I give permission for public access to my Honors paper and for any copying or
digitization to be done at the discretion of the College Ar chivist and/or the College
Librarian.
Signed ~
Phoebe Strom
Date _
5_/_Cf_/l_'f___
Defining Dixie: Creating and Deploying Country Music’s Mythic South
Written at Rhodes College
Phoebe Strom
Department of History
Rhodes College
Memphis, Tennessee
2014
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Bachelor of Arts degree with Honors in History
ii
This Honors paper by Phoebe Strom has been read and approved for Honors in
History.
Dr. Robert Saxe
Project Advisor
-W# I?fDr. Charles Hughes
Dr. John Bass
iii
CONTENTS
Signature page
ii
Contents
iii
Abstract
iv
Introduction
1
The Hillbilly Origins of Country Music
21
Mainstreaming Country
30
Segregationist Country Music
41
Constructing the South as America
53
The Resurgence of Rebel Pride
63
Forget the Past? The Elements of Modern Country’s Idealized South
80
Bibliography
92
iv
ABSTRACT
Defining Dixie: Creating and Deploying Country Music’s Mythic South
by
Phoebe Strom
Tracing country music’s evolution reveals that its mythic South is the result of a
confluence of social, political, economic, and cultural factors involving both sides of
the nation and of the aisle. The process of homogenizing the South in country music
functioned to reaffirm the belief system the region ostensibly represented, serving
as both a provocation and a reaction to alternate condemnation, mockery, and
idealization in the larger American political context. Thus, country's Southernness
cannot be understood as the inevitable product of the genre’s Southern origins or
static musical tradition. Rather, country emerged as hillbilly music in the 1920s and
was promoted in racialized, regionalized ways. Attracting derision and expanding
nationally, the genre adopted an overtly American tone and sound beginning in the
30s and continuing through the early Cold War. Underground segregationist music
signaled the first signs of country's new conception of Southernness as an
expression of white backlash to the Civil Rights Movement. In mainstream country,
Southern nostalgia embodied everything that was missing from an America
struggling with counterculture, the Civil Rights Movement, and Vietnam. 'Outlaw'
country and Southern rock directly built off and challenged this view; the market
power of their rebellious South and their connections to more progressive politics
meant that their aggressive brand of Southernness became normalized. Modern
country is defined by a combination of these two Southern identities, identities
v
whose construction provides insight into the role of popular culture in the political
sphere and how to structure conversations on race relations and Southern memory.
1
“Thecountryin‘countrymusic’isAmerica.”
‐‐PresidentJimmyCarter,October19791
Countrymusicrepresentsbothapoliticalstatementandamusicalgenre.As
such,ithasbecomeuniquelyassociatedbythegeneralpublicwithveryspecific
views:racist,right‐wing,andperhapsmostimportantly,Southern.Whilethese
stereotypesarenotnew,theyhaveonlygainedmomentuminrecentyearswiththe
surgeofinterestincountrymusicpoliticsgeneratedbytheDixieChicks’scandalin
2003andtherecentreleaseofBradPaisley’s“AccidentalRacist.”Thisnarrative
ignoresliberal,progressive,ornon‐Southernmomentsinfavorofpaintingthe
industryandthemusicasalargelyimpenetrablebastionofSouthernconservatism.
Asaresult,thecomplexitiesofcountry’sloveaffairwiththeSouthareconsistently
overlooked,anditisassumedthatneo‐Confederatesympathiesareandhavealways
beenanintegralpartofthegenre.Inreality,countrymusic’spreoccupationwith
SouthernprideandtheConfederacycouldnothavebecomeasomnipresentasitis
todaywithoutaconfluenceofpoliticaldevelopmentsfrombothsidesoftheaisle
andbothhalvesofthenation.Moreover,theuseofConfederatesymbolismand
referencesincountrymusicwasnottheinevitableproductofthegenre’sSouthern
originsortheresultofastaticmusicaltradition,butratherwasinfluencedbyand
influentialinlargerpolitical,economic,andsocialchangesinthenationasawhole.
Understandingthehistoryofcountry’sdevelopmentasthemusical
embodimentofanessentializedSouthcanonlybedonethroughanalysisofthe
1JimmyCarter,"CountryMusicGalaRemarksattheFundraisingPerformancefor
Ford'sTheatre,"October2,1979.OnlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,The
AmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=31467.
2
genre’sevolutionovertime.Oneofthefactorsimpedingsuchanalysisisthe
defensivenessofmostcountrymusicscholarship.Thisispartiallytheresultofa
culturalcontextinwhichcountryhaslongbeenassociatedwithanintellectualand
economicunderclassandhashadtoconstantlystrivetowards‘respectability.’
Defendingthegenreasworthyofstudy,then,oftendevolvesintoadefenseofthe
genreitself.AsBillMalonewroteinhisseminalworkCountryMusicU.S.A.,
“scholarlyinvestigationofopera,classicalmusic,orjazzwouldprovokeneither
haughtycontemptnorderision,becausethosemusicalformsareacceptedasproper
andrespectable”whilecountryisdeemed“unworthyofnotice.”Malonedevotesa
significantportionofhisgroundbreakingworktoanexplanationoftherationale
behindviewingcountryasanimportantculturalandhistoricalphenomenon.The
toneandstyleofhiswritingspeakstotheintenseneedofcountrymusicscholarsfor
recognitionoftheirwork’svalidity,referringtothewayothertypesofmusic
“supposedlyoccupyhigherpositionsintheAmericanhierarchyofartorrepresent
moreaccomplishedmusicaldisciplines”andtothe“allegednonquality”ofcountry
music.2
Thisimplicitdefenseofcountrymusicpreventsthetypeofhistorical
narrativenecessarytoevaluatingthegenre’sfunctionasapoliticalexpressionofan
imaginedSouthernidentity.Thelinkbetweendefenseofcountryitselfanddefense
ofitshistoricalworthhasproducedabodyofcountrymusichistoriesthatarenot
particularlyhistoricalinnature.Althoughsomeofthisisattributabletothefactthat
2BillMalone,CountryMusicU.S.A.(Austin,TX:UniversityofTexasPress,1968),360.
3
manyofthoseadvocatingcountrymusic’splaceinthelargerpantheonofU.S.
cultureandhistoryarenothistoriansorevenacademics,thiscannotfullyexplain
thetendencytowriteaboutcountrymusicinahistoricalorevenovertly
promotionalterms.Thelargerproblemisthat,asDavidCantwellandBillFriskics‐
Warrenadmit,“frustrationwiththelimitedwaysthatcountrygetstalkedabout”
motivatesthosewholovecountrymusictowritetheirownversionsofhistory.3
SomeworkslikeTexSample’sWhiteSoul:CountryMusic,theChurch,andWorking
AmericansandDavidFillingim’sRedneckLiberation:CountryMusicasTheologydo
notevenattempttohidetheirbiasinthismatter.Theanti‐elitistanddefensive
natureoftheirwritingsisimmediatelyevidentjustfromthetitles,andbinding
countryupwithreligiousovertonesmerelyservestoaddweighttotheir
convictions.4Thiskindofvisceraldefenseofcountrymusic,whilemostobviousin
thehugebodyofanecdotally‐basedoralmostmemoir‐esquecountrymusic
histories,isapparentineventhemostscholarlyworksonthetopic.
