according to John, 22–23, 97, 129, 131,
137, 179, 238
according to Luke, 22–23
according to Mark, 22–23
according to Matthew, 22, 39, 106, 131
and classical literature, 106, 212–13
Gothic period, 52, 53, 55, 62
Greek, 130, 141, 211, 220
Greenstein, Jack M., 114
Gregory XIII, 273
Guicciardini, Francesco, 269, 315
H
Hall, Marcia B., 112–13
Hartt, Frederick, 109, 119–20n29, 310,
314
Hautecoeur, Louis, 15
Heaven
concept of, 31–32, 40, 70, 72
Dante on, 171–72, 177, 186–90
depiction of, 171
in Divina Commedia, 173–74, 176
in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28–29
position of, 12, 18, 20, 29, 32, 39, 40,
55, 72, 74, 254, 273, 289
scroll of, 56
[ 367 ]
Hebrews. See Jews, Jewish
Heliocentric theory
Copernicus on, 1–3, 8, 107–8, 114, 117,
238, 251–60, 265–66, 269, 288,
310–12, 316
Dante on, 192–93, 253–54
and Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1,
4–5, 108
scientific theory of, 117
and sun-symbolism, 8
Hell
cave of, 74, 229, 230
Dante on, 171–72, 186, 194, 229
depiction of, 35n40, 49, 71, 228–32
in Divina Commedia, 173–74, 176, 178,
180–81
doctrine of, 24, 31–32, 70, 72
fear of, 25–26
in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28–29,
85, 228–32, 231
position of, 12, 16, 18, 20, 23, 32, 39,
40, 55, 72, 74, 254, 273, 289
Heninger, S. K., 253
Henry VIII, 315
Heptaplus (Pico della Mirandola), 233
Heraclides on Pontus, 254
Hermes Trismegistus, 233–34, 257
Hermetic writings, 232–38, 248n139, 266,
278n46, 300
Hetoimasia (Throne), 45–46
Heusinger, Lutz, 114
Hibbard, Howard, 110, 114, 135
Hierarchical scheme
architectural representation of, 14–15,
34n19
artistic representation of, 45, 47–49, 52,
55–57, 59, 61–62, 70, 85
of being, 12
celestial, 13, 43
of Christianity, 13, 15–16, 18
Cosmas on, 41
and cosmology, 56, 74–75
Dante on, 63
ecclesiastical, 13
Ficino on, 221
in literature, 43
loosening of, 83
Hirst, Michael, 81, 155
Holanda Francisco de, 135
Holy Tabernacle (of Moses), 13–14
I
Iconography
Byzantine, 59, 61
and caves, 227–32, 247n128
[ 368 ]
Index
Iconography continued
Christian, 13–16, 18, 20–21, 53, 59, 61,
138–47, 158, 220, 298
Cosmas on, 40–41
and cosmological theory, 7, 12–16, 18,
74–75, 116, 134, 158, 288
and Dante, 171
elements of, 16, 20, 62, 70, 72, 97,
108–9, 309–10, 316
in Last Judgment art and literature, 24–
32, 43, 47–48, 52–53, 59, 61–62,
69–70, 72–73, 105, 147, 172, 176
in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 15–
16, 24, 32, 39–41, 43, 45–47, 73—
74, 83–84, 87–89, 91, 171, 237
medieval, 56, 72–73
and Michelangelo, 138–47, 214–15
Il Cortegiano (Castiglione), 196
Il Libro dell’Arte (Cennini), 291
Illuminists. See Valdésians
Immortality of the Soul (Augustine), 133
Index of Prohibited Books, 264, 271–72
Indicopleustes, Cosmas. See Cosmas
Indulgences, 25, 36n45
Italy
art in, 53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70,
103, 140, 155, 157
iconography in, 176
literature in, 72, 158, 170, 196, 199
