New Light on Colour: a study of polychromy on Neo-Assyrian reliefs
Abstract
This article, based on the results of my undergraduate dissertation, provides the first empirical
study into the original coloured appearance of Neo-Assyrian reliefs. It examines the effects of
polychromy on the appearance of these palatial carvings. Statistical data from visual
examination, original excavation records and published sources are analysed to form a
representative study of original colour placement. Using these findings, digital re-colourations
of the reliefs are presented which reflect their original palatial appearance more closely than
their current displays and portrayals in museums and publications. The paper suggests that set
schemes of colouration were used and reveals changes in colour trends over time, between the
rules of kings Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC) and Sargon II (721-705 BC). The application of
polychromy on relief carvings reinforced Assyrian imperial ideologies, utilising an
understanding of colour that is very different to that of modern Western values.
Please see overleaf for complete article (from page 2).
1
New Light on Colour: a study of polychromy on Neo-Assyrian reliefs
Introduction
Gypsum relief carvings originally decorated the palaces of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the
ninth to seventh centuries BC, often depicting scenes of royal prowess and military victory to
serve as imperial propaganda (Ataç 2010). Antiquarian interest in the nineteenth century led to
the extensive excavation and exportation of relief scenes, particularly those associated with the
kings Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II (Botta 1849; Layard 1849, 1853). Although reliefs were
originally polychrome in appearance through the application of pigment, this aspect has been
lost over centuries of weathering, poor preservation and exposure (Layard 1849: 130), resulting
in their present, largely bare state (figure 1).
Whilst the original application of colour has been recognised in works published on the subject
of Neo-Assyrian reliefs (e.g. Cohen & Kangas 2010; Guralnick 2011), and Akkadian colour terms
have been examined philologically (e.g. Gelb et al 1964), few pigments have been analysed (but
see Verri et al 2010). Detailed examination of the application of colour to areas of reliefs has
never been published. The evidence of past colour application, however, suggests that the
original polychrome designs of the carvings would have appeared starkly different to their
present plain state. In this paper, I investigate how polychromy affected the original intended
presentation of Neo-Assyrian carvings. Conducting an initial statistical assessment of surviving
traces of pigment and written accounts from early excavators, their potential original
appearance can now be reconstructed and assessed, using the results of these findings and
existing research and interpretations of Neo-Assyrian art. The meanings behind the complex
imagery of such reliefs have been discussed in detail elsewhere (e.g. Reade 1979a; Collon 1995;
Collins 2008). This article will focus particularly on elements that feature surviving elements of
colour which will be shown to greatly influence their interpretation.
Figure 1: A relief from Ashurnasirpal II’s Northwest Palace at Nimrud, depicting the king (far right figure)
and Assyrians besieging a city. Torches are thrown against the invaders, but water is piped from the siege
engine to quench the fire, whilst soldiers attack the walls.
Image source: ©Trustees of the British Museum
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The use of art in Neo-Assyrian palaces
The earliest archaeological evidence of monumental Neo-Assyrian relief decoration dates to the
reign of Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC) and the construction of his new residence, commonly
known as the North-west Palace, at Nimrud. Prior to this, Assyrian artwork was relatively
limited in scope, although the Old Palace of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) at Ashur featured
glazed and coloured brick orthostats (Pedde 2012: 854).
The seemingly sudden appearance of highly accomplished and developed relief sculptures in
Ashurnasirpal II’s reign implies an influence or utilisation of artisans from elsewhere (Kuhrt
1995: 85). A willingness to utilise new ideas to inspire awe and intimidation was often reflected
in art forms associated with Neo-Assyrian kings, possibly through their awareness of
monumental stonework from Egypt (Reade 1995a: 40), and similarities have been made
between deeply cut Assyrian carvings and those produced in Syrian states such as Carchemish,
another region from which the rulers of Assyria received tribute since the early ninth century
(Winter 1983: 195; Collins 2008: 72). Inarguably, the establishment of a monumental building
regime was a major exhibition of the king’s power, setting in place a tradition of new palatial
and monumental construction that flaunted the political agendas of the kings who
commissioned them.
In Ashurnasirpal II’s North-west Palace, this is demonstrated clearly by the intentional location
of relief sculptures within only the most accessible rooms, maximising the possibility of
occupants and visitors of the palace viewing them (Russell 1998: 715). Similarly, the
manipulation of relief placement for political purposes is evident at Sargon II’s palace at
Khorsabad, as visitors were forced to walk past intimidating depictions of dignitaries offering
the king tribute and important rebels being tortured, in order to reach the throne room (Reade
1979b: 338). Considering the evidently propagandistic nature of the reliefs, studying the
original colours applied to the carvings provides a valuable insight into the purpose of
polychromy in the Neo-Assyrian palace.
Data collection of polychromy evidence
Colour has been recognised on Assyrian reliefs from their earliest excavation, however it has
rarely been the primary subject of discussion in studies of Neo-Assyrian reliefs, which largely
focus on their depicted subject matter (e.g. Albenda 1986; Winter 2010).
