Life Cycle Costing and Externalities of Palm Biodiesel and Algae Biodiesel in
Indonesia
Arif Dwi Santoso,
Agency for Application and assessment of Technology / Jl. M.H. Thamrin No 8 Main Building BPPT
19-rd floor Jakarta 10340,
Environmental Science Study, Post Graduate Program, University of Indonesia / Gedung C Lt. V-VI
Jl. Salemba Raya 4 Jakarta 10430
Abstract
The rapid depletion of current oil reserve will force Indonesia to explore new energy alternative
sources such as renewable energy instead of fossil oil. The development of biofuel in Indonesia shows
interesting trend which is dominate by palm oil, corn oil, jatropha and cassava. However, the
application of microalgae for biofuel is still under development. Therefore, this paper aims to
popularize the microalgal biomass as an alternative source for biodiesel. In order to gain the goal,
Variable comparizon of the microalgae and palm biodiesel production was done by extended-LCA.
Extended-LCA utilation is prefer to accommodate all variable of environmental commodities, so the
potential of microalgae biomass which are renewable biomass, low in land use, and environmentally
friendly can be promotted. Environmental commodities variable value was explored by willingness to
pay (WTP) and referred from the calculation of software Environmental Priority Strategy (EPS)
version 2000. The study showed that the composition of the cost biodiesel production was the
production cost of biomass/oil palm fresh fruit bunches which reaches 51-62%. Extended-LCA
analysis concluded that the addition of environmental variables affect the total increase in commodity
production costs up to 14%. The profitability analysis shows that the microalgae biomass supply was
more secure and sustainable than palm biomass due to the technical and non-technical constraints on
the production of algae biomass is more easily while also it will lead in the mitigation of greenhouse
gas (GHG) in the future.
Key wards: life cycle costing, extended-LCA, externality, palm biodiesel, algae biodiesel
1. Introduction
In the future, Indonesia is predicted to experience a national energy crisis. The energy crisis influenced
by a high dependence on energy sources, while energy production and utilization are not yet support
the sustainability of fossil energy. Data from the World Bank (2002) stated that during period 19802000, 90% of the energy used comes from three main sources, namely fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and
natural gas, while the non-fossil energy (wind energy, geothermal and solar) and energy from biofuels
are not growth significantly. One effort to reduce reliance on fossil fuels is to find alternative sources
of renewable energy such as biodiesel from palm oil, corn, and other crops distance (Halim et al.,
2011).
In order to reduce the high dependence on fuel, the government of Indonesia have a conversion
program to convert fossil fuel to gas fuel (LPG-petrol gas liquor). At the same effort, the government
also have been promoting non-fuel energy diversification efforts by setting a Presidential Regulation
5/2006. This regulation is targeting the use of renewable energy (BBN) in which there is alternative
energy sources such as fuel made from vegetable as bioethanol, biodiesel as much as 5% in 2025.
BBN biodiesel is usually produced from palm oil (crude palm oil_CPO), while bioethanol from
molasses materials, corn, cassava and tubers. Association of Indonesian biofuel producers (APROBI)
states that the total annual production of biodiesel and bioethanol Indonesia increased rapidly from
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0.65 million liters and 0.194 million liters in 2011 to 0.7 million liters and 0.2 million liters. But the
increase in biofuel production is still far from regulation scheme which targets an annual consumption
of biodiesel and bioethanol biofuel amounted to 4.52 million liters and 2.78 million liters in the period
2011-2015 (Ministry of Energy, 2012).
Various attempts to popularize and market the biodiesel (biodiesel), which mixes Crude Palm Oil
(CPO) with diesel to fuel vehicles, but the numbers, are still very limited. When a mixture of palm oil
in diesel reproduced, feared to affect the supply of palm oil for cooking oil/other foodstuffs. Another
obstacle is still not handled production cost structure that depends on the scale of production, which is
not a consolidated market structure, limitations in infrastructure, both for processing, as well as to
distribute and transport the biomass, the limitations of cultivation methods, availability of water, seed
and fertilizer, biodiversity conservation and limited networks still in logistics and distribution.
In addition to the above technical constraints, biofuels conversion attempt gave birth to a debate
among researchers and environmentalists because the contribution of the production of biodiesel this
would add to the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from land-use change (Demirbas and Demirbas,
2011; Halim et al., 2011), threatening the food supply, and increasing damage to forests and
biodiversity (Khoo et al., 2009).