and Michelangelo, 47–48
Neoplatonism in, 113, 175, 213, 233
threats to, 315
J
Januszczak, Waldemar, 114–15
Jerusalem, 62, 178
Jesus Christ. See Christ
Jews, Jewish, 25. See also Judeo-Christian
beliefs
John, Saint, 129–30
John the Baptist, 74, 89
Joshua, 16, 20
Judeo-Christian beliefs, 11, 23, 130, 211,
219
Judge, The (Dürer), 148
Judgment
and Apocalypse, 129–30
biblical references to, 20–22
Day of, 130–31
and predestination, 25–26
process of, 69–70, 74, 109
purpose of, 20–22, 24–32, 63
and resurrection, 21, 27–28
and salvation, 21–33, 232, 299, 315,
317
and sun-symbolism, 148–49
Julius II (pope), 198
Julius tomb, 117n5, 170, 213, 215
Jung, Eva-Maria, 136
Justi, Karl, 105
Justification of Faith doctrine, 269
K
Kepler, Johannes, 233, 265, 273, 285n140
King Solomon’s Temple, 13–14
Koestler, Arthur, 252, 266–67
Kopal, Zdenek, 265
Koyré, Alexandre, 257
Kubovy, Michael, 293
Kuhn, Thomas S., 40, 252, 255, 257, 259
L
Lactantius, 40, 176, 253
LaHaye, T., 299
Lamarche-Vadel, Bernard, 114
Lamentation (Bellini), 149–50
Lamentation (Botticelli), 152
Lamentation (Castagno), 150
Lamentation (Tura), 152
Lamentations ( Michelangelo), 170
Landino, Cristoforo, 173, 179–80, 182,
185, 204n58, 211, 233
Last Judgment
iconography in, 24–32, 43, 47–48,
52–53, 59, 61–62, 69–70, 72–73,
77n51, 105, 172, 176
Last Judgment, depiction of
and Dante, 171–72
in France, 56
in Gothic art, 52
in Italy, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70
major themes of, 39–41, 43, 45–47, 49,
51, 59, 61–62, 314–17
in manuscripts, 45, 62
in Northern Europe, 47–49, 52–53, 55
prior to Michelangelo, 39–40, 45–49,
52–53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70,
75n1, 92, 98, 172, 274, 307–8
on public buildings, 76n24
in Renaissance art, 70, 73
in Romanesque art, 52
in sculpture, 48–49, 53
Last Judgment ( Nardo di Cione), 55, 172
Last Judgment (Angelico), 67, 67–68
Last Judgment (Bartolommeo), 55, 69 68
Last Judgment (Bouts), 53
Last Judgment (Cavallini), 55, 57, 58
Last Judgment (Christus), 53
Last Judgment (Cimabue), 59, 60
Last Judgment (Coppo di Marcovalso), 57,
59
Index
Last Judgment (Cosmas), 41, 42, 43
Last Judgment (Dürer), 53
Last Judgment (Giotto), 55, 61, 61–62, 69,
72, 172
Last Judgment (Lochner), 53
Last Judgment (Maitani), 57, 58
Last Judgment (Memlinc), 53
Last Judgment (Michelangelo)
analysis of, 80–89, 92–93, 95–104, 111,
290, 295–98, 310
Christ depicted in, 1, 3, 63, 67, 78n54,
81, 83, 85–89, 91, 96–98, 103,
115, 119n24, 138–39, 142, 199,
222–27
Church reaction to, 8
circular design in, 133, 295–96, 308
circular motion in, 81, 83, 96–98, 115,
133, 220, 237–38, 291, 295–96,
308
cleaning and restoration of, 8, 80, 85, 88,
93, 95–96, 115–16, 157, 232, 296,
307–8
commission of, 8, 79–81, 114–15, 117–
18n6, 213, 266, 269–70, 314
Condivi on, 53, 85, 96–99, 101, 103–4,
108–9
cosmology in, 1, 5–7, 11, 16, 18, 20–24,
31–32, 70, 72–75, 101–4, 112,
115, 158, 212, 219–20, 224, 232,