No detailed study of Neo-Assyrian relief polychromy has been published previously, therefore
this research acts as the first step towards appreciating how colours were used and placed. As
the first empirical study of the current state of surviving polychromy, it was therefore essential
to establish initial statistics of how much colour is still visible, which colours were most
frequently used, which carved features were most often painted and whether colours were
particularly associated with certain types of features and whether variations occurred over time.
As a consequence of the global redistribution of Assyrian reliefs from the nineteenth and early
twentieth century excavations, numerous reliefs now belong to many international collections,
whilst a substantial amount remain unpublished and unprovenanced (Guralnick 2013: 5). In
recognition of this, a representative sample was researched, focussing particularly on reliefs
originally located in the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud and Sargon II’s Palace
3
at Khorsabad. This provided the opportunity to analyse changes in colour schemes over time by
specifically comparing the polychromy of reliefs dating to the reigns of the two kings.
The examples recorded comprised of polychromy evidence recorded from identified visual
analysis and enquiries to museum curators, to determine where colour was visibly present on
reliefs within museum collections (x Museum 2015; x: pers. comm.; x: pers. comm.; x: pers.
comm.). Additionally, examination of original sketches, drawings and published written
accounts referencing the appearance of visible colour made by nineteenth century excavators
(Botta 1849; Layard 1853) and detailed reviews of known existing research into colour
application on Neo-Assyrian sculpture were documented (Snyder and Paley 2001; Verri et al
2009; Guralnick 2010; Nagel 2010; Learning Sites 2015). Any traces of polychromy were
recorded for the colour of pigment used and location of the paint on the carving.
Initially, detailed descriptions were recorded for every instance of colour and the specific
feature on which it was present in an Excel spreadsheet e.g. one instance of red pigment on a
rosette. Upon completing the data collection, feature types were grouped into broad categories,
providing a broad description which could be statistically compared. For example, “rosette” and
“tree branch” were categorised as “plant”, whilst dagger and spear head were “metal weapons”.
Evidence of colour application on painted wall friezes and glazed bricks from Neo-Assyrian
palatial sites were also compiled as a comparable data source to the colours used on relief
sculpture, as these decorative elements were found above relief panels on the walls at Nimrud
and Khorsabad (Layard 1853; Reade 1995a: 227). Though frequently associated with palatial
relief carvings, in some cases glazed brick murals and wall paintings have been found
exclusively, for example in the doorway to the Sin Temple (Place 1867) and at Residence K
(Parrot 1961: 99) in Khorsabad. As such, these were recorded in a separate dataset to provide a
comparison to relief polychromy.
The wall painting and relief polychromy datasets were compared and analysed in detail, as
discussed below. As a further result, digital reconstructions of some potential original colour
schemes were produced, reflecting different levels of likelihood on the basis of the evidence
gathered (figures 4-11).
Results
Data source
Excavation reports
and illustrations
Published accounts of
polychromy
Visual inspection
Curatorial inspection
Total
Count of wall
Count of relief
painting/glazed
polychromy
brick polychromy
198
191
113
1020
59
7
377
0
0
1211
Table 1: Counts of instances of polychromy located in the study, and their sources.
4
377 certain instances of polychromy were identified on reliefs (table 1; Appendix 1). Of these, 66
instances were recorded from direct observation by the author or present museum curators,
highlighting the substantial amount of evidence that is still preserved. As the majority of
polychromy evidence from reliefs was attributed to two palatial sites and kings; Ashurnasirpal
II’s North-west Palace and Sargon II’s palace at Khorsabad (table 2), statistical analysis focused
specifically on these two groups of reliefs.
Associated king
Reign
Site of reliefs/wall
paintings/glazed
bricks
Total count of
polychromy on
reliefs
Total count of
polychromy on wall
paintings/glazed bricks
Ashurnasirpal II
883-859 BC
North-west
Palace, Nimrud
198
50
Shalmaneser III
3
0
174
0
0
294
96
2
2
0
0
701
0
68
858-829 BC
Ashur
Tiglathpileser III
744-727 BC
Til Barsip
Sargon II
721-705 BC
Khorsabad
Esarhaddon
Ashurbanipal
680-669 BC
668-631 BC
Fort Shalmaneser,
Nimrud
North Palace,
Nineveh
Til Barsip
(no king referred to Between eighth to
in source)
seventh centuries BC
(no king referred to
Nimrud
N/A
in source)
Table 2: The total distribution of polychromy between associated kings and sites.
Most commonly used colours
It was found that red was the most frequently used colour in both palaces, and black also
featured prominently. A greater variety of colour features appeared on reliefs from Khorsabad,
with blue features more prominently than black in this setting (Figures 2 & 3), demonstrating a
clear change in choices of colour used in the 150 years between these two relief groups.
Total polychromy frequencies from the Northwest
Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud
Total polychromy frequencies from the Palace of Sargon
II at Khorsabad
White, 1
White, 5
Black,
25
Red, 94
Black, 101
Red, 103
Blue, 57
Green, 2
Figures 2 & 3: Pie charts representing the distributions of colour at the North-west Palace at
Nimrud (left), and Khorsabad (right).