Biomass of algae gets top priority in a candidate as one of the ingredients of biodiesel. The advantage
of algae biomass is a material source of renewable energy (Jorquera, 2010) which has the ability to the
reduction of CO2 emissions. Algae use sunlight to convert CO2 into carbohydrates, fats and proteins
with productivity far more efficient than terrestrial plants (Scott et al., 2010). Algae have double time
(multiples of two) growth of about 3.5 hours, requiring less water to grow and be able to produce
biofuel feedstock 15-300 times faster than terrestrial crops (Chisti, 2007).
The high productivity of algae biofuels to be a source of material that is economical and
environmentally friendly has attracted the attention of businessmen and researchers. Research in the
laboratory scale and pilot-scale project on the use of algae as a biofuel feedstock has been done.
Handling and purification process from the selection of strains, operational biomass production,
harvesting has been controlled well, but its application to become a lucrative business activities still
require a more advanced stage of time. Refinery biofuel from algal biomass feasibility is still being
debated in the economic and ecological benefits.
In this paper, the authors sought to evaluate the composition of biodiesel production costs of oil and
algal biomass, the ratio between the total cost of production experience with total production cost after
deduction commodity component environment. It also discussed the steps to optimize biodiesel as
alternative energy sources competitive in Indonesia.
2.
Methodology
2.1. Life cycle costing (LCC)
Life cycle costing analysis is one method of economic analysis to determine the entire cost of
production incurred by a production process starting from the selection of goods / provision of raw
materials, production equipment installation, operation, maintenance tools to the ultimate use of the
product (Lora et al., 2010). In this study, all costs arising from the process of palm oil biodiesel
production and algae oil is based on the cost components of biodiesel production system that includes
three stages: the production of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) or microalgae biomass, the production of
crude palm oil (CPO) / oil algae and biodiesel production. The entire cost of production at each stage
of the process inventoried based raw materials used, energy used and energy produced. To meet the
level of validity of the data with economies of scale, then the palm oil biodiesel production data taken
from 40 palm plantations on 10,000 ha, while the algae oil biodiesel production data taken from 35 to
algae biodiesel production capacity production of about 10-20 tonnes/ha/year. Comparison between
the cost components of biodiesel from palm oil and algae oil biodiesel based on official prices
prevailing in the Indonesian market.
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2.2. Externalities Calculation
The use of biofuels from biomass such as palm oil and algal oil is believed to help support efforts to
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions due to burning biodiesel emit less CO2 than fossil fuels. However,
the benefits of the use of biofuels and also cause other environmental impacts such as reduced
biodiversity and increased greenhouse gas emissions due to the use of land for oil palm plantations or
the provision of land for the cultivation of algae. In addition, the net greenhouse gas balance can also
be negative because the biodiesel production process may require more energy than fossil fuels.
Therefore, in order to determine the total cost of the environment due to the environmental burden
caused by biodiesel production such as land use, social costs, fossil fuel consumption, emissions of air
pollutants, namely CO2, CH4 N2O, CO, NOx, SO2, VOC and PM10, on palm oil biodiesel and algal oil
will be taken into account.
Land valuation technique is used as the cultivation of oil palm and container cultivation of algae is
calculated based on the market price approach. Formulation is used to calculate the economic value of
land is:
Note:
Vp
= the economic value of land (Rp/ha/tahun)
Ppi
= productivity of land for species (ton/ha/tahun)
hpi
= the price of product species i (Rp/ton)
(Source: Cahyono et al., 2009)
Social costs are the costs incurred because of social issues such as conflict over land beneficiaries to
the estate, relocation of people or social conflicts caused by operational issues of biodiesel production.
Determination is done by estimating the cost of the social value of 2-3% of the entire cost of the
investment (Manurung et al., 2001). Consumption of fossil fuels is the number of fossil fuel
(gasoline/diesel/coal) used in the overall biodiesel production stage with metric units joules (MJ). To
facilitate the calculation of energy consumption, each liter of biodiesel produced is assumed to have as
much energy as 44.2 MJ (Khoo et al., 2011).
Emissions of air pollutants assessed and approached with benefit transfer. This method is commonly
used to assess the environmental commodities that are not valued in the market (intangible
commodity) by collecting information relating to the assessment of the environmental commodities in
the same place and time. Environmental commodity valuation results can then be used to create data
inference economic values in environmental commodities to another place or time. Furthermore, to
demonstrate the value of the advantage of benefit transfer, the approach commonly used approach is
willing to pay (WTP) (Wilson and Hoehn, 2006). In this study the researchers used the economic
values of environmental commodities calculation software Environmental Priority Strategy (EPS)
version 2000 which was designed by the center for the environmental assessment of products and
material systems (CPM), Sweden. EPS diinferensi value environmental commodities with the ability to
pay elasticity of state / location to apply (Nguyen and Gheewala, 2008; Conner, 2001). Thus, the
adjustment of the value of environmental commodities EPS to value environmental commodities from
Indonesia based on comparison of per capita income countries Sweden and Indonesia. Table 1 presents
the environmental costs of burning biodiesel commodity for Indonesia which is calculated from the
value of WTP (for European countries). WTP for Indonesia (WTP Ina) was calculated by comparing the
WTP value of the European Union (WTPEU) by using the value of domestic product per capita (GDP):
Where GDPIna is US$ 3,716 (UNDP, 2011) and GDPEU is US$ 32,700 (Silalertruksa, 2012). WTPIna
value of the assumed value is multiplied by the ratio between the WTPEU GDPIna and GDPEU.