Recentpopularinterestinandcondemnationofcountryanditspolitical
leaningshasfueledauthors’needtoportraycountryinapositivelight.Numerous
books,clearlydesignedtoappealprimarilytoanon‐academicaudience,eschew
detailedinvestigationandrelyalmostentirelyontrivia,personalexperience,and
3DavidCantwell&BillFriskics‐Warren,HeartachesbytheNumber:CountryMusic’s
500GreatestSingles(VanderbiltUniversityPress&theCountryMusicFoundation
Press,2003),ix.
4DavidFillingim,RedneckLiberation:CountryMusicasTheology(Macon,GA:Mercer
UniversityPress,2003).TexSample,WhiteSoul:CountryMusic,theChurch,and
WorkingAmericans(AbingdonPress,1996).
4
supposedlyemblematicstories.5Theproblemwiththisistwofold:one,it
exacerbatestheperceptionofcountrymusicasoutsidethepurviewofacademiaand
two,itpromotesthetypeofahistoricalanalysisseensoofteninmediadiscussions
ofthegenre.Bytakingafewinstancesasrepresentativewithoutproperhistorical
context,theanecdotaltrendincountrymusicscholarshiphasactuallyperpetuated
theverystereotypesitoftentriestoundermine,lendingcredencetowhatPeterLa
Chappellereferstoasthe“uglymyththatcountrymusicperformersandaudiences
areeitherdevoidofpoliticsorswayedbytheunthinkingpopulismofright‐wing
reaction.”6Thisreductionistapproach,evenwhenaccompaniedbyexplicitdenials
ofaspecificpoliticalaffiliation,reinforcesboththemethodsandtheconclusionsof
thosewhooversimplifycountrybylabelingitracistorRepublicanonthebasisofa
fewexamples.
Attemptstoavoidthistypeofgeneralizationthroughdefinitionhaveerected
yetanotherbarriertohistoricalanalysisofthegenre.Indeed,oneoftheaspectsof
5Suchworksinclude,butarebynomeanslimitedto,thefollowing:ChrisWillman,
Rednecks&Bluenecks:ThePoliticsofCountryMusic(NewYork:TheNewPress,
2005);MarkKemp,DixieLullaby:AStoryofMusic,Race,andNewBeginningsina
NewSouth(NewYork:FreePress,2004);CurtisW.Ellison,CountryMusicCulture:
FromHardTimestoHeaven(UniversityPressofMississippi,1995);Dorothy
Horstman,SingYourHeartOut,CountryBoy(Nashville,TN:CountryMusic
Foundation,1996);WilltheCircleBeUnbroken:CountryMusicinAmerica,ed.Paul
Kingsbury&AlannaNash(DKPublishing,2006);andNickTosches,Country:The
BiggestMusicinAmerica(Stein&DayPublishing,1977),laterrevisedandreleased
asCountry:TheTwistedRootsofRock’n’Roll(DaCapoPress,1996)andCounrty:
LivingLegendsandDyingMetaphorsinAmerica’sBiggestMusic(CharlesScribner’s
Sons,1985).
6PeterLaChapelle,ProudtoBeanOkie:CulturalPolitics,CountryMusic,and
MigrationtoSouthernCalifornia(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2007),
14.
5
countrymusicthathasreceivedthemostacademicattentioniswhatexactly
constitutesthegenre.Theboundariesofcountryremaincontestedandfunctionto
distractfromtheweaknessesintheotheraspectsofcountrymusicscholarship.
EvenwriterslikeDavidCantwellandBillFriskics‐Warren,whoacknowledgethe
problemsofnarrowdefinition,describingthe“fences”ofcountrymusicas
“maddeninglyporous”andstrivingto“erronthesideofinclusion,”seemcompelled
toiteratecertainqualitiesthatcountrymusicmustpossess.Sayingontheonehand
thattheyare“notinterestedindefiningcountrymusicsomuchasengaginginthe
tradition…tounderstandwherethemusic,inallitsmanifestations,hasbeenand
whereit’sgoing,”theythenlistoffspecificcomponentsofthecountrygenre.7As
America’s“truestmusic,”countryrepresentsacenterofcontinuingdefinitional
controversyinawayfewothermusicalgenresdo.8
Thecounterproductivefocusoncountry’sparameterscausesscholarsto
overlookthetotalityofcountryhasbeenasahistoricalandsocialphenomenon.
Whilevariousscholarsaddresstheissueofdefinitionindifferentways,determining
whatcountryis(onthebasisofmusicalfeatures,artistcharacteristics,political
views,fanbasis,etc.)necessarilyexcludeselementsessentialtounderstandingits
roleasalargerculturalandpoliticalforce.BillMalonedefinesthegenreasborne
outofandshapedbytheruralSouthbutalsotheresultofgradualadaptationto
commercialismandindustrialization.Thus,heconstructsamusicalspectrum
7Cantwell&Friskics‐Warren,HeartachesbytheNumber,xi.
8BillMalone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’:CountryMusicandtheSouthernWorking
Class(Urbana,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2002),13‐14.
6
rangingfromthesupposedly“pure”folkmusicthatrepresentscountry’soriginsand
whatheperceivesasurbanpseudo‐countryperformedbythose“notruralinorigin”
forothercity‐dwellers.Hisdefinition,largelypredicatedonheritage,buysinto
country’smythologyofauthenticitybyassertingthat“onemustbebornintothe
culture”toproducerealcountrymusic.9Malone’slaterworkadoptsasimilarstance,
describingcountryas“anartformmadeandsustainedonlybyworkingpeople”
(italicsmine).10Likewise,musicologistAaronA.Foxarguesthat“workingclass
cultureis‘country’,”thatcountryisa“musicalstyleemanatingfromeveryday
experienceinablue‐collarlifeworld,”implyingthat,regardlessofstyle,music
producedproducedoutsideofaworkingclasscontextcannotbelabeledcountry.11
Others,likejournalistChrisWillman,delineatethebordersofcountryalongpolitical
lines,callingit“themostpatrioticofallmusicalgenres,”withfundamentalpolitical
leaningsthatdistinguishitfromitscounterpart“alternativecountry,”agenre
populatedbyso‐called“expats”fromcountryitself.Byacceptingcountrymusic’s
supposedpoliticsatfacevalue,thisapproachinhibitsfurtherinvestigation.12
Country’sdefinitionaldebatesalsoleadmanyscholarstreatitasanabstract
entity,detachedfromthepeopleinvolvedinitsproductionandconsumption.
Viewingcountrymusicasamerereflectionofpoliticaltrendsreducesitsvalueto
symbolismandignoresthewaycountrymusicfunctionedtovoiceandcreate
9Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A,ix‐x.
10Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,vii.
11AaronA.Fox,RealCountry:MusicandLanguageinWorking‐ClassCulture
(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2004),31‐32.
12Willman,Rednecks&Bluenecks,147&171
7
culturalnorms.Thisoversightisapparentinmostscholars’disregardforthe
industrybehindcountrymusic,whichtheytypicallyacknowledgeonlysuperficially
toprovecountry’smonetarypowerandpopularity.Therelationshipbetween
industryandartisintegraltoanunderstandingofhowcountrymusic,morethan
justaninterestinglensthroughwhichtoviewlargersocietaldevelopments,actually
contributedtosuchdevelopments.However,thoselikeBillMaloneorJeffreyJ.