5
Most commonly coloured features
The final dataset contained 78 different descriptions to define specific areas of colouration,
however these proved too specific for statistical analysis. Subsequently, 38 broader categories
were created and allocated to each record (table 3). Notably, it was found that polychromy was
most frequently applied to aspects of footwear (169 occurrences) and high variation was seen
in the colours used.
Relief polychromy
Footwear sole
footwear straps
horse trappings
facial hair
wood
fire
bow
plant
body sash
headband
headwear
metal weapon
eye
eye pupil
eyeliner
parasol
weapon accessory
footwear base
leaf
upper body garment
feather
horse
lion
tongue
Black
60
28
Blue
8
1
10
Brown
Green
Red
58
14
18
2
1
22
13
9
10
9
7
7
White
26
21
1
3
1
1
1
6
6
6
6
3
2
3
2
3
1
1
3
1
1
2
2
Yellow
Sum
126
43
28
26
24
22
14
12
10
10
8
8
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
Table 3: A list of all features types where polychromy was counted twice or more, from all relief contexts.
Note: columns for brown and yellow appear for comparison with wall painting and glazed brick data,
despite no reliefs possessing such colours. The column of total sums is colour coded to represent the
relative proportion of colour by feature, from yellow representing the lowest proportion, to green
representing the greatest.
From the broad descriptions assigned to each polychromed feature, further groupings were
assigned to the different feature types, to determine whether specific colour schemes were
associated to particular feature types. These were; costume and fashion, martial equipment,
natural human features and natural forms.
Costume and fashion
The features regarded as clothing were assigned on the basis of categories established by
Madhloom (1970). Red was found to be the most prominent colour used on clothing and
headwear, however two instances of blue also appeared on reliefs from Khorsabad (tables 4 and
5).
6
Ashurnasirpal II
headband
headwear
robe
upper body garment
body sash
belt
lower body garment
Grand Total
Black
Sargon II
headband
headwear
robe
upper body garment
body sash
belt
lower body garment
Grand Total
Black
Blue
Blue
1
1
Brown
Brown
Green
Green
Red
1
1
White
Yellow
1
1
3
3
Red
8
6
White
Yellow
3
9
2
Sum
1
1
26
Sum
9
7
0
3
9
0
0
28
Tables 4 & 5: Appearance of colour on costume and fashion features (non-footwear) from
the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II.
A wider variety of colours was found on footwear from Khorsabad than from the North-west
Palace, with blue being an additional colour. Despite this, more polychromy was found to
survive on footwear at the North-west Palace than on reliefs at Khorsabad. It could be posited
that specific taphonomic conditions existed at Nimrud which led to better preservation. For
example, upon abandonment of the palace, materials could have settled over the relief bases
where the sandals were carved, preventing the pigments from being exposed and faded.
The depiction of sandals is notably different in design between the reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II
and Sargon II (tables 6 & 7), and the polychromy depicted on Sargon II’s are further
distinguished from other human figures in having banded red and blue stripes across the heel
covering. In contrast, only a single colour, of either red or blue, was found on the heels of nonroyal figures. In one instance, the sandal straps of the king were also multi-coloured bands of
red and blue.
Ashurnasirpal II
footwear base
Footwear sole
footwear straps
Grand Total
Black
2
56
26
84
Blue
Brown
Green
Red
2
52
13
67
White
Yellow
Sum
4
108
39
151
Sargon II
footwear base
Footwear sole
footwear straps
Grand Total
Black
Blue
Brown
Green
Red
White
Yellow
4
2
6
8
1
9
Sum
0
18
4
22
6
1
7
Tables 6 & 7: Appearance of colour on footwear features from the North-west Palace of
Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II.
7
Jewellery was only found with traces of red paint on one specific relief in the collection of the X
Museum, X (table 8). It can be speculated that others may have once been similarly painted,
however no other traces have been found in the course of this study, therefore a lack of
polychromy survival may factor into this result.
Ashurnasirpal II
armband
bracelet
earring
necklace
Grand Total
Black
Blue
Brown
Green
Red
1
1
1
1
4
White
Yellow
Sum
1
1
1
1
4
Table 8: Appearance of colour on jewellery from the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II.
Martial equipment (tables 9 & 10)
Red was the most abundantly used colour to represent weapon parts at both palaces, being
specially attributed to depictions of wood, such as on arrow shafts, bows and spear shafts.
Martial equipment was a far more prominent category of polychromy at Khorsabad, which may
reflect the greater number of martial-themed relief scenes from that palace in comparison with
those of the North-west Palace (Reade 1979b: 338).
Blue features infrequently, but was found on parts of weapons that were made of metal.
Considering this and the use of red being attributed to wood, it is possible that polychromy was
used to represent a colour likeness to the actual materials depicted. Metals can have a greysilver sheen akin to shades of blue, whilst red is close to the brown colouring commonly
attributed to wood. It can be suggested therefore, that the closest match to the physical
appearance was produced with the pigments available to Assyrian artisans.