272, 288, 308
criticism on, 100, 104–11
Dante’s influence on, 104, 170–71,
198–99
drawings for, 81, 82, 119n19, 119n21,
290–91, 298
Ficino on, 222, 287, 300
focal point of, 85, 86, 294–96, 304n44,
307
Goethe on, 103
heliocentric image in, 1, 4–5, 108
Hell depicted in, 85, 228–32, 231
iconography in, 1, 15–16, 20, 24, 32,
39–41, 43, 45–47, 73–74, 83–84,
87–89, 91, 171, 237
influences on, 7–8, 23, 26, 31–32, 43,
53, 69–70, 108, 110, 147, 170–
71, 224, 237–38, 266, 269, 274,
289–90, 312, 316
interpretations of, 5–6, 18, 20, 175,
255–56
modifications to, 80, 101, 114–15,
127n146, 304n42
nudity in, 100–103, 105, 111, 120–
21n38, 121n51
originality of, 96–97, 292, 296
[ 369 ]
and resurrection, 28, 85, 112–13
and Revelation 19:16, 298–302
significance of, 6, 110
and Sistine Chapel, 1, 2, 7, 48, 57, 73,
74, 77–78n52, 85, 290–91
size of, 291
symbolism in, 95, 116, 132, 187, 228–
29, 237, 287
theological significance of, 8, 18, 20,
108, 112, 138, 157–58, 231, 296,
299, 308–9, 316–17
Tolnay on, 1, 4–6, 8, 81, 105–12, 114,
147
Vasari on, 85, 96–99, 101, 103–5, 108–9
Last Judgment (Orcagna), 55, 63, 65
Last Judgment (Schongauer), 53
Last Judgment (Signorelli), 69–70
Last Judgment (Strozzi), 69
Last Judgment (Traini), 63, 64
Last Judgment (Van der Weyden), 53
Last Judgment (Van Eyck), 53
Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci), 293
Laurentian Library, 43
Lavin, Irvin, 310
Lawrence, Saint, 74, 89
Lazarus, 22, 29
Le Bot, Marc, 115
Lees-Milne, James, 132
Leites, Nathan, 113
Lenski, R. C., 298–99
Leo X, 259
Leonardo da Vinci, 15, 213, 234, 262, 293,
298
Libraries, 43
Libre de Sole (Ficino), 227
Liebert, Robert S., 113, 135
Light symbolism, 129–34, 138, 178–79,
186–88, 198, 218, 229
Lightbown, Ronald William, 170
Limbo. See Purgatory
“Line of Fate in Michelangelo’s Last
Judgment” (Steinberg), 111–12
Lippi, Filippino, 152, 154, 293
Lochner, Stephen, 53
Lomazzo, G. P., 103
Lorenzo the Magnificent, 268–69
Lucas van Leyden, 53
Lucifer. See Satan
Luther, Martin, 30, 36n51, 264, 265
M
Magnitude of the Soul (Augustine), 133
Maitani, Lorenzo, 57
Mâle, Emile, 39–40, 49
Mancinelli, Fabrizio, 304n43
[ 370 ]
Index
Mandorla, 43, 63, 88, 108, 164–65n83
Mantua, Benedetto da, 137
Mariani, Valerio, 109
Maru Magdalene, 154
Masaccio, 291–92
Masons, 194
Mathematics, 7, 91, 251–52
Mausoleum of Galla Placida, Ravenna, 14,
15
Mazzeo, Joseph Anthony, 179
McAuliffe, D. J., 197
Medici, Cosimo de, 213, 234
Medici, Giulio de. See Clement VII
Medici, Lorenzo de, 144–45, 173, 213,
312, 314
Medici Catherine de, 315
Medici Chapel, 117n 5, 155, 198, 213, 215
Medici Church of San Lorenzo, 15
Medici family, 145, 173, 211, 213
Medici Palace, 154
Meiss, Millard, 62–63
Melanchthon, Philipp, 265
Memlinc, Hans, 53
Mengs, Anton Raphel, 103
Michelangelo
advisors to, 264
and Bramante, 141
and Catholic Reformation, 135, 138
classical influences on, 145–46
and Clement VII, 268–69, 283n106
and Colonna, 135–36, 155–56, 170,