Lange,whopresentcountryasundersiegeyet“retainingitsauthenticity”orselling
outunderthepressureof“commercialexploitation,”constructcountryasapassive
musicaledifice,amirrorinwhichlargersocialchangebecomesvisible.13Framing
countryinthiswayseparatesthemusicalgenrefromitscreatorsandfromthe
societyasawhole.Ironically,thisimpedestheelevationofcountrymusicasa
legitimatefieldofstudyandthusaccomplishesexactlytheoppositeofwhatmost
countrymusicscholarsareattemptingtoachieve.Strangelyand
counterproductively,theseresearcherspartnerwiththeveryscholarswhodismiss
them—traditionalistswho“celebratehighculture,barelyacknowledgecommercial
countrymusicasaformofmustatall”andreducethestudyofpopularculturetoan
interestingsidebarof‘realhistory.’14
“DefiningDixie”hingesuponabroader,societally‐basedunderstandingof
countrymusic.ItismostinformedbyDianePecknold’sTheSellingSound,which
13Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A,37.JeffreyJ.Lange,SmileWhenYouCallMeHillbilly:
CountryMusic’sStruggleforRespectability,1939‐1954(Athens,GA:Universityof
GeorgiaPress,2004),12.
14LaChapelle,ProudtoBeanOkie,15.
8
delvesintotheusuallyglossedoverdynamicbetweencommercialismand
authenticitywithinthegenre.Asshewrites,“theimportanceofcommercialismin
shapingtheartisticdevelopmentofcountrymusichaslongbeenrecognized,”butit
hasbeentreatedasa“transparentconcept…thefalsehoodtoauthenticity’struth,
thefabricationtoauthenticity’sspontaneity.”Insteadoftreatingtheindustryof
countrymusiclikea“shamefulsecretthatpretensionstoauthenticitymustlaborto
obscure,”asotherscholarsdowiththeirartist‐centricnarratives,shearguesthat
commercialismisasmuchapartofcountryasthemusicitself,thatcountrymusicis
notadistinctthingapartfromitsproductionandconsumption.Itfollows,then,that
Pecknoldwouldsuggestthatcountry’saudienceisjustasrelevantinunderstanding
itssocialimpactsastheartiststhemselves.Infact,shegoessofarastoclaimthat
“thefailuretoimaginetheaudienceasactive,criticalparticipantsintheculture
industries”has“distortedtraditionalassessmentsofcountrymusic.”15Pecknold’s
workechoesideasintroducedbyRichardA.Petersonwithhis“production‐of‐
cultureperspective…thatfocusesonhowthecontentofcultureisinfluencedbythe
severalmilieusinwhichitiscreated,distributed,evaluated,andconsumed.”Like
Pecknold,Petersonbreaksdownthetraditionaldualityofauthenticityand
commercialism,suggestingthatthesymbolicalculturalmeaningofcountryis
“continuouslynegotiatedinanongoinginterplaybetweenperformers,diverse
15DianePecknold,TheSellingSound:TheRiseoftheCountryMusicIndustry
(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2007),2‐3,6‐8.
9
commercialinterests,fans,andtheevolvingimage.”16However,Pecknoldgoesone
stepfurtherthanPetersoninhertreatmentofthiscommercialstructureas
significantoutsidetheboundsofcountryandintherealmofpolitics.Withoutthis
understanding,itisallbutimpossibletoeffectivelyarguetheimportanceofcountry
musicpolitics(supposedlythetaskmanycountrymusichistoriansare
undertaking).Withinherframework,countrygainsanactiveroleasaforumfor
politicaldiscourse,bothaproductofandproductiveoflargersocietaltrends.
Countrymusic’s“specialrelationshipwiththeSouth”furthercomplicates
historicalinvestigationofitspoliticalleanings.17Interpretingthetensionsbetween
regionaldistinctivenessandnationalpridethatcametoaheadwith
industrialization,America’sinvolvementinwarsoverseas,theGreatDepression,
andtheCivilRightsMovement,involvesuntanglingacomplicatedwebthatscholars
seemeagertooversimplify.Somedismissthesetensionsasinsignificant,others
twistorignorefactstoforcecountryintosomeunifiedtrajectoryof
‘Southernization,’andseveralavoidthequestionaltogether.Many,relyingonthe
anecdotalandpersonalevidencesopopularindiscussionsofcountrymusicpolitics,
makesweepinggeneralizationsaboutthenatureofaso‐called“Southernpsyche,”
definedby“sentimentality,feelingsofnostalgia,thehalf‐mythicmemoryofatime
whenthingsseemedtosimpler,peoplewereclosertotheland,andlifemovedata
slowerpace…thelongingforanidealizedpasttoreplacethelegacyofpoverty,
16RichardA.Peterson,CreatingCountryMusic:FabricatingAuthenticity(Chicago,IL:
UniversityofChicagoPress,1997),6,10.
17Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,15.
10
seemingbackwardness,andhatredfromoutsiders.”18Still,thesescholarsdonotgo
quiteasfarasthosewhoclaimthatcountrymusic(andespeciallycountrymusic
expressing“whiteSouthernrage”)representeda“healingforce”forawounded
South“mourningoverthelossofabygoneera,”“tiredoffeelingguilty,”andafraidof
change.19Whatismostproblematicaboutthisisthatfactthatitseemstotakethe
carefully‐constructedmessagesandthemesofcountrymusicitselfatfacevalue.
Insteadofinterrogatingtheseideas,theyarereified,andtheSouthofcountrymusic
graduallybecomestheSouthofreality.
AnotherconsequenceofthecomplicatedconnectionsbetweentheSouthand
countrymusicisthesubordinationoflocalpoliticsaslessimportantthanthe
genre’salliancewithnationalparties.ThisisevidentinPecknold’sargumentthat
countrymusicunderwenta“socialrepositioning”followingWorldWarII,becoming
representativeof“aphantasmalsilentmajorityofdisaffectedwhite,working‐class
Americans”alternatelyinterpretedasa“menacingmass”bytheleftand“thenoble
commonman”bytheright.Byconstructing‘country’asapoliticalstatementinand
ofitself,vilifyingorglorifyingitbecameasafewayforpoliticianstocourtsupport
withoutovertlytakingastance.20Malone’sargumentthatcountryunderwenta
“steadyevolutiontowardscommercialismandprofessionalism…obliterating
regionaldistinctions”adoptsthesamerhetoric.21Histhesisthatcountry,becauseof
18Cantwell&Friskics‐Warren,HeartachesbytheNumber,219.
19Kemp,DixieLullaby,xxii&89.
20Pecknold,TheSellingSound,95&201.
21Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A,361.
11
itsdualidentityasregionalandnational(originatingintheruralSouthand
romanticizingtheSouthernlifestylebutindicativeofthe“theascendancyofurban
America—wherethemusicwasrecorded,published,andbroadcast”)couldserveas
akindofbridgebetweenthetwoechoesPecknold’sideasthatcountrybecamepart
ofpoliticsinalessobviouslySouthernwayasitwasusedtoreinforcebroader
Americanideals.Forexample,Maloneassertsthattheresurgenceofcountryinthe
NewDealerawasdirectlylinkedtoa“desiretoreturntoAmericanrootsandfinda
newunityinthenation’sculturaldiversity,”anationalismthatwasdesignedtoboth
embraceandoverwhelmregionalism.22
Followingthislogic,bytheColdWarperiod,countrywasrepresentativeof
theSouthonlyinthesensethatitwasrepresentativeoftheracialandclass
dynamicsidentifiedwiththeSouthinnationalpolitics.Thisthesisfailstoaccount
forcountry’sownconceptualizationsofSouthernidentityandinasense,cleaves
articulationsofSouthernnessfromthepoliticalandsocialmilieuinwhichthegenre
isimmersed.Oneofthemostsignificantconsequencesofthisinabilitytograpple
withcountry’sexpressionsofSouthernnessisthealmostcompletescholarly
disregardforthewaySouthernnessbecameakindofidealizedAmericannessin
countrymusic;therefore,whileSouthernidentitymayhavebecomeincorporated
intonationalpolitics,itwasnotassimilatedbutretainedasenseofdifferenceand
powerinitsownright,albeitonnationalisticandpatrioticterms.Theemergenceof
Confederatesymbolism,particularlywiththeriseofSouthernrockinthe70s(i.e.
22Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,61&230.
12
LynyrdSkynyrd),hardlymentionedintheentirebodyofscholarship,further
problematizestheoriesbasedonlyonnationalpoliticalagendas.
Overall,then,thestudyofcountrymusicasapoliticalforcehasbeen
inadequate.Themethodologicalweaknesses,specificallytheheavyrelianceon
anecdotesoveranalysisandthetheoreticalframework,havepreventedthe
scholarshipfromachievingitsdesiredaims.Infact,thebooksonthesubjectare
oftenconfusingandcontradictory.Theonlyunityseemstobeintheareasignored
byallormentionedonlyinpassing:theroleofgenderincountrymusicpoliticsand
theemergenceofa‘rebel’Confederateethos.23Thehistoricaldocumentationof
countrymusicpolitics,then,isrifewithcontradictions,gaps,andgeneralizations
thataretellingoflargerblindspotsandmisconceptionswhenitcomestothe
diversecollectionofmusicaltraditionsincorporatedundertheambiguouslabelof
country.
Whilethisworkcannotandwillnotcorrectalloftheseoversights,
addressingthemattheoutsetwillopenupdialogueonaspectsofcountrymusic
historythathavebeenmarginalizedfortoolonginacademicdiscourse.Most
23Itisworthmentioningthefewworksthathavespecificallyfocusedongenderin
countrymusic,althoughfewhaveevenattemptedtodosowithinthelargerpolitical
trajectoryofcountrymusic.Fewerstillhavegrappledwiththewaysgender
intersectswithcountry’spoliticizedassertionsofSouthernheritage.Nevertheless,
valuablefoundationalbooksonthesubjectofgenderincountrymusicinclude:Mary
A.Bufwack&RobertK.Oermann,FindingHerVoice:CountryMusic,1800‐2000
(Nashville,TN:VanderbiltUniversityPress&CountryMusicFoundationPress,
2003);ABoyNamedSue:GenderandCountryMusic,ed.DianePecknold&Kristine
M.McCusker(UniversityPressofMississippi,2004);andPamelaFox,NaturalActs:
Gender,Race,andRusticityinCountryMusic(UniversityofMichiganPress,2009).
13
obviously,thefocusoncountrymusic’sassociationswiththeConfederacyisone
thatwhileprominentinmainstreamconversationislargelysecondaryinacademic
writings.Previousdiscussionsofthistopichave,asCharlesHugheswrites,
“oversimplifiedthemusic’scomplicatedculturalpoliticsbyeitheressentializingthe
forms…acceptingtheirpoliticsasone‐dimensional…ordismissingtheircultural
relevanceasmerelythecynicalproductsofamoneyhungrymusicindustry.”24
Perhapsignoredaltogetherwouldmakeasuitableadditiontothatlist.Regardless,
countrymusic’spoliticalleaningsanditsdevelopmentasagenreuniquely
associatedwithacertainbrandofSouthernnessisatopicworthyofexploration.By
tracingthechronologicaldevelopmentofcountry’sSouthernpoliticsandusingthis
storytoilluminateotherelementsalongtheway(includinggenderandrace
relations),Iofferanalternativeperspectiveofthegenreanditshistory.Confining
suchdiscussiontothesidelinesbecauseofitscontroversialnature,itsugliness,or
itssupposedly‘natural’presencehasreinforcedstereotypesofcountryanditsrole
inAmericansociety.
WhilescholarslikeJeffreyJ.Langesuggestthat,“countrymusicnotonly
capturesthedichotomiesoftheSouthanditsinhabitants,”but“thrivesonit,”in
realitycountry’sevolutioninexpressionofstereotypicallySouthernthemeserased
dichotomiesanddiversity.25Ascountrymusicprogressedfromitsfirst
commercialization,itmusicallyconstructedanimageoftheSouththrough
24CharlesHughes,“’Country‐Soul’:RaceandtheRecordingIndustryintheU.S.
South,1960‐1980.”(PhDdiss.,UniversityofWisconsin‐Madison,2012),241.
25Lange,SmileWhenYouCallMeHillbilly,12.
14
immediatelyrecognizableimages.Signifyingasetofpoliticalideals—whiteness,
‘traditional’powerstructure,acertainideaofrace,gender,andclassrelations—
that,whilerarelyexplicitlyspelledoutbyartists,wereneverthelesscommonly
understoodbythemusic’saudience,theseimagesdistilledasortofmythical,
Southernessencethatservedlargerpoliticalagendas.Themostblatanttension
embeddedincountry’sconceptionoftheSouthisthatbetweenthe‘traditional,’
oftenChristian‐basedmoralityofmanysongsandthemorerebelliousattitudes
espousedbythoseliketheOutlaws.Thesimultaneousexistenceofreveriesof
prosperousSouthernplantersandcelebrationsoftheworkingclassinoppositionto
theeliteofferanotherobviousexample.Nevertheless,suchsuperficially
oppositionalideologiesactedinconcert,eachquietlyratifyingtheother;inthecase
ofthelatterexample,Southernprosperityandthelossofitspeakstonostalgiafora
betterpast,therighteousnessoftheSouthernpeople,theircontinuedindependence
inthefaceofadversity,theirsenseofsharedeconomicoppressionatthehandsof
theNorth,andtheirwillingnesstoworktowardstheSouthernascendancetheyso
clearlydeserve.Moreover,seeminglycontradictoryexpressionsofSouthernness
wereborneoutofandessentialtothelargerculturalconceptionofoneimaginary
South.Despitedifferencesinphrasing,attheirhearttheseexpressionsplayedinto
thesamenarrativeoftheSouth,anarrativedivorcedinmanywaysfromthe
constraintsofreality.Byembracingsuchdichotomiesandfoldingthemintoanall‐
encompassingframeworkofwhatitmeanttobeSouthern,theprocessof
15
homogenizingtheSouththroughcountrymusicfunctionedtoreaffirmthebelief
systemtheregionostensiblyrepresented,servingasbothaprovocationanda
reactiontoalternatecondemnation,mockery,andidealizationinthelarger
Americanpoliticalcontext.