Ashurnasirpal II
arrow shaft
bow
chariot
horse trappings
metal weapon
sword strap
weapon accessory
weapon handle
whip
Grand Total
Black
Sargon II
arrow shaft
bow
chariot
horse trappings
metal weapon
sword strap
weapon accessory
weapon handle
whip
Grand Total
Black
Blue
Brown
Green
Red
White
Yellow
Sum
0
7
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
8
White
Yellow
0
0
Sum
1
7
0
28
7
1
6
1
0
51
7
1
8
Blue
Brown
Green
1
10
1
18
6
1
3
1
3
0
15
Red
1
6
0
0
36
Tables 9 & 10: Appearance of colour on martial equipment features from the
North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II. The
category “metal weapon” includes spears and their component parts, including
wooden shafts (see appendix II).
8
Natural human features (tables 11 & 12)
In all polychromed representations of Assyrians, the colours for hair and eye pupils were found
to be highly standardised as black, and at the North-west Palace, the skin of all figures had no
traces of polychromy. The single instance of red found on a relief from Khorsabad was assigned
to a section of a shield-man’s upper arm from an illustration of a relief by Flandin (Botta 1849).
This result was unusual, as no polychromy was found to exist on depictions of exposed skin of
Assyrians on all reliefs studied. This anomalous result could potentially be interpreted as the
red colour of a short sleeved garment, as no other polychromy is visible on the figure. In
addition, as the record is an illustration, there is a possibility that the colour was copied
erroneously. Unfortunately, colour scans of this illustration were not available for this study,
and online records are in greyscale, so this suggestion could not be examined with certainty.
Whilst no instances were seen on the reliefs, it was clear from the wall paintings at Til Barsip
that non-Assyrians were sometimes deliberately represented with red skin and hair colour. As
forms of dress were used to signify different cultures upon reliefs, the application of colour may
have been used to additionally distinguish the different peoples subject to the Neo-Assyrian
Empire.
Ashurnasirpal II
eye
eye pupil
eyeliner
facial hair
skin
Grand Total
Black
Sargon II
eye
eye pupil
eyeliner
facial hair
skin
Grand Total
Black
Blue
Brown
Green
Red
White
5
Yellow
Sum
5
5
1
11
0
22
Yellow
Sum
1
1
3
14
1
20
5
1
11
17
5
Blue
Brown
Green
Red
White
1
1
3
14
18
1
1
1
Tables 11 & 12: Appearance of colour on natural human features from the North-west Palace
of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II.
Natural forms (tables 13, 14 & 15)
Fire and water were represented in red and blue respectively, reflecting the colours most
frequently seen of these natural phenomena in nature. In contrast, flora and fauna were not
coloured naturalistically, with plants most commonly painted blue and horses coloured red and
blue. In addition, the use of unnatural colours for natural features was not consistent, as
weapons made of wood were frequently coloured red, whilst living trees and their branches
were more commonly blue.
9
Plants
Ashurnasirpal II
plant
Sargon II
fruit
leaf
pinecone
plant
wood
Grand Total
Black
Animals
Ashurnasirpal II
tongue
Sargon II
bird
feather
goat
horse
Grand Total
Black
Natural phenomena
Ashurnasirpal II
fire
Sargon II
fire
water
Grand Total
Blue
Brown
Green
Red
White
Yellow
Sum
0
1
0
1
3
1
11
24
41
White
Yellow
Sum
1
1
3
3
21
27
Blue
Brown
2
2
1
8
1
12
Green
Red
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
4
2
1
2
1
2
8
1
1
Black
Blue
1
1
Brown
Green
Red
White
Yellow
Sum
9
9
13
13
1
23
22
Tables 13, 14 & 15: Appearance of colour on features from natural forms from the Northwest Palace of Ashurnasirpal II and the Palace at Khorsabad of Sargon II. Each table features
the statistical results from both palaces attributed to different natural features, of animals,
plants and natural phenomena.
Changes in polychromy over time
The palace of Sargon II was built 150 years after the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II,
therefore the differences in colouration on these palaces’ reliefs represent changing trends in
the application of polychromy.
The clearest difference was the introduction and large use of blue at Khorsabad, which was not
used in the North-west Palace. Reasons for this are uncertain, although with the increased use of
polychromy and fashion designs unique for the king at Khorsabad, this may be an indicator for
status, associated with the value of the colour blue.
Re-colouring the reliefs
Using the study’s findings, digital re-colourations of four different reliefs from the palaces of
Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II were produced (figures 4-11). In doing so, it was possible to
detect specific changes in the use of polychromy on reliefs between the reigns of Ashurnasirpal
II and Sargon II, and to speculate the potential colour schemes that may have been used. To
achieve this, scales of reliability were applied to each reconstruction, by evaluating the
statistical evidence of the dataset to consider which colours and features were most likely to
have been originally used and painted.
