INTRODUCTION
Oceans cover two-thirds of the Earth’s
surface. However, this does not make
oceans resilient to the external effects.
Instead, with the events occurring in
today’s world, they are in a much more
need of protection, being sensitive and
vulnerable. Activities like overfishing,
pollution from run-off, and most
importantly, disposal of waste into
oceans performed by humans harm the
oceans and even create problems for
the future. These problems mainly have health impacts to marine life and also
humans. Ecosystems and habitats are damaged, marine life is threatened. Some of
the marine species are listed as endangered due to the high rate of disposal into
oceans, in other words, because of the sanity of oceans could not being implemented
effectively. Even though nuclear and industrial waste disposal to oceans was
prohibited by laws adopted in 1970s, people continue to dump waste into oceans, by
illegal means.
“They would not do this to themselves,” was the opinion of individuals who did not
want to believe that the ones holding the power was damaging the environment by all
means, including marine pollution, so disposal of waste. After all, as the members of
the Earth, they would not perform activities that would threaten their health and lives
as well. However, the performers of damage are very far from this thought, living as if
there is no tomorrow and they are not the citizens of the Earth, wasting the
environment according to their wishes. All people sharing the Earth must
acknowledge the fact that they are the ones living in this planet, it is their first task to
protect it. In the 1970s, 17 million tons of industrial waste was dumped into oceans.
In the 1980s, the number was reduced to 8 million tons. Even though the activity is
banned today, the illegal disposals made today contribute to the number, and the
damage made by, already existing waste. As industries all around the world, and
nuclear activities continue to increase and develop, it is inevitable for the issue of
“disposal of waste” to be raised again. As a result, actions to prevent oceans from the
harmful effects of waste disposal should be one of the topics that has to be
considered for the sake of the environment, and creatures sharing it.
KEY TERMS
Debris: Debris, in general, is the scattered remains of something broken or
destroyed, in the form of a wreckage or rubble. Another definition would be the
carelessly disposed refuse, mainly waste. Marine debris, or more specifically ocean
debris, refers to the accumulation of such wastes on the ocean ground.
Nuclear Waste: Nuclear wastes are the
radioactive and extremely toxic byproducts of
nuclear fuel processing plants, nuclear medicine
and nuclear weapon industries. Basically, it is the
material that nuclear fuel becomes after it is used
in a reactor. They are also referred to as
radioactive wastes as they remain radioactive for
thousands of years, this being the reason behind their toxic nature. In order to
prevent any contact, these wastes have to be buried deep in the ground in thick
concrete or metal containers. Their damage to the health of marine beings and
humans can be seen in longer periods as they have effects on genetics.
Industrial Waste: Industrial waste is defined as waste generated by manufacturing
or industrial processes. Types of industrial waste includes metals, oil, solvents,
chemicals, wood, masonry and concrete. They are residue materials in form of solid,
semi-solid, liquid, or gas. The concept of “industrial waste” mainly emerged after the
Industrial Age.
Sewage: Sewage refers to the refused liquids or waste material that is carried away
from houses and other buildings in a system of pipes.
Ocean Dumping: Ocean dumping can be defined as any deliberate disposal of
garbage, sewage, waste chemicals, construction debris, industrial waste and nuclear
waste, basically all means of wastes, into
oceans by man-made structures. In many
cases, ocean dumping is controlled and
regulated by governments, conventions and
treaties; however, this does not change the
fact that there are still illegal disposals of
hazardous wastes into oceans by ships and
tankers, threatening the future of marine
environment.
Incineration: Incineration is defined as the deliberate combustion of wastes and
other matter on marine incineration facilities for purpose of their thermal destruction,
by the London Convention. Incineration of all types of wastes, especially industrial
wastes, at oceans and other water bodies was prohibited by London Convention.
GENERAL OVERVIEW
Ocean disposal, or in other words ocean dumping, started indirectly long before the
Agricultural Age. Nearby streams, lakes and estuaries to society’s living area were
useful to people as being waste repositories. As people moved to coastal zones,
oceans became their waste repositories. They were now considered as larger
repositories, like bigger “garbage cans”. Civilizations were always established near
water bodies to use waters for living purposes, and of course, as a place to dispose
of unnecessary items. Disposal of wastes into oceans were universally practiced
since it was viewed as a cheap and a convenient way of getting rid of wastes.
