IN THE NAME OF GOD
Islam
mic Azad University
U
y
Centtral-Tehraan Branch
h
Facultyy of Foreiggn Languages
A THE
ESIS SUB
BMITED IIN PART
TIAL FUL
LFILMEN
NT OF TH
HE
REQUIR
REMENTS
S FOR TH
HE DEGR
REE OF M
MASTER
R OF ART
TS IN
TEAC
CHING EN
NGLISH AS A FOREIGN L
LANGUA
AGE (TEF
FL)
T Rellationsh
The
hip amoong Crittical Th
hinking,, Autonoomy,
and
d Choicee of Voccabularry Learn
ning Strrategiess
Advisoor:
Maniaa Nosrattinia Ph.D.
Readeer:
Seyyedeeh Sepid
deh Maraandi
By:
M
Mojgan A
Abbasi
Spring 22012
To my:
dear and loving husband,
who truly believes in me
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the help of
God.
My profound appreciation and sincere thanks also go to many people who
helped me throughout this research.
First and foremost, I would like to extend my gratitude to my advisor Dr.
Mania Nosratinia for her valuable suggestions and guidelines. Without her kind
support the completion of this thesis seemed far from possible.
I deeply thank Mrs. Seyyedeh Sepideh Marandi for her invaluable supervision,
insightful comments, and correction.
I am also thankful to my thesis reader, Dr. Kouroush Akef who accepted to
read the present study and delivered his precious remarks.
I would also like to express my gratefulness to all my professors who
enlightened me through the course of my study as an M.A. student, and all my
professors and students who helped me during the data collection of the study.
I would also like to thank my friend Ms. Firouz for her unselfish guidance and
encouragement.
My special gratitude must go to my parents and my sister for their love,
support and, affection. I do thank them from the bottom of my heart.
Last, but not of course, least, I want to thank my husband by all means. The
most powerful words are not proper means to express my deepest appreciation
and love towards him.
Abstract
Research has shown that vocabulary plays an important role in helping to build
overall L2 proficiency (Schmitt, 2000; Sokmen, 1997). Therefore, the
strategies that learners use to learn vocabulary are of great importance in the
field of second/foreign language learning and teaching. The present study is an
attempt to investigate the relationship among critical thinking ability,
autonomy, and choice of vocabulary learning strategies of Iranian EFLlearners.
To fulfill the purpose of the study, a group of one hundred male and female
learners majoring in English Translation and English Literature were randomly
selected and were given three Piloted questionnaires: a questionnaire of critical
thinking by Honey (2000); a questionnaire of autonomy by Spratt, Humphreys,
& Chan (2002); and a questionnaire of vocabulary learning strategies (VLSQ)
by Schmitt (1997). To find out the relationship among variables the Pearson
Product Moment Correlation was conducted. The results of the statistical
analysis revealed that Iranian EFL learners' autonomy was significantly related
to their critical thinking ability. The participants' critical thinking ability and
autonomy also correlated positively with their overall use of vocabulary
learning strategies and their self-assessed degree of determination,
memorization, cognitive, meta-cognitive and social strategies of L2 vocabulary
learning. Since a significant relationship was found between autonomy and
vocabulary learning strategies & critical thinking and vocabulary learning
strategies, it can be concluded that the obtained results may help EFL teachers
and educators to bear in mind the benefits of developing their learners'
autonomy and critical thinking when dealing with vocabulary teaching.