10
Figures 4 & 5: Digital re-colourations of a relief the North-west Palace of Ashurnasirpal II (see figure 1 for its
present plain appearance).
(Above) the most probable original polychromed appearance, as all colours featured had been found on the
specified relief features at this site.
(Below) Less probable polychromy appearance, with yellow crenulations, and blue and white clothing added
based on occasional evidence from wall paintings. Different colours of clothing were applied to Assyrian soldiers
and city defenders to distinguish the two sides. Stone colour has been lightened to reflect the original pale grey
appearance of the gypsum stone.
Image sources: modified by author, after ©Trustees of the British Museum
11
Figure 6: Digital re-colouration of a
relief from the North-west Palace
of Ashurnasirpal II, depicting an
attendant of the king carrying the
king’s bow, and a winged genie.
This displays the most probable
original colour schemes, as all
colours were certainly known to
have been found on the specified
relief features at this site.
Image source: modified by author,
after ©Trustees of the British
Museum
Figure 7: This reconstruction of a
colour scheme is less certain as
the additional areas of
polychromy are based on later
Khorsabad and Til Barsip wall
painting findings. There was also
only one instance of a bucket
being shown as white on a wall
painting.
Image source: modified by author,
after ©Trustees of the British
Museum
12
Figure 8: Digital re-colouration of a
relief from Sargon II’s palace,
Khorsabad, showing Sargon II (left)
holding a staff, facing an attendant.
This displays the most probable
original colour schemes, as all
colours were found on the specified
relief features at this site.
Image source: modified by author,
after ©Trustees of the British
Museum
Figure 9: This reconstruction of a
colour scheme is less certain as the
additional areas of polychromy are
based colour evidence from wall
paintings, not reliefs. Although no
rosette clothing patterns were found
to be coloured in this way, single
rosette motifs were often red.
Image source: modified by author,
after ©Trustees of the British
Museum
13
Figures 10 & 11: Digital re-colourations of an illustration of a doorway relief from Khorsabad. The top register depicts
Assyrian soldiers assaulting a city with archers and a battering ram. The lower register depicts a chariot advancing to
the right, with archers in front.
(Left) The most probable original colour scheme, as all colours were found on the specified relief features at
Khorsabad.
(Right) A less probable colour scheme due to the use of additional polychromy based on infrequent and speculative
evidence from wall paintings and glazed bricks, including the red skin of the Assyrians’ enemies.
Image source: modified by author, after Albenda 1986: plate 124
Figure 12: illustration of a Til Barsip wall painting (left), and detail of the digital re-colouration from Khorsabad (right).
Sources: Parrot 1961:269-70, and modified by author after Albenda 1986: plate 124
14
These reconstructions show how great a change polychromy makes to the reliefs’ appearance,
accentuating specific features and producing a clear contrast between coloured and noncoloured sections. This is further demonstrated at the lower the scale of reliability, where
increased amounts of colour produce more vivid appearances. Details of particular features,
such as the trims of the garments, are picked out in interchanging colour patterns. The recoloured reliefs of Sargon II in particular demonstrate this, as the red rosette patterns on his
robe contrasts against the body of the garment (figure 9). In addition, the facial features are
much livelier, with coloured pupils and beards highlighted.
When fully polychromed, the horse trappings depicted on reliefs from Khorsabad have a very
similar appearance to those from the wall paintings of Til Barsip (figure 12). The relatively short
period of time between the reigns of Tiglathpileser III (744-727 BC) and Sargon II (721-705 BC),
to whom these designs are associated with, could explain these similarities. It may suggest that
the colours in fashion were similar, or that horse fittings for the Assyrian army were depicted in
a regulated way.
Discussion
Through the reconstructions and the results observed in this study’s dataset, it has been
demonstrated that a substantial amount of polychromy survives, and further inspections of
reliefs not covered in this dissertation are likely to discover more traces. Whilst it is not possible
to know for certain how much of the reliefs were painted originally, these results suggest that
polychromy was not likely to have covered reliefs and their backgrounds entirely. On the basis
of this current evidence however, it is likely that most if not all reliefs from the North-west
Palace and palace of Khorsabad featured colours on specific features, reflecting Reade’s opinion
of the matter (2008: 15). Specific findings from this research prompted further investigation,
particularly in regards to existing knowledge of Neo-Assyrian art, and are further discussed
below.
Using colour to distinguish people
The study found that standardised colour schemes were used in both palaces. In particular, the
standardised colours applied to Assyrians’ facial features reflected the method of representing
Assyrians recognisably on the carvings through their hair styles and clothing, in order to
distinguish them from other ethnic groups depicted. Such presentations were intentional, as the
use of relief artwork for Assyrian imperial propaganda was suggested to have had influence
from Egypt, where methods of representing royal and native superiority had long been
established (Feldman 2004: 141). The application of colour is therefore likely to have
emphasised racial differences for the use of propaganda, in addition to differentiated carved
depictions of ethnic groups (figure 13). The standard schemes of depiction for Assyrians and
foreigners may have been intentional, to enable viewers of the reliefs to understand the scenes
and narratives depicted, particularly to audiences who would not have been able to read the
cuneiform inscriptions (Zimansky 2005: 317).