195–99, 314
as colorist, 93, 95, 308
compared to Giotto, 77n34
compared to Traini, 77n45
Condivi on, 53, 85
and Copernicus’ influence, 1, 4–5, 110,
115–16, 258, 263, 316
Dante’s influence on, 8, 114, 169, 173,
175–76, 179–81, 192, 195, 198–99,
287, 300–01, 311–12
drawings of, 155
and Ficino, 220, 226–27, 311
and iconography, 138–47, 214–15
influences on, 214, 238, 255–56, 287,
300, 311–12, 314
and Lamentations, 170
and Masons, 194
and mathematics, 91, 291
and Medici family, 145, 173, 213
and Neoplatonism, 173, 213–15, 217,
237
and Nicodemus, 230
and Piombo, 260
Plato’s influence on, 185, 187, 216,
228–29
poetry of, 8, 197–99, 213, 214, 317
on resurrection, 36n49
scholarship of, 6
and sun-symbolism, 116, 130, 169,
194–99, 226–27
Tolnay on, 5–6, 171, 198, 252
travels of, 47–48, 55
Vasari on, 31, 81, 85
Middle Ages, 13, 15, 21, 28–29, 47, 55,
179
astronomy, 178, 253, 273
concepts of, 5, 43, 53, 106, 108, 133,
147–48, 173, 199, 253
iconography, 56, 70, 72–73, 92, 298
manuscripts, 43
symbolism, 31
Middle ages, 13, 23, 27–30, 74, 176–79,
222–23, 255, 264
Miechow, Matthias, 259
Milan, 141–42, 293–94
Milizia, 103
Millenarian fervor, 30, 37n62
Monreale, 47
More, Thomas, 233
Morgan, Charles Hill, 108
Morone, Giovanni, 135
Mosaics, 14, 43, 55–57, 68, 142–43, 146,
150
Moses, 13, 40, 234
Mueller, Johann, 256
Munich, 152
Munich Codex, 267
Murray, Linda, 111, 114, 135
Musée Bonnat, Bayonne, 81, 119n19,
119n21
Museum of San Marco, 68, 69
Mythology, 180–81
N
Nardo di Cione, 55, 62–63, 172
Narratio Prima (Rheticus), 258, 265, 272,
279n52
Nativity, 16, 34–35n28
Nativity of Christ (Altdorfer), 262
Neoplatonism
and art, 147, 213
of Augustine of Hippo, 133
and Botticelli, 213
and Christianity, 213, 232, 237–38, 257,
314
and classical philosophy, 175, 212–13
and Copernicus, 251, 252–53
Index
Neoplatonism continued
and Dante, 175–76, 179, 237, 289
doctrines of, 7–8, 13
and Ficino, 113, 213
in Florence, 211–16
and Michelangelo, 173, 213–15, 217,
237
in Renaissance, 26, 112, 113, 211
Salvini on, 109
and sun-symbolism, 8, 117, 213, 232,
288
themes of, 215–19, 233–34
New Testament, 20–24, 27, 129, 131. See
also Bible
Newman, John Henry, 21–22
Nicene Creed, 12, 26, 46
Nicholas of Cusa, 255–56
Nicodemus. See also Gospel of Nicodemus
Cardinal Carafa as, 136
Nicolai Cpernici de Hypothesibus Motuum
Coelestium a de Constitutis Commentariolus (Copernicus), 259
Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, 49, 52–53
Novara, Domenico da, 256, 259
Numerology, 233
O
Ochino, Bernardo, 135, 136
Old Testament, 20–23, 26, 28, 129, 130,
227. See also Bible
On the Celestial Hierarchy (PseudoDionysius), 13
On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy (PseudoDionysius), 13
On the Heaven and the Universe (Oresme),
255
On the Immobility of Heaven and the Mobility
of Earth (Calcagnini), 259
On the Motion of the Eighth Sphere (Werner),
260
On the Senses and Sensibilities (Alexander of