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Table 1. Enviromental costs per unit burdens In Indonesia
Environmental catagories
Units
Rp per unit*
Land use
ha.yr
Social conflic
Rp.year
Air pollution
CO2
Kg CO2
CH4
Kg CH4
N2O
Kg N2O
CO
Kg CO
NOx
Kg NOx
SO2
Kg SO2
VOC
Kg VOC
PM10
Kg PM10
*based on the exchange rate 9.200 IDR per EUR (www.xrate.com)
61.704
125
434
10.744
151.298
1.302
8.414
12.918
8.455
142.450
3. Biodiesel Production
3.1. Biodiesel production from palm oil
The process of biodiesel production from palm oil consists of several phases: cultivation of palm, palm
oil production phase and stage of biodiesel production. Of the overall system of palm oil biodiesel
production are described in detail below and represented in Figure 1a.
(1) Palm cultivation: this stage consists of activities and enlargement of palm trees growing at a rate
of seeding and plant magnification level in the oil palm plantation. Materials and energy inputs
for this stage are in the form of plantations, fertilizers, herbicides drugs/pesticides, water and oil
seeds. While the outputs are the fresh fruit bunches (fresh fruit bunches, FFB) and emissions from
fertilizers, pharmaceuticals and agricultural machinery used.
(2) CPO production: This stage consists of several processes such as:
- FFB Harvesting
- Cooking and sterilization FFB
- Separation of empty fruit bunches (EFB)
- Extraction of crude oil
- Separation of decanter cake
- Separation of fiber (nut)
- Extraction of kernels that produce palm kernel oil (PKO) and palm kernel extract (PKE)
(3) Biodiesel production: CPO transesterified at this stage in the presence of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and methanol. Input the required process is CPO, water, electricity and catalysts. While the
output is the palm methyl ester (biodiesel), glycerol and wastewater
3.2. Production of biodiesel from algae oil
The process of biodiesel production from algae oil is also comprised three phases: mikrolaga
cultivation in culture pond or photobioreactor, algae oil production phases and stages of biodiesel
production. Of the overall system of algae oil biodiesel production represented in Figure 1b.
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Gambar 1, System boundary of palm oil (left) and algae oil (right) biodiesel production
At this stage of cultivation, the important activity is the cultivation of algae in the pond or
photobioreactor and harvesting process. On farming activities, the necessary skills to enter in terms of
providing nutrients for algae control and maintain the condition of the media to keep the concentration
ideal for algae growth. While the harvesting stage was kept under optimal operational alternatives
because at this stage absorbs energy.
Phase lipid algae and biodiesel production is almost the same as the phase of the production process on
the CPO and palm oil biodiesel. The important thing that distinguishes it is the sonication process is
the process of breaking the walls of algae that absorb a lot of energy and a catalyst solution.
4. Result and Discussion
4.1. Estimation of Life Cycle Costing (LCC)
Determination Life cycle costing of biodiesel production involves all costs incurred in the production
of palm oil biodiesel and algal oil based production system as shown in Figure 1, ie biomass
production, production of CPO / Lipids and biodiesel production. Production costs at each stage are
detailed in Table 2 below:
Table 2. Composition of production costs and externalities in the production of biodiesel from
microalgae biomass and oil palm
Algae biodiesel
Palm biodiesel
No
Process/raw material
Rp
Total
%
Rp
Total
%
1
Cultivation
5.955
62,30
4.680
51,23
a. Land Prepare
1.367
3.023
b. Fertilizer
778
330
c. Others materials
27
353
d. Harvest
3.783
974
2
3
Oil algae/palm production
a. Methanol
b. Others chemicals
c. Electric
d. Heat
Biodiesel production
a. Methanol
b. Others chemicals
c. Electric
1.683
17,61
851
163
453
217
15,82
997
10,92
667
330
236
212
1.095
480
63
416
1.445
11,46
393
188
283
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4
d. Heat
136
Others
a. Tax, others
b. Labour
190
127
Exsternalites
a. Land value
b. Environmental value
c. Social value
Total Cost
133
317
5
3,31
730
7,99
1.282
14,04
9.134
100,00
393
338
508
5,31
309
197
2
961
196
125
9.558
100,00
From the comparison of the composition of biodiesel production costs of oil palm biomass and
microalgae can be pulled over a few important things, among others:
1.