15
Figure 13: Facsimile Til Barsip wall painting, of Assyrian soldiers executing foreign
enemies, distinguished through their red skin, hair styles and clothing.
Source: Parrot 1961:107
By the time of Sargon II, cuneiform was added to relief scenes to specify the cities depicted
under siege, such as Bit-Bagaya (figure 14), potentially indicating that by this time, imperial
expression required greater detail that could not be achieved in pictorial form alone, even with
the assistance of polychromy.
Figure 14: Detail of Flandin’s excavation drawing of slab 1, door H at Khorsabad.
The city depicted on the relief also includes a cuneiform caption of its name, BitBagaya.
Source: Albenda 1986: plate 123
16
Colour as wealth and opulence
By stark contrast, inconsistency was found between the colouration of specific features depicted
on reliefs from the North-west Palace at Nimrud, and Sargon II’s palace at Khorsabad.
Madhloom recognised changing trends in the stylistic representation of costumes across the
span of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with the design of sandals becoming lighter with a reduced
heel piece (1970: 93). This study has identified that a change in colour also occurred between
the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II (figure 15), particularly on footwear, with the
introduction of blue to the palette.
Figure 15: Close ups of sandal recolourations from the Northwest Palace (top) and the
Palace at Khorsabad (bottom), emphasising the fashion changes over time.
Visually demonstrating the king’s superiority above others and the enforcement of NeoAssyrian imperial ideologies was necessary in order to influence subject peoples (Liverani
1979). Corresponding with this outlook, images of royalty on reliefs were more lavishly
depicted than other figures, featuring greater incision of details on their clothing (Guralnick
2004). These distinctions have also been found in colour application, as Sargon II’s sandals were
depicted with multicoloured banding patterns whilst other figures’ sandals at Khorsabad
featured only one plain colour. In this instance, colour enforces notions of royal superiority by
distinguishing Sargon from the other depicted figures. In contrast, the style and polychromy on
earlier reliefs attributed to Ashurnasirpal II show that footwear is identically represented
across all human and anthropoid forms, indicating that an active decision was made by later
artisans to distinguish Sargon II from other figures by using colour.
The substantial use of blue at Khorsabad, in contrast to the lack of this colour at the North-west
Palace, may have been a further demonstration of elite expression, as the colour was rare, being
used as a simile to denote high value in Akkadian texts (Biggs et al 2010: 196). The abundance
of blue at Khorsabad might reflect the increased expansion of the Assyrian Empire over 150
years between the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Sargon II, which provided greater access to
sources of blue pigment and foreign artisans whose own traditional techniques became
reflected in Assyrian art (Postgate 1979:207). It can therefore be speculated that the decision to
depict horses in the unnatural colour of blue was intentional, in order to denote their high value,
as they were greatly prized by Assyrian kings (Breniquet 2002: 166).
Furthermore, the substantial amounts of red coloured weapons could have been symbolically
linked to Ishtar, the goddess of war, as red was perceived as her associated colour (Barrett 2007:
17
25). However, red was also frequently applied on non-martial features such as sandals,
therefore such associations may not have been attributed to all accounts of red polychromy.
Naturalism in colour use
The majority of colours were found to have close connections to the real forms
skeuomorphically depicted, such as black eye pupils and red fire, whilst the use of red for gold
jewellery followed Assyrian colour conventions for describing the metal (Brinkman et al 1984:
127). It is likely that the spectrum of colours was more limited during the time of the NeoAssyrian Empire than of present, in perception as well as description. For example, the
Akkadian term for blue was lapis lazuli, indicating that concepts of the colour were associative
with the material and less defined than the discrete colours that existed for red and black, whilst
only a combined term existed for both green and yellow (Charvát 2002:233).
Considering this, polychromy may have been used to represent other visual aspects of material,
even when they do not appear to represent the object accurately. The use of blue on depictions
of metal objects may have been chosen to resemble the colder sheen of specific metals like iron,
as found on surviving helmets (Barron 2010: 195). Further to this, the use of red to represent
gold jewellery followed Assyrian colour conventions for describing the metal (Brinkman et al
1984: 127), and surviving remains of Assyrian gold jewellery, such as rosette appliqués, cuffs
and earrings found in the Queens’ burials at Nimrud also contain red inlays (Damerji 1999;
Oates and Oates 2001: 90-93).
More unnaturalistic colour choices were made in the apparent distinction between man-made
objects made of wood, that were frequently red, and wood depicted in nature on trees and
branches, that was blue. It is possible that the colours of pigment applied were the closest to the
real features available to Assyrian artisans, as red is closely linked to brown in the colour
spectrum, whilst blue is closer to green, the colour of living plants. The distinction between
living trees and wood as a material may suggest that the two forms were perceived distinctly by
Neo-Assyrians, whilst in modern Western culture, trees and wood are viewed as similar.
