Game: more than just meat
Hector and Andrew Stuart Memorial Lecture 2010
Louw Hoffman
Department of Animal Sciences
Stellenbosch University
16th March 2010
The University of Western Australia
Department Animal Sciences
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Faculty of AgriSciences
Stellenbosch University
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Stellenbosch University
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Definition of terms
• Game meat: meat derived from African wild animal species
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History of Game Animals in Africa
• Africa’s mega fauna spared over-exploitation by humans
• Pre-colonial – management systems
• Royal game
• Habitat manipulation
• Harvest regulations, etc
• European colonizers – 350 yrs ago
• African peoples’ traditional values vs European ideas of
ownership
• Strong market economy
• Firearms
• Wildlife competed for space & pasture against cattle
• Source of revenue
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Source: DeGeorges & Reilly, 2009
History of Game Animals in Africa
• 1700’s – 500 000 000 springbok in Karoo & Kalahari Desert
South African and Namibia
• 1896 – great springbok migrations were past
• 1933 International Conference for the Protection of Flora &
Fauna of Africa
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Principles National Parks established
Moved people off ancestral grounds
Made them become “poachers”
Modified forest & savannah ecology
• Land ownership
• Black African - land belonged to ancestors
• White African - owned by title deed.
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History of Game Animals in Africa
• 1990 - World Parks Commission: goal protecting 10%
planet’s surface
• International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN):
Sub-Saharan Africa - % protected areas
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Botswana – 30%
Namibia -14%
South Africa – 6%
Zambia – 41%
Zimbabwe 16%
South Africa
• 6.06% land in protected areas (2008)
• 17 million ha in private game ranches (1999)
• 2.2 X protected areas
• 3 X amount of land needed to reach goal of 10%
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Why?
Land tenureship
Ownership of animals (domestic and wild)
Direct benefit (aesthetically, monetary, etc)
If it Pays it Stays
• Springbok R20/kg (R5/kg costs)
• Impala/kudu R18.50 (R4.50/kg)
• Other R12.50/kg
• Remember: game ranch supports one family – handed over to
100 families – will not create a middleclass!
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South Africa - Game farming
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Potential size of Industry
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2000
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R713 million from 5061 game farms
• R68.89 per ha
Products (R843m in 2000)
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5 000 game farms
4 000 mixed livestock-game farms
20% of surface area
Live sales R180m (21.4%)
Biltong R450m (53.4%)
International trophy R153m (18.1%)
Ecotourism R40m (4.7%)
Meat R20m (2.4%)
Additional R130m
• Prof hunting fee R50m
• Game capture R40m
• State fee R30m
• Meat processing R10m
Namibia
• Regulated by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism
through the Nature Conservation Ordinance no. 4 of 1975
as amended
• Freehold farmers have had ownership rights over land and
livestock since the early 1900’s,
• although the commercial rights over wildlife and indigenous
plants only given in 1967
• Farmers in communal areas received the same rights much
later (1996 and 2001) when policies were adopted to
promote community based natural resource management
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Namibia
• Two million head of game
• a figure roughly similar to those for cattle, for sheep and for
goats.
• 90% of the wildlife is located outside formally proclaimed
conservation areas.
• More than 80% of the larger game species are found on
privately owned farms which comprise about 44% of the
surface area of the country.