Aphrodisias), 267
Opera Omnia (Ficino), 216–17
Oration on the Dignity of Man (Pico), 233
Orcagna, 55, 63, 65
Oresme, Nicholas, 255, 276n25
Original sin, 25, 27
Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 196
Orphic hymns, 233
Orphica Comparativo Solis ad Deum (Ficino),
227
Orr, M. A., 176
Orvieto Cathedral, 55, 172
Osiander, Andreas, 273, 307, 310, 318n14
Ovid, 174
[ 371 ]
P
Pacioli, Luca, 291
Padua, 55, 62, 73–74, 83–84, 172, 256
Pagan Mysteries of the Renaissance (Wind),
146, 214
Paganism, 5, 40, 108, 131–32, 138, 158,
171, 212–13
Palatine Chapel, Palermo, 47
Palazzo della Signoria, 300
Palermo, Italy, 47
Pannini, Giovanni Paolo, 67
Panofsky, Erwin, 105, 173, 211, 215, 216,
309
Paolo Giovanni di, 186, 190, 191
Papal chapel, 100
Paradise (Nardo di Cione), 63, 64
Parallela, Sacra, 43
Paris, 49, 52–53
Passion, 40, 74, 152
Paul III (pope)
advisors to, 135–36
and Bembo, 196
and commission of Last Judgment
(Michelangelo), 79–80, 112, 314–
15
and Copernicus, 258, 264–65, 328–29
on heresy, 270–74
and Michelangelo, 268
reaction to Last Judgment (Michelangelo),
97, 105, 120n38, 121n52
Paul IV, 103, 122n61, 271
Paul of Middelburg, 259, 272, 312, 314
Pauline Chapel, 112, 125n127, 272
Perrig, Alexander, 115
Peter, Saint, 74, 89
Petrarch, Francesco, 195
Petrus, Johannes, 267–68
Petrus, John, 266
Peurbach, Georg, 256
Phaedo (Plato), 215, 228
Phaedrus Commentary (Ficino), 217, 219,
225
Phaedrus (Plato), 214, 215, 222
Philebus Commentary (Ficino), 217
Philebus (Plato), 225
Philosophy, 6–7, 11, 147, 158, 212, 220,
252
Physics, 6–7, 174, 252
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni Conte,
233–34
Pietá (Botticelli), 152
Piles, Roger de, 103
Piombo, Sebastiano del, 79, 117–18n6,
155, 260
[ 372 ]
Index
Pisa, 55, 63, 67, 69, 145, 172
Pitti, Bartolommeo, 100
Pitti Tondo (Lippi), 293
Planets, 177–78, 187, 217, 264, 273, 289,
311, 327
Plato
on Aristotle, 223
Cave of, 218, 228–32, 315
and Christianity, 237
Copernicus on, 251, 257–58
and cosmology, 217–18, 224, 225, 232,
289
Dante on, 173, 175, 179
Ficino on, 212, 216, 219–28, 232,
237–38
forerunners to, 234
influence on Michelangelo, 185, 187,
216, 228–29
philosophy of, 36n46, 113, 199, 211–13,
216, 220–21, 225
revival of, 211, 223
and sun-symbolism, 212, 220, 225–29
works by
Phaedo, 215, 228
Phaedrus, 214, 215, 222
Philebus, 225
Republic, 179, 211, 215–20, 225,
228–29, 232–33, 238
Symposium, 211, 214, 215, 225, 228
Timaeus, 107, 175, 215–17, 219,
222–25, 228, 236, 289
Platonic Academy of Florence, 211, 232
Platonic Theology (Ficino), 216, 219, 226,
229, 256
Plethon, Gemistos, 216
Plotinus, 233
Plutarch, 254–55
Poimander, 234
Pole, Reginald, 135, 137, 271, 284n128
Poliziano, Angelo, 152, 195–96, 211
Pomponazzi, Pietro, 233
Pontormo, Jacopo DA, 155
Popes. See under individual names
Predestination, 24–26
Proclus, 226, 267
Protestantism, 24–25, 31, 111, 264–65,
273, 315
Provost, Jean, 53
Psalters, 45
Pseudo-Dionysius, 13, 33n9, 40, 174, 179,