A caveat to understanding the use of polychromy on Neo-Assyrian reliefs, even with the use of
historical evidence, is that much is speculated. Interpretations are certainly affected by modern
perceptions of art and modern classifications of colour are unlikely to be applicable to NeoAssyrian perspectives, as it cannot be assumed that current spectra structures were used in the
ancient Near East (Sinclair 2012:126). This study has identified some of these potential
differences, and recommends that future research should acknowledge potential differences
between Assyrian perceptions of the material world, art and colour from those of the present.
Conclusion
It was evident that a standardised scheme of colour was used within the North-west Palace of
Ashurnasirpal II and at Sargon II’s palace at Khorsabad, although the two schemes were not
identical on all features. Further to this, polychromy was used to distinguish specific aspects of
relief scenes, such as martial gear, natural features, facial features and costume and fashion.
The main findings of this study have highlighted that standard schemes of colour existed
throughout the time of the empire to portray Assyrians and other peoples distinctly, enhancing
18
the different designs used to distinguish them on relief scenes. Colours may have been
attributed to specific values, such as prestige, and expressed in high quantities on reliefs to
emphasise this in the palaces, for displays of opulence. Also, colour choices were likely to have
been naturalistic, however the pigment shades were limited to those available in the ninth to
seventh centuries BC. Due to this, it is possible that closely associated available colours were
used in place of true colours in some instances.
By recognising the issue that polychromy evidence surviving to the present day has been greatly
reduced, researchers should refrain from being “colour-blind” to the past, as it has been shown
that colour had a high impact on the original appearance of the reliefs. Polychromy is therefore
a subject requiring greater consideration.
These findings are important to recognise, as studies of the reliefs have largely focussed on
contemplating the representations on scenes through the “outward” meaning of the art, in an
art-historical sense (Ataç 2010: xvii). In highlighting that it is unlikely that Assyrians shared the
same concepts of colour as modern Western society, this raises a concern that future research
must consider, not only regarding relief carvings, but of all Neo-Assyrian art forms.
Word count: 4981
19
Bibliography
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22
Appendix 1: Database of all recorded polychromy on reliefs
Specified
colour
Broad description
Description of area colouration Frequency on
relief
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
bow
tongue
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
bow
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
footwear straps
Upper sandal
Sandal sole
Bow
Tongue
Sandal sole
Upper sandal
Sandal straps
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
Sandal sole
Sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Sandal straps
Sandal sole
Sandal sole
bow
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Original
Associated king
palatial site
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Data source type
Photograph
Photograph
Drawing by Layard
Text citation from Layard
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Date of viewing/ Reliability
publication/
rating out of 10
production
2010
2010
2010
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
10
10
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
23
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Red
Black?
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
bow
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
lion
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
eye
eyeliner
eyeliner
headwear
headband
weapon handle
body sash
body sash
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
footwear straps
body sash
body sash
Sandal straps
Sandal sole
Sandal sole
Sandal sole
Sandal sole
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
bow
sandal sole
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
neck of spirit
hair of king
hair of king
beard
beard
eyebrows
eyebrows
eyes
eyeliner
eyeliner
stripes of mitre
headband
king's staff
sashes
sashes
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
sashes
sashes
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nineveh
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurbanipal
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Current state of relief
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
description by researcher of Botta's illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
8
9
9
9
9
9
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
24
blue; red
blue; red
blue; red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Blue
Blue
Blue
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
blue; red
blue; red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Blue
blue; red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
eyeliner
goat
plant
headband
plant
plant
king's upper sandal
king's upper sandal
king's sandal straps
hair
beard
eyebrows
eyeliner
stripes of goat horns
rosette
headband tassle
flower stem
flower edges
outer edges of circle pattern
headband
headband
leaf
flower leaves
plant
flower base
centres of circle pattern
headband
headband
headwear
mitre
horse trappings
horse trappings
horse trappings
straps
horse trappings
reins
rope
ropes
horse harness decorative
horse trappings
patterns
horse trappings
horse headgear patterns
fire
fire
fire
fire
bow
bow
bow
bow
arrow shaft
arrow shafts
headband
headbands
metal weapon
spear
metal weapon
spear
metal weapon
weapon (uncert. def.)