• 41% of country under some form of wildlife management
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Namibia
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Namibia: Numbers of harvestable species
Areas
Total wildlife
Hartmann's
Zebra
Kudu Gemsbok Springbok
72 807
381 511 399 464
749 090
Total south of veterinary
cordon fence
137 098
70 107
381 171
389 264
726 090
Freehold
137 098
67 407
378 571
383 764
684 353
0
2 800
2 600
5 500
42 350
0%
4.00%
0.70%
1.40%
5.80%
-
2 700
340
10 200
23 000
0%
3.70%
0%
2.50%
3.10%
Communal
Total north of veterinary
cordon fence
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Red
hartebeest
137 098
Kenya
• Group ownership of land
• But not ownership of game
• Lease/sell for wheat production
• Result
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56% decline in wildlife in most species past 20 yrs
White-bearded wildebeest – 81% decline (1977-1997)
Cape Buffalo – 15 400 (1970s) - 3 000 (1994)
Eland – 5 700 (1980s) – 1 025 (1996)
Warthog – 88% (1988 – 1986)
Giraffe – 72% (1988 -1986)
General comments
• Commercial utilization of game in South Africa and Namibia↑ growth
during the last 20-25 years
• Game farmers now play a key role in the conservation of many game
species
• Capture and sale → very lucrative business worth millions of Rands
• 2008
• 9 139 animals sold for R111 478 250
• Scarce and exotic species → ↑ prices
• Zambia sable fetches R3 million
• Rhino farmed for horns
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“common” species
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marketed in an alternative way
• Live auctions,
• Hunting: trophy – recreational
• Meat production
Background
• Tourism → growing lucrative industry
• unspoilt habitat
• African experience – eat game meat
• Safari kebab
• Appearance maintained
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removal surplus animals
• Predators
• Recreational hunting
• Trophy
• Biltong
• Live auctions
• Cropped
Predators
• Not always suitable
• How many animals would a
pride of five Lion eat per
week? Lehman et al 2008, SA J Wild Res 38(1),
66-78
• Do not always capture
cheap species
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What is the most economical?
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Trophy hunting
Recreational hunting
Game harvesting
Live auctions
• Berry 1984
• Net return
trophy hunting > live animal sales > non-trophy recreational sales
> venison prod
• Index ⇒ number animals involved
venison > live animal sales > non-trophy recreational hunting >
trophy hunting
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Trophy hunting
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A good option
Requires high infrastructue and costs
• Lodgng
• Honest professional hunter
• Sufficient numbers of trophy quality
animals
• Not all animals are trophies
Meat secondary product – not always
suitable for quality meat products
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Trophy haunting industry Ö
R262 763 202
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Potential of trophy hunting to create
incentives for wildlife conservation in
Africa where alternative wildlife-based
land uses may not be viable Animal
Conservation by Lindsey
Trophy Hunting
• Reputation
• Fair deal
• Value for Money
• Roland Ward
• Where get Trophy?
• Buy in
• Ethics
• Black & Blue Wildebeest crosses
• Canned Lion
• Hormones
• Is the client always right?
• I will kill the animal no matter what
• Money buys anything and everything
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Trophy Hunting
• Not all animals are Trophy status!
• 2%
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Live Game Auctions
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Capture team
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Expensive species – dart individual animals
Nets
Boma
Hand
Vet present
Boma Holding facilities
Transport
Insurance
• White muscle capture
myopathy
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Auction
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Live
Catalogue
Buffalo shoulder showing white
muscle capture myopathy - scoline
Holding facilities
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Holding facilities
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Holding facilities
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Production systems
• Potential meat production from African game species long
known
• Trophy hunters
• Biltong
• Export
• Biltong hunting (2004)
• 200 000 hunters in RSA
• Average hunter spends R4 130 on hunt & R11 622 on
game (5 animals per hunter; 1 000 000 per season)
• Total of R3 150 474 000 per annum
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Consumer – attitudes towards Game meat
• Most probably a tourist
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High level of education
Successful business man
Willing to try new things
“Africa experience”
• Perception of Game meat
• Harvested in an ethically manner
• Harvested sustainably & eco-friendly
• Perception of a low carbon footprint
• But expects:
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Harvested and processed – first world technology
Meat safe
Contains no residues
Wholesome
Nutritious
South African/ Namibian local consumer –
attitudes towards Game meat
• Most probably has eaten game meat before – from hunting
• SLOPs & Black Diamonds
• Expect lower quality than traditional red meat species
• Will not pay more
• Consistent quality
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What are the game meat quality attributes?
• Same as for traditional farmed species
• Physical quality
• Colour
• Toughness
• Sensory attributes
• Shelf-life
• Chemical composition
• Residues
• Microbiology
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What influences the quality of meat?