The largest cost component lies in the cost of procurement / production of biomass (CPO/oil
algae) reached 51,23% on palm oil and 62,3% in microalgae. This information gives attention to
biofuels observers, that the price for biodiesel menyelarakan be more economical then have to press on
algal biomass production costs or fresh fruit bunches (FFB) of oil palm. Biomass production cost
savings by efficient process of land preparation and cultivation operations will be able to suppress the
overall biodiesel production cost. On microalgae biomass production, biomass production costs
approximately 62,3% of the total production, or about Rp. 5,955. To reduce the cost of biomass
production and the necessary efforts to improve efficiency in the process of harvesting algae and
electric energy savings in the cultivation process.
2.
Externality cost of biodiesel production from microalgae over which is about 5% smaller than
the palm approximately 14%. This information can be a consideration for the parties in the Indonesian
energy policy makers. When CPO chosen to produce bio-diesel, the consequence is every liter
produced environmental burdens such as pollution by 14%.
3.
In the production of biodiesel from microalgae widely used chemicals, namely methanol to
trans-esterification esterification process, chemicals for sterilization and some inorganic fertilizers. The
use of chemicals is necessary because the potential to pollute the environment, so it is necessary to
neutralize these materials prior to discharge to the environment or used again in the production cycle.
4.2. Comparison of Production Costs of Palm Oil Biodiesel and Algae Oil
In an attempt to look at the profitability of biodiesel production in the market, the price of biodiesel
compared to the price of fuel by increasing the production cost of 15 US$/barrel (Pradiptyo, 2012).
Figure 3 displays the position of the price of palm oil biodiesel and algal oil at 3 for crude oil prices
were different. If the condition of crude oil prices around 80 US$/ barrel, then either biodiesel
production from palm oil and crude oil is not competitive, unless they get help from government
subsidies. Efforts conversion to biodiesel fuel has a profit when the value for crude oil prices above
100 US$/barell. Ketidakkompetitifan price of biodiesel is affected by two things: the high cost of
production of CPO/oil algae that cause high total cost of production of biodiesel and crude oil price
conditions that affect the price of fuel.
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Figure 3. Algae biodiesel and oil costs per liter in the price level of crude oil
Fluctuations in crude oil prices to be the key to success in government decision makers in setting
stretegi conversion into biodiesel fuel. When the price of CPO / algae oil under Rp.6,000/kg range
while crude oil prices above 100 US$/barell, then the condition will mengguntungkan conversion
program simply by pouring a little subsidy. However, if the price of CPO/algae oil can not be
controlled both price and supply and world oil prices stable under US$ 100, it will be necessary cost
subsidy. Under conditions of biodiesel raw material prices and crude oil prices are not stable, an
important effort that needs to be done is to increase the profitability of the biodiesel that is by
improving the quality of CPO / algae oil to produce biodiesel conversion values higher.
4.3.
Influence of Externalities
Figure 4 shows a comparison of total production costs and external costs of production per liter of
diesel, biodiesel and biodiesel algae oil. When the cost of fuel production is calculated without taking
into account the cost eksernalitas, the production of diesel, biodiesel and biodiesel algae oil ranges
from Rp. 6992; USD. 9,050 and Rp. 7,852. 3rd of the price of production, algae biodiesel prices are
not competitive because of its cost of production is above the market price of diesel is Rp. 8,500. By
simply following the market price and the condition of the diesel fuel supply is always available, the
chances of either biodiesel or algae oil to be a substitute for fossil fuels to be small.
In the future, the externality cost consists of the cost of land use, environmental and social costs
become imperative to put in the structure of production costs of goods / services. The addition of these
external costs will affect the total cost of production suatau goods / services. On diesel production,
taking into account external costs, the cost of production of 1 liter of diesel into Rp.10,534 an increase
of 33,6%, while the cost of biodiesel production and algae oil each rose to Rp.9,134 (14%) and Rp.
9,558 (5%).