DefiningtheSouth,then,willbelefttothemusic,andIwillanalyzethat
definition,ratherthancreatingmyown.Theterm‘Southern’remainscontestedin
contemporarydiscourse,asmanyquestionthedistinctivenessofSouthernculture
andothersequateanythingdeemedSouthernwithaneo‐Confederate,racist
ideology.26TheSouthitselfisbothaplaceandacomplex,historically‐contingent
conceptrifewithnarrativesandimagesofprofoundsymbolicimportance.Justas
thisworkdoesnotfocusonstrictmusicalboundaries,itwillnotconstructstrict
boundariesaroundtheSouth.IntermsofSouthernmessagesincountrymusic,this
piecedoesnotsubscribetostandardnotionsofauthenticitythataddressonlymusic
producedintheruralSouthbyruralSoutherners.Countrymusiccananddoesexist
outsideofthesenarrowconfines,andalthoughsomelabelsuchmusicanintrusive
imitation,otherseetheirmusicandthemessagescontainedwithinas
26Whilethereisanincredibleamountofliteratureconceptuallyaddressingthe
South(andwhethertheideaoftheSouthevenexists),someofthemoreimportant
include:LillianSmith,KillersoftheDream(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Co.,1994);C.
VannWoodward,TheBurdenofSouthernHistory(BatonRouge,LA:LSUPress,
2008);EdwardAyers,ThePromiseoftheNewSouth:LifeafterReconstruction(New
York:OxfordUniversityPress,1992);JamesCharlesCobb,AwayDownSouth:A
HistoryofSouthernIdentity(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2007);Cobb,
RedefiningSouthernCulture:MindandIdentityintheModernSouth(Athens,GA:
UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1999);PeteDaniel,StandingAtTheCrossroads:
SouthernLifeintheTwentiethCentury(Baltimore,MD:TheJohnsHopkins
UniversityPress,1996);andJohnEgerton.TheAmericanizationofDixie:The
SouthernizationofAmerica(NewYork:Harper'sMagazinePress,1974).
16
representativeoftheirexperiencesandideals.Toignoreitistobuyintooneofthe
mostlongstandingmythssurroundingcountrymusic,thatis,tonaturalizecountry’s
Southernthemes—nostalgia,notionsofold‐fashionedmorality,thesimplicityof
rurallife,theimportanceoffamily,theelevationofhome,Christianvalues,self‐
sufficiency,resiliencyinthefaceofwartimedevastation,andhardwork—as
inevitablebecauseofthemusic’soriginsintheregion.Rather,thesethemesbecame
synonymouswiththeSouththroughcountrymusicasaneffectofspecificpolitical,
social,andeconomicforcesandevents.
Historicizingandcontextualizingtheemotionallyfraughtdiscussionsof
country’simaginedSouthrequiresbeginningfromcountry’sfirstemergenceasa
commercialphenomenon:thehillbillymusic‘discovered’inthe1920sand30s.The
musicofthisperiodisoftenpointedtobycriticsasproofthatcountrymusicwas
groundedinConfederatesentimentandsupportfromitsoriginson;musiciansand
fansusethesameargumenttojustifyandlegitimatetheirstatementsasheritageor
tradition.However,theimageofhillbillymusicasintrinsicallyemblematicof
Southernnesswasprimarilytheresultofmarketforcesandthatinactualitythe
genreinitiallyencompassedawidespectrumofdiverseperspectives.TheSouthern
themesespousedbyTinPanAlley,thewayinwhichhillbillymusicchallengedthose
themes,andtheresultantbacklashagainstthegenrefurthercomplicate
essentializingnarrativesofcountry’sSouthernnessthatrelyonthisera.
Asmigrationacrossthecountry,war,anddepressionreshapedtheAmerican
landscape,hillbillymusicworkedtobecomemore‘respectable.’Thisfirstemerged
inthegenre’smovetowardsWestern,ratherthanSouthern,imagery.Whenchanges
17
inthemusicindustrygavehillbillymusictheearofthenationduringWorldWarII,
thegenreadoptedpatrioticmessagesandmovedawayfromSouthernthemes.This
processonlyintensifiedafterthewarwiththeadoptionoftheNashvilleSoundand
AmericanaexemplifiedbytherecordsproducedattheheightoftheColdWar.The
essentialdisappearanceofSouthernnessinthegenrethatconsciouslyreframed
itselfascountryinresponsetocontinuedderisionallowedittogainnational
popularity.Detailingthisprocessexplainscountry’sexpansiononanationalscale
andtheemergenceofapowerfulcountrymusicindustry.Moreimportantly,it
pointstothefactthatarticulationsofSouthernpridewerenotalwaysakey
componentofthegenreandthattheessentialerasureofSouthernnessfromcountry
duringthistimerperiodwasclearlypolitical,motivatedbytheconcernsofthe
audience,thereactionsofcritics,theneedsofarapidlygrowingindustry,andthe
realitiesofcurrentevents.
Undergroundsegregationistmusicmarkedthefirstshiftawayfromcountry
music’spositioningaspurelyAmerican.Circulatinginformallyandproducedby
independentregionalrecordcompanieslikeRebRebelRecords,thesesongs
partneredConfederateimagerywithracistandconservativepoliticalbeliefs.This
musicisoftendismissedbyscholarsasinsignificantbecauseofitsseparationfrom
themainstreamcountryestablishmentanditslimiteddistribution.However,the
acknowledgedinvolvementofindividualsfromthemainstreamcountryindustry
(andthesupposedanonymousinvolvementofmanyothers)aswellasstylistic
similaritiesmaketheundergroundrecordsessentialtounderstandinghowandwhy
Southernnessreemergedasadominantfeatureofcountrymusic.Furthermore,the
18
undergroundrecordsfunctionedasaprecursortotheexpressionsofSouthernness
thatfollowedinmainstreamcountry.Inthisway,theyprovidedatemplateofsorts
(albeitonethatwasmuchmoreovertandaggressivethanthatadoptedbymost
countrystars),offeredthefirstexpressionofthesekindofSouthernpoliticalvalues,
andrationalizedtheirpolarizingstatementswiththesamerhetoricthatwouldbe
deployedbylatercountryartists.
AsAmericabecameincreasinglydividedovertheVietnamWarandtheCivil
RightsMovement,countrymusicbegantodepicttheSouthasanidealizedAmerica.
Thepatriotismthatcharacterizedtherecordingsofthe40sand50scontinuedinthe
60sbuttransformedasitbecamemoreandmoredifficulttodefendspecificpolicy
choices,namelyfutileandtraumatizingmilitaryactioninVietnam.Thisledtoan
emphasisontraditioninoppositiontochaos,conflict,andcounterculture.Itwasat
thispointthattheregionaldichotomybrokedownandtheSouthwas
reappropriatedasmoreAmericanthanAmerica,astheperfectfoiltotheperceived
collapseofAmericanvalues.ParticularlyastheCivilRightsMovementspreadoutof
theSouth,stereotypicalSouthernnessofferedconservativewhitesacrossthenation
awaytojustifytheirbeliefsasnostalgia.Countrymusic’smythicSouthoffereda
convenientwayforpoliticianstogainpatrioticcredentialsandintimatetheirbeliefs
onpolarizingissues(e.g.racialdynamics)withoutactuallysayinganythingofficial,
binding,orpotentiallyproblematic.