• Same as for traditional farmed species
• Age effect
• Gender effect
• Pre-rigor treatment
• Method of harvesting
• Post-rigor treatment
• Microbiological
• Cooling
• Further processing
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Healthiness
• Dietary fat
• 15-30% total calorie-intake
• Saturated fat <10%; >5%
• Red meat erroneously associated with obesity
• However game meat perceived to have health benefits
• Tourists
• 300 local game meat consumers
• Healthiness (25%)
• Leanness (23%)
• Taste (14%)
• Health benefits – low fat (83%)
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Mean total fat (%), fatty acid composition (%) and total cholesterol content
(mg.100 g-1) of the M. longissimus dorsi of the common duiker, kudu, blesbok,
springbok, impala, red hartebeest, black wildebeest, blue wildebeest, warthog,
buttalo and zebra.
Fatty acid
Kudu
Red
hartebeest
Black
wildebeest
Mountain
reedbuck
Warthog
Total Fat
1.58
0.76
1.07
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4.69
0.97
2.94
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SFA
35.93
42.33
40.35
38.11
56.18
40.97
38.55
35.8
38.78
34.12
MUFA
20.48
18.51
16.67
20.15
28.1
15.33
17.23
16.7
31.61
22.91
PUFA
43.59
40.96
31.59
41.74
32.41
44.27
42.99
47.6
29.32
42.96
PUFA:SFA
1.23
0.97
0.79
1.10
0.58
1.01
1.15
1.33
0.76
1.26
(n-6)/(n-3)
2.29
3.62
3.28
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2.75
2.82
2.07
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-
51.38
56.9
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50.9
46.05
51.08
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Cholesterol
(mg.100 g-1
meat sample)
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Blesbok
Springbok
Impala
Buffalo
Zebra
PUFA:SFA > 0.4
n-6:n-3 < 4.0
Cropping of Game
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Humanity
Economy
Efficiency
Low wounding
percentages
• Low disturbance &
scattering
• Form large herds
• Terrain
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• Selectivity of correct ages
& sexes
• Minimal damage to meat
• Ability to bleed carcasses
• No association with
humans
Game species suitable for harvesting
• Requirements
• Sustainability:
• Numbers – population dynamics
• Reproductive efficiency
• Habitat
• Suitability
• Suitability to night cropping
• Kudu / springbok / impala
• Yield
• Consistent
• Quality
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Commercial harvesting
• 3 major game meat exporters in South Africa
• Also export ostrich
Guidelines for the
• 3 major game meat
Harvesting of Game
exporters in Namibia
for Meat Export
• Very well established export
2010
procedures
• Farms registered
• Culling teams registered
• HACCP
D L van Schalkwyk & LC Hoffman
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With special input from M Y Hemberger and K Magwedere
Only antelope
species
that has African
South
shown an
increase in
numbers the past
Total Abattoir Slaughter Numbers
few years
Game Meat Export 2009
Jan
Feb Mar April May June July Aug
Sept
Springbok
2397 8967 14920 10649 7590 8250 3378
2671
Blesbok
64 209 3638
1315 1045 239
241
573
100
yrs
ago
there
Deer
8
20
27
Gemsbok
1
60
78
239
44
16
were only 550
Ribbok
6
5
animals left –
Kudu
1
79
28
11
312
91
217
266
farmers saved
Red Hartebeest
1
23
109
34
69
15
Zebra and started
19
28
47
25
51
Impala farming
17
80
130
319
54
8
114
Eland
15
63
45
31
Black
Wildebeest
13
20 281
178
77 131
631
74
Blue wildebeest
1
79
65
279
38
4
MonthlyTotal
2475 9295 19149
12634
Weight of carcasses = 1 648 t
Weight exported = 417 t
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9987 8833
4608
3842
Oct
Nov Dec
1193 3063
121
35
11
12
15
Total
63078
7480
66
465
11
1370
251
212
1006
185
166
199
33
50
31
9
234
57
1
20
62
1482
529
1675
3637
76135
Namibia Game Meat Export 2009
• FMM Mariental Abattoir - 68 tons (5 containers) to Belgium
de-boned meat cuts
• Brukarros Meat Processors - 16.8 tons to EU (1 container)
de-boned meat cuts
1.5 tons to RSA - trimmings
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Legislation …
• Extensive regulations
• export of meat, including meat safety
• packaging regulations
• hygiene inspection regulations
• harvesting methods, etc
• Summed up: South African Standard for
the Export of Game Meat (National
Department of Agriculture, 2001)
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Consumer expects ethically acceptable
harvesting procedures
Terrain determines harvesting procedure
• Open veldt
• Night
• Mountain
• Day
• Helicopter
• Bush
• Night
• Boma
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Karoo / grassveld
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Day shooting from a vehicle?