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Rupiah (Rp)
12,000
production cost
10,000
8,000
3,542
externality cost
508
1,282
6,000
4,000
9,050
6,992
7,852
2,000
diesel
algae biodiesel
palm biodiesel
Figure 4. Comparison of production costs and external costs of diesel, biodiesel and biodiesel algae oil
From the analysis of the data between algae biodiesel and biodiesel oil, stating that the production of
biodiesel algae causing environmental burden by 5% while the environmental burden of palm
biodiesel by 14%. What is meant here is the environmental burden of negating the environmental
improvement costs should be paid by the producer / consumer because these costs are not accounted
for in the market. Environmental burden will be borne by a corresponding increase in production and
consumption of biodiesel. When Indonesia's consumption of biodiesel derived from palm oil per year
on average to 600,000 kilo liters per year (Hutapea, 2012), the environmental burden estimated at 2,1
trillion per year. Comparison of percentage of cost externalities of algal biomass which is about 5%
smaller than the palm will be the primary consideration for determining the biomass source selection
priority.
5. Discussion
Based on the analysis of the above data, stating that the total cost of production of biodiesel from palm
oil / oil is higher than the cost of algae fuel production under conditions of crude oil prices below 90
US$/barell. Based on the analysis of LCC stated that the high cost of biodiesel production is due to the
high production cost of CPO / algae oil. CPO prices and production costs of algae oil dominates
approximately 51,2% and 62,3%, while other costs are high is around 12% methanol catalyst. The high
cost of information is a challenge researchers to look for alternative technologies that are more
efficient and economical.
Internalisation of external costs in the total cost of biodiesel production change from the biodiesel
production and algae oil. The incremental cost of externalities in the cost of biodiesel production
causes an increase in production costs of biodiesel and biodiesel algae oil respectively at 14% and 5%.
Total cost by adding the cost of biodiesel production externalities caused the price of biodiesel is not
competitive when compared with the price of fuel, so as to encourage fuel conversion program to
biodiesel subsidy is not only necessary but also should be applied strategies to elevate the importance
of externalities function. As an illustration, if consumption Indonesian biodiesel derived from palm on
average per year to reach 600,000 kiloliters per year, then the environmental burden to be borne by the
public is estimated around 2.1 billion per year.
In terms of the sustainability of biomass supply for the production of biodiesel, the algal biomass is
more potent than oil palm biomass. Palm biomass than constrained in terms CPO increased
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productivity (land, social conflict, conversion FFB into CPO) also constrained the user CPO
competitors for food (Khoo et al., 2009). On the other hand, the production of algae biomass has great
potential to be developed further. Algae biomass production is not burdened by land use and social
conflict. Value of algal biomass conversion to algae oil is still very likely to be enhanced by treatment
of a particular nutrient restriction and modification of the penetration of light into the culture media
(Scott et al., 2010). Another advantage of the algal biomass is a great role in GHG mitigation, which
the media cultivation of algae absorb more greenhouse gas emissions in the appeal of oil crops (Khoo
et al., 2009).
In order to encourage the conversion of fuel to biodiesel program, some of the efforts that need to be
done, among others, the Indonesian government to increase the price of biomass more competitive by
reducing production cost of biomass and utilizing the resulting product sampling. In the production of
1 ton of biodiesel algae typically yield of 3.12 tonnes of waste in the form of fibers and glycerol
byproduct of approximately 240 kg. When the price of algal biomass fiber for Rp.500/kg and glycerol
price of 1,28 US$/kg (Pachauri, 2006), the utilization of waste and by-products that will save
production cost of biodiesel Rp.2,856/kg. Utilization can also be done with the use of waste as waste
water culture media and chemical waste by processing the use of funds in the system longer possible to
minimize the cost of production of algae biodiesel production.
Conclusion
LCC analysis is applied by adding variable externalities can provide detailed information about the
composition of algae biodiesel production costs and the ideal ratio of total costs (environmental
friendly) when compared with the total cost of production of palm biodiesel and fossil diesel. Biodiesel
production cost is taken up algae oil production activities and CPO respectively reached 62.3% and
51.2% of the overall production cost of biodiesel. This information gives a lesson for business
managers biodiesel, if you want to streamline production costs have to concentrate on the production
phase of CPO / algae oil.
Analysis of the profitability of biodiesel production states bahawa effort into biodiesel fuel conversion
will be effective when there is a subsidy from the government and if the conditions of crude oil prices
above U.S. $ 100. Externality variables also affect the total cost of biodiesel production by up to 15%
with the three largest cost component includes the cost of land usage, fuel usage and social conflict.
Supply of algal biomass for biodiesel production more secure and sustainable than palm biomass due
to technical and non-technical constraints on the production of algae biomass is more easily overcome
while also lead role in GHG mitigation that helped widen the opportunities as the main ingredient of
biodiesel in the future.
Acknowledgements
Ministry of Research and Technology, the financial aid scholarships for researchers to carry out this
research.
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