Table of Contents BACKGROUND & PURPOSE ................................................................................................................... I 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 2 1.2 Statement of the problem .................................................................................................................. 7 1.3 Statement of the Research Questions .............................................................................................. 11 1.4 Statement of the Research Hypotheses ............................................................................................ 12 1.5 Definition of Key Terms ..................................................................................................................... 13 1.5.1 Critical Thinking ............................................................................................................. 13 1.5.2 Learners’ autonomy ...................................................................................................... 13 1.5.3 Vocabulary Learning Strategies ..................................................................................... 14 1.6 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................................... 14 1.7 Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................................... 21 1.7.1 Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 21 1.7.2 Delimitations ................................................................................................................. 21 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ................................................................................................ 23 2.1 Importance of vocabulary Learning .................................................................................................. 24 2.2 What a good vocabulary is? .............................................................................................................. 27 2.3 The meaning of knowing a word ....................................................................................................... 28 2.4 Different Types of Vocabulary........................................................................................................... 36 2.5 Learning strategies ............................................................................................................................ 38 2.6 Vocabulary Learning Strategies ......................................................................................................... 42 2.7 Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ................................................................................... 47 2.7.1 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Stoffer (1995) ..................................... 48 2.7.2 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Gu and Johnson (1996) ...................... 49 2.7.3 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Lawson and Hogben (1996) ............... 49 2.7.4 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Schmitt (1997) .................................... 51 2.7.5 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Weaver and Cohen (1997) ................. 54 2.7.6 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Hedge (2000) ...................................... 56 2.7.7 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Cook (2001) ........................................ 57 2.7.8 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Decarrico (2001) ................................. 58 2.7.9 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Nation (2001; 2005) ........................... 59 I 2.7.10 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Pemberton (2003) .............................. 60 2.7.11 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Classification by Intaraprasert (2004) ........................... 63 2.8 The Importance of Vocabulary Learning Strategies .......................................................................... 66 2.9 Vocabulary Learning Strategy Training ............................................................................................. 69 2.10 A Historical Review of Autonomy...................................................................................................... 71 2.11 Significance of Learner Autonomy .................................................................................................... 73 2.12 What is autonomous learning? ......................................................................................................... 76 2.13 Characteristics of Learner Autonomy ............................................................................................... 78 2.14 What is Autonomy? ........................................................................................................................... 82 2.15 Autonomous Learners ....................................................................................................................... 87 2.16 Teacher Autonomy ............................................................................................................................ 90 2.17 How can Learner Autonomy be Promoted ....................................................................................... 93 2.18 Learner Autonomy and Vocabulary Learning ................................................................................... 96 2.19 What is thinking?............................................................................................................................... 98 2.20 Types of Thinking ............................................................................................................................ 101 2.21 Critical Thinking ............................................................................................................................... 103 2.22 Characteristics of the critical thinker .............................................................................................. 108 2.23 Critical Thinking Skills ...................................................................................................................... 111 2.24 Concepts in critical thinking ............................................................................................................ 118 2.25 Significance of critical thinking ........................................................................................................ 120 METHOD .......................................................................................................................................... 125 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 126 3.2 Participants ..................................................................................................................................... 126 3.3 Instrumentation .............................................................................................................................. 126 3.3.1 Questionnaire of Autonomy........................................................................................ 127 3.3.2 Critical Thinking Questionnaire ................................................................................... 129 3.3.3 Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (VLSQ) ............................................... 130 3.4 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 135 3.5 Design .............................................................................................................................................. 137 3.6 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 139 ANALYSIS OF DATA ........................................................................................................................... 140 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 141 II 4.2 Descriptive Analyses of the pilot study ........................................................................................... 141 4.3 Descriptive Data of Autonomy Questionnaire ................................................................................ 146 4.4 Descriptive Data of Critical Thinking Questionnaire ....................................................................... 