220, 227, 233, 237
Ptolemy, 32, 253, 254
Purgatory, 25, 174, 176, 182–85, 230
Pythagoras, 106, 114, 254, 328
Q
Quattrocento frescos, 291–93, 316
R
Rahner, Hugo, 132
Raising of Tabitha (Masaccio), 292
Ramsden, E. H., 111
Raphael, 5, 217, 293–94
Ravenna, Italy, 140
Réau, Louis, 39–40
Redig de Campos, Deoclecio, 6, 107–8,
111–12, 135, 170
Reformation, 20–27, 30, 109, 135–36,
167n124, 312, 314. See also Catholic
Reformation; Counter-Reformation
Regiomontanus, 256
Reichenau school, 43, 45
Religion. See Theology
Renaissance
architecture in, 15
art in, 53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70, 86,
145–46, 149, 217, 288, 298
Christian dogma during, 21, 24, 26–28
classical influences in, 145–46, 216, 253,
287–88
in Italy, 7, 24, 55, 56, 59, 72, 155, 195,
199, 220–23, 225
literature in, 72, 158, 169, 195, 199,
216, 234, 291, 309, 317
and Neoplatonism, 26, 112, 113, 211,
237
Platonists, 213, 216, 229
spirituality during, 33, 234
and sun-symbolism, 147–48, 196, 238,
260
symbolism, 31, 220
theology, 134, 288, 300
worldview during, 10n30, 11–12, 52,
253, 264, 316–17
Republic (Plato), 179, 215–20, 228–29,
232–33, 238
Resurrection
Catholic doctrine of, 20–21, 26–27, 112
of Christ, 20–21, 45–46
and humanity, 22, 52
iconography of, 16, 49, 74, 230, 269,
271
and judgment, 21, 27–28
in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28, 85,
112–13
Michelangelo on, 36n49, 155
and spring equinox, 131–32
Resurrection and Fall of Lucifer, 312
Resurrection of Drusiana (Donatello), 293
Reynolds, Joshua, 103
Index
Rheims Cathedral (Notre Dame), 49, 52
Rheticus, Georg Joachim, 258, 272
Richmond, Robin, 115
Richter, Jean Paul, 262
Riegl, Alois, 105
Risen Christ (Fiorentino), 155
Robb, Nesca, 214
Roman Catholic Church. See Catholicism
Roman Inquisition, 136, 271–72
Romanesque period, 52
Romans, 130
Rome
art in, 142–43, 145–46
churches in, 40, 57, 132
libraries in, 43
Michelangelo in, 55, 79, 267–68
Sack of, 105, 110, 114, 315
Rosen, Edward, 257, 260, 268
Roskill, Mark, 292
Rota, Martinus, 98, 308
Ruskin, John, 104
S
Sabbath, 131
Sack of Rome, 105, 110, 114, 315
Saints, 43, 52, 74, 89. See also individual
saints by name
Saint George Oberzell church, 45
Saint John, 40
Saint John de Marne, 45
Saint John the Divine, 131
Saint Michael Burgfelden, 45
Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome, 15, 40, 132,
141, 143
Saint Simon the Cyrene, 91
Sainte Denis Cathedral, 49
Sainte Foy de Conques, 49
Sainte Trôphimine church, Arles, 49
Salmi, Mario, 114, 135
Salvation. See under Judgment
Salviati, Giovanni, 268–70, 314
Salviati, Jacopo, 268–69, 314
Salviati, John, 266
Salvini, Roberto, 6, 109–10, 135
San Francisco Church, Assisi, 59, 60
San Marco. See Museum of San Marco
Sangallo, Antonio, 15
Sant’Angelo Church, Formis, 45, 46, 56, 62
Santa Cecilia, 55, 57
Santa Costanza, 143
Santa Croce, 55, 63
Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 293–94
Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 16–18, 143,
152, 167n127
[ 373 ]
Santa Maria Novella (Strozzi chapel), 55,
62–63, 172, 292
Santa Maria Nuovo, Pisa, 55, 63
Santa Pudenziana, 143
Saponaro, M., 108
Sarcophagi, 143–45
Sassetti Chapel, 154
Satan, 18, 26, 67, 180, 182–84
Savonarola, Girolamo, 135, 154, 196–97,
272
Schönberg, Nicholas, 270–71, 284n121,
314, 327, 329
Schongauer, Martin, 53
School of Athens (Raphael), 193–294, 217
Schott, Rolf, 109
Science, 158, 176–78, 192, 238, 251, 260,
274, 316
Scripture references. See under Bible
Sculpture, 48–49, 53, 55, 72
Second Coming of Christ, 23–27, 31,
129–30
Seven Deadly Sins, 92
Shapiro, Meyer, 298
Shearman, John, 142
Siena Cathedral, 234
Signorelli, Luca, 55, 69–70, 71, 172
Signori Loggia dei, 292
Singleton, Charles S., 175, 183, 193
Sistine Chapel
art in, 142, 155, 262, 269, 272, 294
ceiling of, 80–81, 114–15, 134, 170,
198, 215, 234, 263–64, 299, 308,
314
dedication of, 299–300
dimensions of, 14
and Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 7,
48, 55, 57, 73–74, 77–81, 78n52,
85, 271, 290–91, 307–8, 314
orientation of, 80, 132
restoration of, 80, 95, 157
Socrates, 173, 245n87
Sol Invictus, 106, 110, 132, 147
Sol Iustitiae, 106, 110, 147
Sol Iustitiae (Dürer), 55, 148, 149, 154
Solomon’s Temple, 13–14
Sophist Commentary (Ficino), 217
Soul, 52, 103–4, 107, 112–13, 214, 219,
224–25, 317
“Spiritual Sonnets” (Colonna), 197
Spirituali, 113, 135–36, 161n45, 196, 271.
314
Steinberg, Leo
on Copernicus, 6
on Dante, 200n15
[ 374 ]
Index
Steinberg, Leo continued
on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 103,
137–38, 147, 171, 290, 298
“Line of Fate in Michelangelo’s Last
Judgment,” 111–12
Steinmann, Ernst, 104–5
Strozzi, Zanobi, 67, 69
Strozzi Chapel, 63. See also Santa Maria
Novella
Summers, David, 214
Sun-symbolism
in the Bible, 133, 147, 154, 157–58, 179,
199
and Christ, 3–8, 98, 103, 106–8, 114,
117, 129–30, 133, 138–40, 147–
50, 152–55, 157–58, 169, 171,
199, 212, 232–33, 237–38, 274,
307
Colonna on, 196, 197
and cosmology, 158, 178–81, 182–87,
190–95, 238
and Dante, 117, 154, 158, 169, 194, 199
in Divina Commedia, 158, 169, 178–81,
184–87, 194, 199
Ficino on, 8, 225–27
and Gospel of Nicodemus, 230
and heliocentricity, 8
and Hermetic writings, 234
and hierarchical schemes, 8, 57
and judgment, 48, 148–49
and Michelangelo, 116, 130, 169, 194–
99, 226–27
and Neoplatonism, 8, 117, 213, 232,
288
and Plato, 212, 220, 225–29
in poetry, 196–98
sources, 107, 154–55
theology of, 7
Tolnay on, 7–8, 106–8, 116
Supper at Emmaeus (Pontormo), 155
Sylvester, Saint, 56
Sylvester II (pope), 72
Symbolism, 14–15, 31–32, 43, 105,
129–34, 187. See alsoIconography;
Christianity; Light symbolism; Sunsymbolism
Symonds, John Addington, 104
Symposium (Plato), 214, 215, 225, 228
T
Tabernacle (of Moses), 13–14
Table Talks (Luther), 265
Telesio, Bernardino, 233
Temple of Solomon, 40
Ten Books of Architecture (Vitruvius), 255