metal weapon
arrowhead
headwear
helmet plume
bow
bow
bow
bow
headband
headband
body sash
body sash
body sash
body sash
weapon accessory quiver top
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
9
9
9
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
259
Red
Blue
Blue
blue; red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
blue; red
blue; red
Blue
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Red
Black
Black
Black
metal weapon
spear
weapon accessory quiver
weapon accessory quiver
horse harness decorative
horse trappings
patterns
horse trappings
horse trappings
horse trappings
reins
upper body
garment
shieldman's body
skin
shieldman's upper arm
weapon accessory quiver
headwear
mitre
parasol
parasol upper
parasol
parasol handle
bow
bow
upper body
garment
rider's garment rim
horse harness decorative
horse trappings
patterns
horse harness decorative
horse trappings
patterns
horse harness decorative
horse trappings
patterns
body sash
sashes
body sash
sashes
metal weapon
spear
horse trappings
reins
horse trappings
horse headgear patterns
headband
headband
plant
flower pod
plant
flower stem
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
Footwear sole
sandal sole
eyeliner
eyeliner
eyeliner
eyeliner
facial hair
beard
plant
rosette
facial hair
hair
eye pupil
pupils
eyeliner
eyeliner
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Plate illustration
1847
9
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Plate illustration
1847
9
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Plate illustration
1847
9
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Nimrud
1 Assur
1 Assur
1 Assur
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Ashurnasirpal II
Shalmaneser III
Shalmaneser III
Shalmaneser III
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Current state of relief
current state of statue
current state of statue
current state of statue
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
269
9
9
9
Black
Black
White
Black
Black
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
White
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
facial hair
facial hair
eye
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
bow
metal weapon
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
armband
bracelet
footwear straps
headband
facial hair
facial hair
eye
eye pupil
tongue
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
Footwear sole
eyebrows
Beard
eyes
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
bow
dagger
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
armlet
bracelet
Sandal straps
headband garland flowers
beard
hair
eyes
pupils
tongue
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
fire
Upper sandal
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Plate illustration
Online photo; curator description
Online photo; curator description
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
Photograph of illustration
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
description of relief state in museum
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
27
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
red; black;
red; black;
red; black;
red; black;
red; black;
red; black;
red; black;
red; black;
Black
Black
red; black;
red; black;
black; red
black; red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear base
footwear base
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
sandal base
sandal base
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
28
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
bow
bow
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
bow
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
footwear straps
footwear straps
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
bow
bow
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
sandal sole
bow
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
Upper sandal
hair
beard
eyebrows
Sandal straps
Sandal straps
sandal sole
sandal sole
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
29
red; black;
red; black;
Red
White
White
White
Black
Black
Black
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
blue; red
Green
Red
Red
Red
footwear straps
footwear straps
lion
eye
eye
eye
eye pupil
eye pupil
eye pupil
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
wood
horse trappings
wood
plant
horse trappings
horse trappings
blue; red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
horse trappings
fire
fire
fire
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Striped sandal straps
Striped sandal straps
neck of spirit
eyes
eyes
eyes
pupils
pupils
pupils
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
tree trunk
horse headgear patterns
tree trunk
stemmed poppy pods
reins
horse trappings
horse harness decorative
patterns
fire
fire
fire
sandal
sandal
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nineveh
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurbanipal
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Layard's illustration
Layard's illustration
William Baucher illustration
Photograph of relief by excavators
Photograph of relief by excavators
Photograph of relief by excavators
Photograph of relief by excavators
Photograph of relief by excavators
Photograph of relief by excavators
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Text description by researcher
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
9
8
8
8
8
8
30
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
blue; red
Red
Red
Red
Blue
Red
Red
Red
Red
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Green
Red
Red
Blue
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
blue; red
Blue
Blue
Red
Red
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
plant
headwear
parasol
parasol
horse trappings
horse
upper body
garment
headband
sword strap
weapon accessory
metal weapon
bow
fire
pinecone
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
wood
body sash
weapon accessory
bow
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
eye pupil
facial hair
facial hair
Footwear sole
Footwear sole
headband
plant
wood
bird
headwear
parasol
sandal
sandal
stemmed poppy pods
mitre
parasol handle
parasol upper
reins
horse mane
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
breast plate
headband
sword band
quiver
spear
bow
fire
cone
sandals
sandals
sandals
sandals
sandals
sandals
branch
sashes
quiver
bow
hair
beard
eyebrows
pupils
hair
beard
shoes
shoes
diadem
flower
tree
bird
mitre
parasol upper
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description by researcher of viewed drawing
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
31
Red
Blue
Red
Red
Blue
Blue
blue; red
Blue
Black
Black
Black
Black
Red
Red
Red
parasol
plant
wood
fruit
leaf
leaf
feather
water
facial hair
facial hair
facial hair
headwear
earring
necklace
body sash
parasol handle
flower
branch
fruit on trees
leaves
pine needles
feathers
lake water
hair
beard
eyebrows
mitre
earrings
necklace
body sash
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Khorsabad
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
1 Nimrud
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
Ashurnasirpal II
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
1847
10
Sargon II
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
Text description of Botta's observations
photograph of current state of relief
conservator's description; current state of relief
conservator's description; current state of relief
conservator's description; current state of relief
conservator's description; current state of relief
conservator's description; current state of relief
conservator's description; current state of relief
conservator's description; current state of relief
VIL imaging, raman spectroscopy analysis by
researchers
VIL imaging, raman spectroscopy analysis by
researchers
Blue
horse trappings
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
Blue
horse trappings
1 Khorsabad
Blue
horse trappings
horse headgear patterns
horse harness decorative
patterns
horse harness decorative
patterns
1847
10
1 Khorsabad
Sargon II
researcher's visual analysis
1847
10
32