148 4.5 Descriptive Data of Vocabulary Learning Strategy Questionnaire (VLSQ) ................................... 150 4.5.1 4.6 Statistical Analyses .......................................................................................................................... 156 4.6.1 4.7 Reliability of the Questionnaires ................................................................................. 155 Testing the Null Hypothesis ........................................................................................ 156 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 165 CONCLUSION & PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS .................................................................................. 168 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 169 5.2 Procedure and Summary of Findings .............................................................................................. 169 5.3 Pedagogical Implications ................................................................................................................. 171 5.4 5.3.1 Implications for EFL Teachers ...................................................................................... 171 5.3.2 Implications for EFL Learners ...................................................................................... 172 5.3.3 Implicatins for Syllabus Designers ............................................................................... 174 Suggestions for Further Studies ...................................................................................................... 175 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 177 APPENDIXES ..................................................................................................................................... 202 III LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Aspects of Knowing a Word by Nation…………………………………………………. 35
Table 2.2: Key features of language learning strategies…………………………………………….40
Table 2.3: Definitions of Autonomy in Language Learning…………………………………………84
Table 2.4: Dimensions of Thinking…………………………………………………………………..99
Table 2.5: Core Critical Skills…………………………………………………………….………....113
Table 3.1: Categories of Vocabulary Learning Strategies…………………………………………...132
Table 4.1: Case Processing of Autonomy Questionnaire……....……......……...……………,……..143
Table 4.2: Reliability Index of Autonomy Questionnaire …..……………………….……….……..143
Table 4.3: Case Processing of Critical Thinking Questionnaire ……………………………..……..144
Table 4.4: Reliability Index of Critical Thinking Questionnaire ..…………………………….……144
Table 4.5: Case Processing of VLSQ ...………………………………………………..…………...145
Table 4.6: Reliability Index of VLSQ ..………………………………………………………..…..145
Table 4.7: Descriptive Statistics of the Autonomy Questionnaire ………….…………………...…146
Table 4.8: Descriptive Statistics of the Critical Thinking Questionnaire ….…………..……....….148
Table 4.9: Descriptive Statistics for Overall Strategy Use Related to VLSQ .……………………..151
Table 4.10: Descriptive Statistics for Categories of VLSQ ……………………………………..…152
Table 4.11: Reliability of the Questionnaires……………………………………………………….156
Table 4.12: Correlation of Autonomy and Critical Thinking Ability………………………………157
Table 4.13: Correlation between Critical Thinking and Overall Used of VLS …………………….158
Table 4.14: Correlations between each Category of VLS and Critical Thinking ……………….....160
Table 4.15: Correlation of Autonomy and Overall Use of VLS …………………………………...161
Table 4.16: Correlation of Autonomy and Subscales of VLSQ ……………………………………163
IV Table 4.17: Difference between EFL Learners’ Critical Thinking & Autonomy in Predicting Choice
of VLS…………………………………………………………………………………164
Table 4.18: Regression Coefficients ………………………………………………………………..165
Table 4.19: Degree of Correlation between Autonomy, Critical Thinking, and VLS …………...…165
V LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Graphic representation of Paul-Elder (2006) Critical Thinking
Framework...................................................................................................117
Figure 4.1: Graph Showing the Score Distribution of the Autonomy Questionnaire …......147
Figure 2.2: Graph Showing the Score Distribution of Critical Thinking Questionnaire…...149
Figure 4.3: Histogram of Metacognitive Strategies ………………………………………..153
Figure 4.4: Histogram of Cognitive Strategies …………………………………………….153
Figure 4.5: Histogram of Memory Strategies ……………………………………………...154
Figure 4.6: Histogram of Determination Strategies ……………………………………….154
Figure 4.7: Histogram of Social Strategies ………………………………………………..155
VI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
L1: Native Language
L2: Foreign Language
VLS: Vocabulary Learning Strategies
PVLS: Productive Vocabulary Learning Strategies
ESL/EFL: Learners of English as a Second/Foreign Language
CTQ: Critical Thinking Questionnaire
CLT: Communicative Language Teaching
VII CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND & PURPOSE
1.1 Introduction
Vocabulary is of high importance in the era of second/foreign language
learning and teaching. It is a fact that there is no language without words and
words are the building-blocks of a language (Thornbury, 2002). Decarrico
(2001, p. 285) points out that “vocabulary learning is central to language
acquisition whether it is a second, or a foreign language”, “even in a learner’s
mother tongue, there is an incessant learning of new words and new meanings
for old words” (Thornbury, 2002, p. 1).
Any learner of a foreign language knows very well that “words are
essential, and that lack of them leads to difficulties in communication
situations” (Maley 1986, p. 3). But the acquisition of a large number of
vocabulary items may be considered as of the most difficult aspects of learning
a second language for most L2 learners (Meara, 1980, 1982; Read, 2000;
Stoffer, 1995). It is not easy for all language learners to learn and acquire the
meanings of new words, and to expand their vocabulary size. Because learning
a word involves so many things about that word which includes not only
memorizing but also being able to recall and use it in appropriate situations
(Verhallen & Schoonen, 1993). Therefore, regarding the vital role of
vocabulary in learning a language, investigating factors that might influence on
vocabulary learning is of high importance.
One of the influential factors in vocabulary learning is strategies (Brown
2007, P. 132). Strategies are those specific attacks that individuals make on a
given problem, and that vary considerably within each individual. They are the
moment-by-moment techniques that individuals employ to solve problems
posed by second language input and output (Brown 2007, P. 132).
The incorporation of vocabulary learning strategies into language
teaching has been suggested by language educators to improve the
effectiveness of vocabulary memorization by students and to expand students’
vocabulary size (Fan, 2003; Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown, 1999; Nation, 2001,
2004; Nation & Meara, 2002; Schmitt, 2000; Shen, 2004; Tsuchida, 2002). In
line with the great importance of vocabulary learning strategies some other
scholars, such as Tarone (1983, p. 67); Rubin (1987, p. 22); O’Malley and
Chamot (1990, p.1); Oxford (1990, p.1); Williams and Burden (1997, p. 145),
point out that strategies are essential tools for developing communicative
competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved
proficiency and greater self-confidence (Oxford, 1990).
3 Traditional curriculum designs have neglected the teaching of how to
learn, but instead focused on imparting knowledge and skills (Williams and
Burden, 1997). Also, according to Richards (1976) teaching and learning of
vocabulary has never aroused the same degree of interest within language
teaching as have such issues as grammatical competence, reading or writing
which have received considerable attention from scholars and teachers. On the
other hand, as Hedge (2000) says there has been a "neglect of vocabulary" in
the literature of English language teaching and learning (p.110). Thus, finding
new and effective strategies for vocabulary learning and retention seem
necessary.