Industrial Age opened a new era for ocean dumping as chemicals and industrial
wastes, as well as their byproducts, were now commonly disposed into oceans.
However, at the beginning of the Industrial Age, oceans were not used because of
the distance and difficulty in transporting waste materials. As civilization developed at
areas adjacent to ocean and ships became a way of disposing, oceans dumping
became an alternative for industries all over the world.
Over past 150 years, every possible waste, such
as sewage, industrial waste, military waste
(chemicals and munitions), and nuclear waste,
was dumped into oceans. These wastes were
entering the oceans through river, atmospheric
and pipeline discharges, construction activities,
offshore mining, oil and gas exploration, and of
course, shipboard waste disposal. It was almost
as the oceans became an ultimate dumping
ground for humans. It was just over the past fifty years that it was “recognized”
oceans and marine life it was hosting are under a serious threat. This recognition
gave a place for national and international work being done towards the issue.
However, today, it is possible to see some of the effects of ocean dumping at trashed
beaches.
Industrial and nuclear wastes are especially threatening the oceans and damaging
the health of marine life, as well as threatening the human life. As an example,
mercury, a bad toxic element, made some of the harvestable seafood for humans
extremely dangerous for consumption. Chemical concentrations of significant toxics
are affecting the marine life in a negative way as well. An important branch creating
industrial wastes is the mining activities. For example, gold and copper mines create
a vast amount of waste disposed into the oceans. Mining corporations dump over
180 million wastes each year into water bodies (rivers, lakes, oceans). Nuclear
wastes, on the other hand, are mainly resulting from the activities of labs in different
countries which are working to build nuclear weapons. The rate of nuclear wastes
being disposed into oceans especially increased after World War II, also with the
increase of nuclear industries. According to UN, developed countries are disposing
their nuclear wastes from the waters of less developed countries. Somalia can be
given as a recent example of such countries as it did not have a functioning
government from the early 1990s onwards. The radioisotopes dumped into oceans
with nuclear wastes have a long period of activity and can show radioactive effects
for hundreds or thousands of years. This is especially dangerous for marine health
and humans’ health. Uncontrolled disposal activities caused some areas of oceans to
become demonstrably contaminated with high concentrations of harmful pollutants
like heavy metals and inorganic nutrients. Depletion of oxygen levels in some ocean
waters became an alarming issue as it was threatening the marine environment.
In 1970s, 17 million tons of industrial wastes were legally disposed into the oceans.
In 1980s, this number was 8 million tons and it included acids, alkaline waste, scrap
metals, waste from fish processing, flue desulphurization, sludge, and coal ash.
Nuclear, radioactive, waste differs from industrial waste as it remains radioactive for
decades. As nuclear waste is highly toxic, the protocol for disposing nuclear waste
involves special treatment which is keeping it in concrete drums so that it does not
spread when it hits the ocean ground. It results from nuclear power process, medical
and research use of radioisotopes, and industrial uses. Disposal of nuclear waste
had its peak in 1950s and 1960s.
As the issue of disposal became an alarming problem, at the beginning of 1960s,
numerous groups, including global, regional, governmental and environmental ones,
attracted public attention towards negative impacts of ocean dumping. However, only
few regulatory (or legal) actions occurred to control or prevent such dumping
activities over the course of history. Also, one of the main problems standing in front
of the implementation process is national regulations being eroded by amendments
and exemptions in most of the countries.
TIMELINE OF KEY EVENTS
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Late in the 19th century: The US
Congress enacted the Section 10 of
the “River and Harbor Act of 1890”.
This
section
prohibited
any
obstruction to the navigation of US
waters. US Congress made the
secretary of the army acting through
the chief of the US Army Corps of
Engineers
responsible
for
implementing,
regulating
and
detecting the section and the act.
1958: First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I) was
held.
1969: Adoption of “National Environmental Policy Act of 1969” (NEPA), US law
for environment, is a step important towards the environmental protection and
even referred to as “environmental Magna Carta”.
1972: The US Congress passed the “Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act” (also known as Ocean Dumping Act, ODA or MPRSA) to
establish global standards for regulations of ocean waters. Congress made the
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Environmental Protection Agency responsible from the act. Also, “Federal Water
Pollution Control Act” (also known as Clean Water Act or CWA) amendments
were passed by the Congress.