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Helicopter (day)?
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Distance
Firing rate?
Meat quality
Expensive
Meat quality
Eastern Cape
Night shooting?
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Efficient
Meat quality maintained
Veld depot required
• Lights
• Warm water
• Some work being published on day and night cropping
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How does it work?
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Game harvesting team
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An approved vehicle, methods, etc.
SA Standard …
• Game depot
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Approved specifications
SA Standard …
• Game depot
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Health inspection
SA Standard …
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Game depots
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Carcasses sealed in cool truck
SA Standard …
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Game depots
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Transported to the deboning facility
Normal legislation applicable
Game processing
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Marketing
• Exported
• Up market
• Healthy
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Mountainous terrain
• Difficult to access
• Helicopter
• Expensive
• Meat quality
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Damage to carcasses
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Bushveld
• Drive at night with spotlight
• Game animal blinded
• Shot
• Bush too dense
• Only animals along path / road
• Slow rate of off-take
• Boma
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Bushveld
• Larger species
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Bushveld: Boma (information supplied by Dr T Bergh)
• How does it work?
• <07h00: Helicopter chases game into the Boma: 1030 min
• Game kept
• Overnight
• 30 min
• Boma full: start culling immediately
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Boma
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Buffalo in boma
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Bushveld
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How does it work?
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Groups of ± 10 animals
into death acre(10x5 m)
.22 with silencer shot from
above
Firing: 60-90 secs
Animals removed – hooked
onto truck
Truck moves 30 m and
then animals exsanguinated
Process completed within
10 min
Bushveld
• Carcasses transported to veld depot
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Bushveld
• Carcasses are degutted and inspected
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Bushveld
• Carcasses loaded into cool trucks
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Chemical and Physical Quality
• Quantified for the longissimus dorsi muscle of the following
species:
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Springbok
Blesbok
Kudu
Black and blue wildebeest
Gemsbok
Hartebees
Warthog
Eland
Mountain reedbuck
Duiker
And?
• Very slight gender differences
• Data skew?
• Species differ
• Muscle fibre types
• Diet has an effect on fatty acid composition
• Impala: Mussina vs Mara Research station
• Initial results indicate differences between muscles
• Need more info
• Seasonal effects?
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Ante and post mortem procedures
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Most game meat removed as individual muscle
Vacuum packed, frozen
Exported into Europe
Defrosted
Sliced into steaks and packed for retail
• Modified atmospheric package
• Problems with freezing and defrosting
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Ante and post mortem procedures
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Ante and post mortem procedures
• Game meat hygiene
• Quantification of harvesting techniques on meat quality
• Species specific
• Chilling and transporting procedures
• Electrical stimulation?
• Processing
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Modified atmospheric packaging
Freezing and defrosting rates
Salami
Traditional
• Biltong
• Boere wors (dried sausage)
• Re-constructured steaks
Threats: Bushmeat
Source: DeGeorges & Reilly, 2009
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Other areas that we require knowledge for
• Consumer trends
• National
• International
• Residues in meat
• Namibia bush encroachment?
• What can RSA harvest on an annual sustainable basis?
• Namibia: PhD student “Investigating game meat potential of
Namibia”
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Conclusion
• Game farming is here to stay
• Game meat production (thus numbers) will continue to increase
• Maintain the image of free-range
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Galen
Greek physician
Second Century
Urged all young men to
EAT RED FOOD AND RED LIQUIDS
To become
MORE SANGUINE, CHEERFUL and CONFIDENT