AlthoughtheybroughtSouthernpridebackintocountry,theseassertionsof
Southernnesswerecarefullycouchedinpatriotismandmorality,designedtobe
uncontroversial.The‘outlaw’movementandSouthernrockreactedagainstthisand
19
broughtinstrainsofRebelprideintothegenre.Withtheirconnectionstomore
progressivepoliticsandayoungergeneration,thesemovementsinmanyways
attemptedtodisconnecttheSouthandtheConfederacyfromtheassociationsbuilt
upbytheirmoretraditionalcounterparts.Theliberalbeliefsofmanyinthese
groupsdoesnotexcusetheirmessaging.Infact,thesebeliefsservedtonormalizean
essentializedneo‐ConfederateSouth.Byrenderingincreasinglyradicalexpressions
ofSouthernprideacceptabletoabroaderaudienceandeffectivelyclosingoff
dialogueonthepoliticalimplicationsofSouthernness,thesemovements
transformedcountry’sconceptoftheSouthtothedegreethatitsuitedtheirimage
withoutfundamentallyredefiningtheunderlyingpolitics.Thepotentcombinationof
thisalluringideaoftheSouthwiththeearlier‘softer’version,precipitatedby
factorsincludingtheelectionofJimmyCarterandtheriseoftheSunbelteconomy,is
responsibleforshapingcountrymusic’sSouthernidentitytothisday.
Exploringcountry’sevolutionofSouthernnesswillprovideinsightintothe
wayculturalproductscancommunicateandcreateideologies.Particularlyinthe
caseofcountrymusic,theseproductsreachthoseremovedfromtraditionalmodes
ofpoliticalconversationi.e.officialrecordsorelitenewssources.Thesocietal
constructionofSouthernvaluesoffersacasestudy,then,thatexplainshowandwhy
phenomenalikemusicenacttheworldaroundthem.Inlightofcontinuedclashes
overracerelationsandSouthernness,thestoryofcountrymusicasaSouthern
genreisespeciallyrelevant,foritsinvolvementintheconstructionofaunique
SouthernnessprovidestheknowledgeneededtolessenthatSouthernness’spower.
ThoughthepromulgationofastereotypedwhiteSouthhasnotcausedallof
20
America’sracialproblems,ithasjustifiedandperpetuatedthem.Anunderstanding
ofthedevelopmentoftheSouthernmessagescontainedwithincountryactsasakey
tounravelthisimage.Therefore,thehistorytofollowisbothtimelyanda
preconditiontoremedyingdecadesofprejudice.
21
TheHillbillyOriginsofCountryMusic
Oftencitedasevidenceforneo‐Confederateideology’sconsistentpresencein
countrymusic,theearliestiterationsofcountry,promotedinsharply‐definedracial
termsashillbillymusic(inoppositiontoracemusice.g.gospel,jazz,blues),
designedforaprimarilyregionalaudience,andemergingfromaSouthstillscarred
bytheCivilWar,demonstrateanunsurprisingfascinationwiththeConfederacy.
Manyearlycountrymusicians,forthatmatter,hadclosefamilyconnectionstothe
fighting.Further,opportunitiesforsuccessasamusicianintheSouthfollowingthe
CivilWarnecessitatedinvolvementonsomelevelwithConfederateveterans’
associationsandtheKluKluxKlan.Thesegroupsweretheprimaryforcebehindthe
fiddlers’conventionsandbarndancesthatweresocrucialforearlycountryartists.
Forexample,Fiddlin’JohnCarson,oneofthefirstwell‐knownhillbillymusicians,
leveragedhisperformancesatConfederatereunionsandKlanralliesintothesales
thatcausedthemusicindustrytorecognizethemarketpotentialofhillbillymusic,a
potentialimplicitlytiedtothegenre’sSouthernroots.Thus,CivilWarsongssuchas
“Dixie,”“JustBeforetheBattleMother,”and“Lorena”remainedstaplesofhillbilly
repertoiresdespitetheinterveningyearsandwererecordedoverandoverby
hillbillybandsinthe1920sand30s.27
However,thepreeminenceofthesesongsinthebeginningsof
commercializedcountryislessevidenceoftraditionandmoreevidenceofoutside
27AndrewK.Smith&JamesE.Akenson,“TheCivilWarinCountryMusicTradition,”
inCountryMusicGoestoWar,ed.CharlesK.Wolfe&JamesE.Akenson(University
PressofKentucky,2005),5‐7.JamesCharlesCobb,“FromMuskogeetoLuckenbach:
CountryMusicandthe‘Southernization’ofAmerica,”inRedefiningSouthernCulture:
MindandIdentityintheModernSouth(UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1999),79‐80.
22
manipulation.WhilesongsidealizingSouthernvaluesandindependencewere
undeniablyincludedinmosthillbillyrepertoires,theirascendanceoverothersongs
likealteredEnglishfolkballadsandNegrospiritualsreflectedmarketingchoicesby
musicindustryexecutives,whosawConfederatebattlesongsasacredentialthat
affirmedtheauthenticity(andthewhiteness)ofthemusictheypromoted.With
advertisingcopythatglorifiedtheprewarSouthandpaintedhillbillymusicas
authenticAmericana,themusicindustrycreatedan“idyllicwhiteruralMountain
SouththatexistedoutsideofmodernurbanAmerica,acloselyknit,socially
homogeneousandharmoniousworldfreefromflappers,foreigners,andAfrican
Americans,”animageofwhatAmericashouldbetomanyculturalconservatives.28
Inaneraofindustrialexpansion,urbanmigration,andsocialchange,panderingto
fearsofmodernizationcouldbeahighlylucrativetactic,andthepromotersof
hillbillymusichopedtocapitalizeuponit.
Acceptingthismanufacturedimageatfacevaluesupportstheideathat
country’slaterembraceofneo‐Confederatesymbolismwasthenaturalconclusion
ofatrajectorythathearkensbacktothegenre’sverybeginnings;indeedtodoso
playsintowhatBillMaloneidentifiesas“themostenduringromanticmyth
concerningsouthernfolkandtheirmusic,”theideaofbothracialandcultural
purity.TheSouthernidentityofhillbillymusicwasmuchmorecomplexthanits
promotersleton,andthesongsabouttheantebellumSouthandtheCivilWarinthe
20sand30swerehardlyacoherentcollection.Rather,asearlyhillbillymusicians
drewupon“alargeandfloatingbodyofmusicthatreflectedOldWorld,American,
28PatrickHuber,“BlackHillbillies:AfricanAmericanMusiciansonOld‐Time
Records,1924‐1932,”inHiddenintheMix,24‐27.
23
religious,pop,anddiverselyethnicorigins”andrarelywrotetheirownmaterial,itis
exceedinglydifficulttopinpointaclearpro‐Confederatepoliticalstatementinthe
musicitself.29
Thetrueextentofthisdiversityismostevidentintheracialattitudesof
hillbillymusic.WhilethemusicindustryattemptedtosplitSouthernmusicalong
raciallines,theycouldnotundoyearsofblack‐whiteinteractionandthe
developmentofacertainamountofsharedmusicalheritage.Indeed,manyofthe
hillbillysongsthatseemthemostracistatfirstglance,including“Run,NiggerRun,”
recordedbyatleastfourdifferenthillbillyacts,originatedinslavesongs;thelyrics
ofcoursetakeonanentirelydifferentconnotationwhensungbyawhitemaninthe
post‐CivilWarSouth,buttheculturalheritagecannotbeignored.30Othersongs
recordedbyhillbillyartistswereblatantlysympathetictoslavesandeventhe
Union.“ThoseCruelSlaveryDays”recordedbyFieldsWardandHisBuckMountain
Bandin1929recountsthetragicseparationoffamiliesduringthe“agonizingcruel
slaverydays”whenslaveswere“soldforsilverandgold.”31Inasimilarvein“Darling
NellyGray,”writtenbyanabolitionistin1856,fitperfectlyintothehillbillycanon
withitsaccountoflostlovebutsomewhatawkwardlyintermsofpoliticalviews
espoused.32Evenmoreovertlypoliticalwastheversionof“KingdomComing”(also
29Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,19‐20.