1972: Resulting from the need of an international recognition to regulate ocean
disposal, UN Conference on the Human Environment was held in 1972. Also, an
inter-governmental conference on the convention of the Dumping of at Sea was
held in November 1972. These conferences resulted in the production of a treaty,
which was the “Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and other Matter” or by its better known name “London Convention 1972
(LC-72)”. This convention come to effect in August 1975. Today, the convention
has eighty member nations. It prohibited the dumping of high level radioactive
waste into oceans.
1973: “International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships”
(MARPOL) was adopted on November 1973. It was modified by the protocol of
1978, a related addition and became known as MARPOL 73/78.
1975: Greenpeace, an organization working for the protection of environment,
was established.
1982: UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 1982) took place.
However, it entered the force in November 1994.
1996: Contracting parties to the London Convention came together in 1996 and
concluded negotiations toward a new, free-standing treaty, referred to as the
London Protocol, to modernize and eventually replace the London Convention.
The London Protocol entered into force in 2006. Of course, its aim was to work
towards a better protection of marine life and environment.
2006: New regulations regarding ocean waste disposal were adopted in
European Union. Countries of EU were no longer able to export their hazardous
wastes to that do not have the capabilities to deal with waste in an
environmentally friendly way.
2009: “The Marine and Coastal Access Act” is designed by the UK to ensure the
clean, healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverse situation of the oceans.
MAJOR PARTIES INVOLVED
US Environment Protection Agency (EPA): US
Environment Protection Agency (EPA) was established in
December 2, 1970, the time in which environmental issues
were attracting attention the most. It is an agency which
combines various elements beneficial for the protection of
the environment, including federal research, standardsetting and enforcement activities. These activities are, of
course, performed to ensure environmental protection. The
agency, working on a cleaner and healthier environment,
has accomplishments in many areas, both on national and international level.
International Maritime Organization (IMO): International Maritime Organization
(IMO) is a specialized agency of United Nations. It is specialized in the area of safety
and security of shipping, and prevention of marine pollution. It is possible to say that
its works are directly related with the disposal of industrial wastes. IMO is a global
standard-setting authority, focusing on safety, security and environmental
performance. It makes universal adoptions and implementations of these adoption.
As its main concern is environmentally-safe shipping, it works in the areas of ship
design, construction, equipment, manning, operation and disposal.
World Wildlife Fund (WWF): World Wildlife Fund (WWF), came
into force in April 1961, is a leading organization in wildlife
conservation and endangered species. Working in 100 countries,
the fund is supported by 1.2 million members in United States and
close to 5 million members globally. The features making WWF
unique are its global reach, foundation in science, action at every
level from local to global and innovative solutions. In the area of
oceans, WWF works for the safeguarding of healthy oceans and
marine life.
Greenpeace: Greenpeace is an independent organization working through
campaigning. Its activities are non-violent and are used to create public awareness. It
uses confrontation to expose global environmental problems and creation of
solutions for a sustainable and a “green” future.
Greenpeace Organization was started in 1975. It consists
of Greenpeace International (Stitching Greenpeace
Council) in Amsterdam and Greenpeace offices around
the world. The organization is present in 26 independent
national and regional offices across the world, covering
operations in more than 55 countries. These offices are
governed by boards which appoint representatives
(called trustees). Trustees meet once a year and develop long-term strategies of the
organization, planning the use of Greenpeace International’s budget, as well as
making necessary changes to governance structure.
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP): UNEP is a body of United
Nations which is a leading environmental authority. It sets up the global agenda for
many environmental issues and ways for their implementation. Strengthening
institutions, developing international and national environmental instruments, and
assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends are
among the program’s works.