Testori, Giovanni, 198
Theodoric of Radzyn, 270–71
Theologia Platonica de Immortalitate
Animorum (Ficino), 214, 226, 229
Theology, 6–7, 11, 13, 40, 134, 174, 199,
308–9
“Theory of Five Substances” (Ficino), 224,
244n82
Thode, Henry, 104–5
Thomas Aquinas, 12, 174
Thomas of Celano, 24, 104–5, 106–7
Thomism, 173, 175
Thorndike, Lynn, 259
Three Philosophers (Giorgione), 260
Timaeus (Plato), 107, 175, 215–17, 219,
222–25, 228, 236, 289
Tolnay, Charles de
and Benesch, 263
on Christ’s depiction in Last Judgment
(Michelangelo), 103–5, 147
on Colonna, 135
and Copernican theory, 1–6, 106, 108,
125n122, 308
on Dante, 106–7, 170–71
on imagery in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 4–6, 8, 81, 105–12, 114
on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 4–6,
8, 81, 105–12, 114, 147, 252
on Michelangelo, 171, 198
on Plato, 216
and Redig de Campos, 108, 135
on sun-symbolism, 7–8, 106–8, 116,
159n11
Torcello, 46, 56, 62, 74, 83–84, 291
Torriti, Jacopo, 143
Traini, Francesco, 63, 64, 69, 77n45, 172,
319n19
Transfiguration (Botticelli), 152, 153, 154
Tree of Life, 57
Tribute Money (Masaccio), 292, 293
Trinity (Masaccio), 292
Trismegistus, Hermes, 233–34, 257
Triumph of the Cross of Christ (Colonna), 197
Triumphus Crucis (Savonarola), 196–97
Tura, Cosimo, 152, 154
Turks, 315
U
Universe
architectural representation of, 14–15
Aristotle’s view on, 222
Augustine of Hippo on, 178
Christian view of, 11, 12, 15–16, 18, 74
circular view, 199, 220–21, 253–54, 264,
273
Index
Universe continued
creation of, 12, 211
Dante on, 176, 178, 182–83, 238
depiction of, 102–3
flat earth view, 12, 32, 52
religious view, 254, 273, 316
University of Cracow, 256
Ursino, Fra, 266
V
Valdés, Juan, 135–37, 199, 313, 314
Valdésians, 137, 163n66, 311
Varchi, Benedetto, 170
Vasari, Giorgio
on catacombs, 143
on Divina Commedia, 170
on Greek style, 141
Hall on, 113
on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 85,
96–99, 101, 103–4, 108–9, 269
on Michelangelo, 31, 81, 312
Vatican
catacombs, 142
collections, 55
gallery, 47, 294
lectures, 266–70, 273
Library at Rome, 43
publications, 116
Vecchietta, 67
Venice, 46, 148
Venturi, Adolfo, 81, 105
[ 375 ]
Venusti, Marcello, 98
Virgil, 174, 182, 184–85
Virgin Mary, 40, 62, 63, 74, 81, 96, 113
Visitation (Ghirlandaio), 292
Vitale, Saint, 141
Viterbo group. See also Egidio, Bishop of
Viterbo, 113, 135
Vitruvius, 255, 291
Volterra, Daniele of, 80, 101, 114, 127n146
Von Einem, Herbert, 106, 108, 135
W
Waddington, Raymond B., 233
Walker, Daniel, 24, 26
Weyden, Rogier Van der, 53
Wheel of Fortune, 105–8, 190
White, John, 292–93
Widmanstadt, Albert, 266–67, 270, 310–
11, 314
Widmanstadt, Johannes, 234
Wilde, Johannes, 85, 108–9
Winckelmann, Johann, 103
Wind, Edgar, 134, 146, 214, 216, 309
Winter solstice, 131
Wittkower, Rudolf, 15, 213, 216
Wölfflin, Heinrich, 104, 111–12, 290
Worldview, 7, 8, 10n30, 11, 39, 49, 52, 260
Z
Zeus, 130, 139
Zoroaster, 23