It is a fact that the importance of using strategies in second language
acquisition has recently been understood (O’Malley & Chamot, 1996). But still
more attempts are needed to be done to make a meaningful interaction between
learner types and the vocabulary learning strategies they apply. Teachers
should pay attention to the ways in which learning style preferences might
affect vocabulary learning (Oxford and Crookall, 1990).
Therefore, more attempts are needed to determine and identify what type
of learners- critical, autonomous, introvert, extrovert, field-independent, fielddependent learners, etc.- apply what learning strategies. Therefore, in order to
4 help learners to learn vocabulary successfully and become self-directed
learners of vocabulary, they must be taught and appropriately trained various
kinds of vocabulary learning strategies to help them to choose and apply
strategies that best suit their type. As a result, creating a meaningful interaction
between learner types and the vocabulary learning strategies they apply is
crucial.
As mentioned using appropriate vocabulary learning strategies can lead
to becoming a self-directed or autonomous learner that means having, and
holding, the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this
learning, including vocabulary learning (Holec, 1981). Autonomy is generally
defined as the capacity to take charge of, or responsibility for one's own
learning (Holec, 1981, p. 3). It is both a social and an individual construct,
which involves the personal development of each student and, at the same time,
interaction with others (La Ganza, 2001).
Research findings have provided evidence that autonomy is of general
concern in second or foreign language learning (Dafei, 2007; Wenden, 1998;
Zhang & Li, 2004). As a result, the trends in language teaching has recently
moved toward making learners more autonomous and shifting the
responsibility toward the learner (Wenden, 1998). Moreover, autonomy
5 according to (Scharle and Szabo, 2000) is the freedom and ability to manage
one’s own affairs, which entails the right to make decisions as well. An
autonomous person, according to Paul and Elder (2002), is not dependant on
others for the direction and control of one’s thinking. It is the self-authorship
on one’s beliefs, values, and ways of thinking.
Little (1995) argues that the pursuit of autonomy in formal educational
context is a matter of both learning and learning how to learn. Promoting the
development of learner autonomy in second language classes requires
maximizing learners’ potential for learning through critical reflection.Students
must go beyond absorbing knowledge and learn to heighten skills to judge
information, evaluate alternative evidence and argue with tenable reasons (Ku,
2009). In order to develop potential for learning via critical reflection learners
need critical thinking and critical thinking instruction.
According to Wagner (1997) no one can develop expertise in any area
without engaging in the effortful processes of thinking. Critical thinking is
recognized as an important competence for students to acquire in academic
language (Connolly, 2000; Davidson, 1998; Davidson & Dunham, 1997).
According to Kress (1985) critical thinking is a social practice and is language
itself. Critical thinking, as a high level of cognitive function, "is a purposeful,
6 self-regulatory judgement which results in interpretation, analysis evaluation,
and
inference,
as
well
as
explanations
of
evidential,
conceptual,
methodological or contextual consideration upon which the judgement is
based" (Astleitner, 2002, p. 53).
Considering the importance of vocabulary in learning a language on the
one hand and the difficulty in learning, storing and recalling them on the other
hand, one cannot neglect the importance of vocabulary learning strategies. But
learners should find strategies that are appropriate for them. Importance of
critical thinking and autonomy cannot be ignored in being able to be selfdirected and find your own way of learning.
1.2 Statement of the problem
One crucial factor in learning a second/foreign language according to
McCarthy (1988) is the amount of vocabulary one possesses as vocabulary
forms the biggest part of meaning of any language. However, according to Fan
(2003) it is generally given little emphasis in the university curriculum in Asian
countries. Since the emphasis on English teaching in universities in Asian
countries is on the four language skills this means vocabulary teaching in many
classrooms is largely incidental (Fan, 2003; Catalan, 2003).
7 Catalan (2003) continues that vocabulary learning is largely ad hoc and
very dependent on the efforts of the teachers and students. Therefore, this
incidental approach to vocabulary learning may cause a general inadequacy in
vocabulary knowledge among Asian students. And as Fan (2003) states
inadequacy in lexical knowledge not only may hinder students’ proficiency
development but may also affect their performances in public exams.
As mentioned earlier, vocabulary plays a key role in learning a language.
But learning vocabulary is a hard task. Because learning a word involves so
many things about that word which includes not only memorizing it but also
being able to recall it, use it in appropriate situations, and have a depth of word
knowledge, which is as important as learning many words (breadth of word
knowledge). But unfortunately, Second-language learners have been shown to
be impaired in depth of word knowledge, even for frequently occurring words
(Verhallen & Schoonen, 1993). Depth of word knowledge is beyond knowing
literal meaning; it involves knowing connotations, syntactic constructions and
morphological options like synonyms and antonyms of a word.
Therefore, with the importance of vocabulary learning and the
difficulties it includes, it is justifiable that EFL teachers, researchers, and
scholars, like the researcher of the present study become interested in
8