30HenryParkerEastman,TheNegro,hisorigin,historyanddestiny(Universityof
MichiganPress,1905),394.DorothyScarborough,OntheTrailofNegroFolk‐Songs
(HarvardUniversityPress,1925),23‐25.
31LyleLofgren,“RememberingtheOldSongs:ThoseCruelSlaveryDays,”Inside
Bluegrass,May2008.
32BenjaminHanby,"DarlingNellyGraySheetMusic”(Boston:OliverDitson
Company,1882)inOhioCivilWar150Collections&Exhibits,Item#1942,
http://www.ohiocivilwar150.org/omeka/items/show/1942.
24
knownas“Jubilo,”“YearofJubilee,”or“Massa’sGoneAway”)recordedbytheMcGee
Brothersin1927underthename“OldMaster’sRunaway;”thesong,which
celebratestheendofslavery,waspopularizedprimarilybyUnionsoldiersand
expressespositiveviewsofNorthernersincontrasttothecowardlyplantation
master.33Thisisnottosaythathillbillymusicwasahavenofprogressiveracial
thought,asanynumberof‘coonsongs’andsongsglorifyingtheplantationlifestyle
candisprove,butitnonethelessunderminesthebeliefthathillbillyandcountry
wereinevitablylinkedtoConfederatevaluesandtheparticularbrandofracismthat
necessarilyaccompanies.
Regionalaffiliationsfurthercomplicatetheissueofhillbillymusicandthe
Confederacy.AlthoughthesheeramountofCivilWarsongsrecordedbyhillbilly
artistssuggestslingeringConfederatesympathies,theoriginsandcontentofthese
songsdefysuchconvenientcategorization.ManyofthemostpopularCivilWar
songssaidlittleaboutspecificloyalties,butinsteadaddressedthehardshipsofwar,
thesadnessoffamiliesfightingeachother,thedifficultiesofbeingfarfromhome,
andthelongingtoreunitewithalover.Thesesongs,then,wereabletotranscend
theboundariesofNorthandSouthandspeaktopeopleonbothsides,sometimes
withafewlyricalchanges(whichcouldbeassimpleasswitchingtheword
‘Southern’for‘Northern’orviceversa),butoftencompletelyintact.Theimplications
ofthisareobviousinearlyrecordingsofhillbillymusicthatutilizesongswritten
andenjoyedbythoseinbotharmies,ratherthanfocusingsolelyonthemusicofthe
33“KingdomComing,”TraditionalTuneArchive,lastmodifiedFebruary2,2013,
http://tunearch.org/wiki/Annotation:Kingdom_Coming.LyleLofgren,
“RememberingtheOldSongs:TheFadedCoatofBlue,”InsideBluegrass,August
1998.
25
Confederacy.Whilefewwereblatantlypro‐Union,manywerewrittenintheNorth
orwerepopularprimarilywithUnionsoldiers.Itisalsoworthnotingthatborder
statessuchasKentucky,Missouri,andWestVirginia,caughtinbetweenNorthand
South,inheritedandamalgamatedconflictingmusicaltraditions,producingsongs
like“FadedCoatofBlue;”familiarinstyle,butdiverginginmessage,thissongand
thoseakintoitproblematizetheassumedsetofvaluesunderlyingearlycountry
music.34
Inactuality,then,hillbillymusicwasfarlessovertlypro‐Southernthanthe
mainstreammusicofthetime.Beginningwiththe“plantationsongs”ofStephen
Fosterandhispeersinthemid‐1800s,themusicofvaudevilleandblackface
minstrelsyidealizedtheantebellumSouth;thespreadofthesesongstotherural
southviatravelingshowsandtheappropriationofmany,includingthe
quintessentialSouthernanthem“Dixie,”torallyConfederatetroopsexplainstheir
presenceinearlyhillbillymusic.35Thatthis“obsessionwiththeSouthinAmerican
popularculture”gainedmomentuminthepost‐warperiodiscounterintuitive,but
bypaintingaromanticizedpictureoftheSouth,Northerncomposersandlyricists
attemptedtomediatedeepsocietalriftsalongeconomic,racial,andregionallines.36
PopularmusicidealizingtheprewarSouthalignedneatlywithrenewedAmerican
sentimentsofracismandnativism.Inthemostliteralsense,thelongingtoreturnto
DixieinsomanyofthesesongslikelyexpressesawishforthefirstSouthern
migrants,especiallyblackmigrants,toleavetheNorth.Moreover,portrayingthe
34Smith&Akenson,“TheCivilWarinCountryMusicTradition,”2‐6.
35KarenL.Cox,DreamingofDixie:HowtheSouthWasCreatedinAmericanPopular
Culture(UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2011),10‐13.
36Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,57.
26
OldSouthasaveritableparadise‐‐prosperous,beautiful,peaceful,wholesome,and
raciallyharmoniousyetunderwhitecontrol‐‐enforcedanarrativethatlocatedblack
activismfirmlyintheradicalandjustifiedapaternalisticstyleofracism.Thesongs’
stereotypesof“coons”and“mammies”alsofunctionedtobuildcommonground
betweenNorthernandSouthernwhitesthroughtheirassertionof“Anglo‐Saxon
supremacy.”37Thisthemeofsectionalreconciliationmanifesteditselfexplicitlyin
songslike“WeddingoftheBlueandGray”and“TheDixieVolunteers,”inwhichthe
iconsandimageryofDixie(mostnotablyStonewallJacksonandRobertE.Lee)are
deployedforAmericanends.38Byobfuscatingthedevastation,economicdecay,and
socialupheavaloftheSouthfollowingtheCivilWar,thesepopulartunes
symbolicallyabsolvedtheNorthofresponsibilityfortheconflictandaffirmed
AmericandominationofDixie;thereconciliationdepictedinthismusicwasnotan
equalexchange,butawayofchannelingSouthernfervorinapatrioticdirectionand
reaffirmingthesuperiorityofwhiteculture.
TheemphasisonSouthernidentityinhillbillymusicderivesfromtheway
thathillbilly’sfirstpromoterstriedtoshoehornitintothispre‐establishedand
widelypopulargenre.Emboldenedbythewayhillbillymusicianshadincorporated
earliervaudevilleandminstrelsyfavoritesintotheirrepertoires,recordcompanies
andradiostationssomewhatdisingenuouslycharacterizedhillbillymusicasthe
37Cox,DreamingofDixie,13‐25.
38HarryRuby&EdgarLeslie,“TheDixieVolunteers,”(NewYork:Waterson,Berlin,
andSnyder,Co.,1917)inUniversityofMississippiLibrariesDigitalCollections,
http://clio.lib.olemiss.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/sharris/id/1458/rec/15.
GeorgeM.Cohan,“TheWeddingoftheBlueandtheGray,”(NewYork:F.A.Mills,
1906)inHistoricAmericanSheetMusic,DukeUniversityDigitalCollections,
http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/hasm_b0165/.
27
naturalembodimentofthemessagesespousedbythesongwritersofTinPanAlley.