PREVIOUS SOLUTIONS
In the London Convention (LC-72) adopted in 1972 and London Protocol adopted in
1996, protection of sea and the sea-bed was emphasized. Internal waters of States
were excluded from this unless a party (state) wanted to be involved. Incineration at
sea was directly prohibited as it was considered as ocean dumping and emissions
from the incinerated stack would deposit into the surrounding ocean waters. Also as
an important point, export of wastes and other materials to other countries for the
purpose of dumping or incineration was prohibited as well. In order to implement the
Convention, designation of natural authorities was decided upon. Ocean dumping
was only allowed on the basis of a permit. As a result of this Convention, States
stopped unregulated dumping and incineration activities of 1960s and 1970s, which
was in an extensive amount. All disposal activities were subjected to licensing and
controlled by regulatory programs which took into the consideration the need for such
programs and possible negative impacts on the oceans. By London Protocol,
prohibitions for the disposal of industrial and nuclear wastes, and their incineration at
water bodies were extended. Guidance was given to the States in need of providing
a better protection of their waters. 9 specific guidelines have been developed for a
logical, step-by-step assessment of each waste category, all of them addressing
waste prevention audit, assessment of alternatives, waste characterization, “action
list”, and assessment of potential effects of sea and land disposal options, disposal
site collection, monitoring and licensing procedures. The main aim of all programs,
conventions, protocols, organizations, treaties and conferences is to prevent or
strictly limit the disposal into ocean waters of any material that would have harmful
effects on the human health, marine environment, ecosystems or economic
potentials.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
“Disposal of waste into oceans” is an issue which started to gain importance until
very recently, in 1970s, by the adoption of conventions and laws. As the industrial
and nuclear activities accelerate with the developing technology, need to dispose
them accelerates as well. Oceans, covering most of the Earth’s surface, seems like a
good alternative for disposal to industries, even though the dumping activities are
prohibited by international laws. This makes the situation desperate for solutions as
the oceans become more polluted day by day. Today, one of the most important
issues is national regulations being eroded by amendments and exemptions in most
of the countries, which gives the opportunity for some industries to use oceans as a
“garbage can”. When coming up with solutions to issue, this problem should be given
importance. Also, sending guidance to less developed countries rather than exporting
waste to them would be an important step as well. As oceans do not belong to any
particular party, international cooperation is needed more than ever for this issue.
Promoting new uses, such as recycling, for industrial wastes and creating public
awareness should also be taken into consideration. Dealing with wastes
systematically by categorizing them would also be beneficial for this issue. Usage of
funds for helping less environmentally-friendly states should also be kept in mind. In
the technological age we are living, it is inevitable for industries to rise and this
situation raises the need for solutions to the disposal problem.
USEFUL LINKS AND DOCUMENTS
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Website of Oceans & Law of the Sea, including many documents related to the
relevant work of United Nations: http://www.un.org/depts/los/
1978 modifications to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL):
https://cil.nus.edu.sg/rp/il/pdf/1973%20Intl%20Convention%20for%20Prevention
%20of%20Pollution%20from%20Ships%20as%20amended%20by%20Protocol%
20of%201978-pdf.pdf
Alternative Ways to Ocean Dumping:
http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1385&context=pelr
Website of International Maritime Organization (IMO):
http://www.imo.org/en/Pages/Default.aspx
London Convention and Protocol:
http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Documents/LC1972.pdf
http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Documents/PROTOCOLAme
nded2006.pdf
RESOURCES
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http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sewage
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/industrial-waste.html
https://www.safewater.org/PDFS/knowthefacts/IndustrialWaste.pdf
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/nuclear-waste.html
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/debris
http://huzaifahbinbaharuddin5b.blogspot.com.tr/2013/03/what-is-oceandumping_8.html
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/01/150109-oceans-plastic-seatrash-science-marine-debris/
http://www.environment911.org/The_Effects_of_Ocean_Dumping
http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142405270230477310457926856365831919
6
http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/elist/eListRead/over_180m_tons_of_
toxic_waste_dumped_into_worlds_oceans_rivers_and_lakes_ea/
http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/various-ocean-pollution-facts.php
http://www.pollutionissues.com/Na-Ph/Ocean-Dumping.html
http://www.geoengineeringwatch.org/killing-the-oceans-the-dumping-of-nuclearwaste/
http://www.cbrneportal.com/the-disposal-of-nuclear-waste-into-the-worldsoceans/
https://www.epa.gov/ocean-dumping/learn-about-ocean-dumping
http://marinebio.org/oceans/ocean-dumping/
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http://www.imo.org/en/About/Pages/Default.aspx
http://www.worldwildlife.org/about/history
http://www.unep.org/about/
https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/epa-history
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/about/faq/
https://www.epa.gov/ocean-dumping/ocean-dumping-international-treaties#LP