Invokingthesameself‐consciousrhetoricofantebellumnostalgiaandCivilWar
pridethataccompaniedpopularmusic,theyoveremphasizedboththeextentand
thepoliticalstanceofsuchthemesinactualhillbillysongs.Whilenameslike“Old
SouthernTunes”or“SongsfromDixie”weretechnicallyaccurate,theimplicationsof
suchwordchoicewentbeyondgeographicallocation.39However,whilelumped
intothesamecategoryviatheirmarketing,thetwogenresneverquiteagreedon
theSouththeybothdiscussed.
Althoughbothsharedasenseofnostalgiaandold‐fashionedmorality(albeit
dilutedinpopularmusicduetoitsstylisticpursuitofmodernity),theirostensibly
similarapproachestotheSouthwereinfactverydifferent.Hillbillydidnotshy
awayfromthesocialandeconomicconditionsoftheSouthinthe1920sand30s;a
productoftheseconditions,hillbillymusic’sveryexistencecalledattentiontothis
aspectoftheSouththatTinPanAlleytriedsohardtoignore.Withitsassociationsto
apoorwhiteunderclass,hillbillymusicspokewithavoicepurposefullyabsentfrom
popularmusic’scaricaturizeddiscourseonSouthernnessandwhiteness.The
diversityofsound,subject,andmessagewithinhillbillymusicalsoservedto
undercuttheromanticuniformityofpopularmusic’smonolithicSouth.40That
hillbillymusiccircumventedthetraditionaleconomicstructuresofthemusic
industry,offeredarelativelycheapandplentifulalternativetopopularmusic,and
attracted,notjustSoutherners,butthoseseekingasimpler,morewholesomemusic
39Huber,“BlackHillbillies,”24‐25.
40Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,18‐20,22‐24,57‐58.
28
thanthatofferedbytheurban‐basedpopularmusicindustrysolidifieditasathreat
deservingofexclusionandvilification.41
Musicprofessionals“mobilizedculturalcondescension”inresponsetothe
emergenceofcommercializedhillbillymusic.42Buildingoffalonghistoryofderision
towardsSouthern“plainfolk,”thistypeofcriticismwaspredicatedona
fundamentallyclassistframeworkthatbecameparticularlyrelevantinthepostwar
period.AspopularmusicandotherculturalformsfetishizedtheantebellumSouth,
theycreatedanunstabledualconceptionofSouthernidentity.Inthisconception,
thepostwarSouth,supposedlycontrolledby“whitetrash”andrifewithpoverty,
bigotry,ignorance,andviolence,actedasanunspokenandsubversiveothertothe
‘true’Southpopulatedbyhappyslavesandbenevolentplanters.43Whenhillbilly
musicdisruptedthisparadigmandbuckedpopularmusic’snarrowdefinitionof
Southernness,itbecameasiteofculturalcontroversy.Themainstreammusic
industry’spatronizingapproach,grantedmuchattentionbythepress,stroveto
delegitimizehillbillymusicasavalidartformandespeciallyasavalidSouthernart
form.AnarticlepublishedinthemusicmagazineEtudein1933marginalized
hillbillymusiciansandtheirSouthernfansasa“great,unnumbered,inarticulate
multitude”of“childlike”individualsexistingwithin“asortofsubterraneanmusical
worldoftheirown.”44Evenharsherwastheindictmentofhillbilliesasa“typeof
illiteratewhitewhoseallegiancesaretotheBible,theChautauqua,andthe
41Pecknold,TheSellingSound,25‐28.Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,27,61‐
62.
42Pecknold,TheSellingSound,24.
43Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,17,26‐27.
44ArthurSmith,“HillbillyFolkMusic,”Etude51,no.3(March1933):154,208.
29
phonograph…of‘poorwhitetrash’genera’…illiterateandignorant,withthe
intelligenceofmorons”byVarietymusiceditorAbelGreeninthetradepublication’s
1926retrospective.45Articleafterarticlequestionedthequalityandrespectability
ofhillbillymusicandthusimplicitlythegenre’sabilitytorepresenttheSouth.46This
criticismpervadedAmericanthoughttosuchanextentthattheKluKluxKlanbegan
tostrategicallyeschewhillbillymusic.Giventhelongstandingconnectionsbetween
earlyhillbillyartistsandtheKlan,thiswasaconscious,tacticalmoveintendedtoaid
theorganization’s“questfornationalrespectability.”47
45“Hill‐BillyMusic,”Variety,December29,1926,1.
46Pecknold,TheSellingSound,24‐25.DonCusic,DiscoveringCountryMusic(New
York:Praeger,2008),103‐110.
47Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,121.
30
MainstreamingCountry
Southernmigrationinthe30sand40susheredinnewtrendsinhillbilly
music.Scatteringthegenre’sprimaryfanbaseacrossthenation,migrationoutof
theSouthonlyincreasedhillbillymusic’simportancetoitstransplantedSouthern
listeners.AsthedisplacedSouthernruralworkingclassmovedWestorNorth,they
broughttheirmusicaltraditionswiththem,exposinghillbillymusictomorenon‐
Southernandurbanaudiences.Whilethisprocessindubitablyfacilitatedthespread
ofcountrymusicinthelongrun,itinitiallyexacerbatednegativeperceptionsof
hillbillymusic.ThemassinfluxofpoorSouthernwhitesandtheirculturalproducts
strengthenedthealreadyestablishedbeliefsystemscharacterizinghillbilliesas
inferior,degenerate,andbackwardsbyplacingthecommunitiestheyenteredonthe
defensive.48InCalifornia,forexample,theextremelyhostilestereotypes
surroundingOkiesportrayedthemasbarelywhite,geneticallyproblematic,
culturallystagnant,andun‐American,allelementsoftheculturalcriticismhillbilly
musicencounteredearlier.Moreover,giventheeconomicuncertaintyofthetime
andtheirownfearsaboutfallingintopoverty,membersofthenewmiddleclassdid
everythingtheycouldtodistancethemselvesfromthemigrantsbyaccentuating
differencesthatsupposedlylinkedOkiesto“depravityandaracializedOtherness.”
ThehillbillymusicthataccompaniedmigrantsoutoftheSouth,alreadyimplicated
asasymptomofbroaderSouthernsocialdecay,providedtheperfecttoolforthis
“ethnicandculturalscapegoating.”49Perceivedinvadersofboththe“physicaland
48Pecknold,TheSellingSound,45‐52.
49LaChapelle,ProudtoBeanOkie,23‐29,33‐38.
31
culturalspace”towhichtheymoved,Southernmigrantswerekeptfirmlyonthe
outside.50
Asaresultofsuchexclusion,seeminglycontradictoryimpulsestowards
distinctivenessandassimilationsurfacedinmigrantcommunitiesandthehillbilly
musictheyliked.Ononehand,theseformerSouthernerssimplymissedtheSouth,
especiallygiventheenmitytheymetwithintheirnewhomes.Thefamiliarsounds
ofhillbillymusicfulfilledthisneedandmediatedthedisparateidentitieswithin
migrantcommunities,formingthebasisofacommonculture.51Ontheother,as
migrantsstrovetowardsmiddleclassrespectability,theywantedtheirmusictodo
thesame.Reconcilingthesetwoimpulsesinhillbillymusiccausedamoveaway
fromtraditionalSoutherntropesandamovetowardstheWest.Giventhe
SouthwesternheritageofmanymigrantsandtheWesternlocationofthelarge
numberinCalifornia,theWesternstyleofhillbillymusicfirstpopularizedbyJimmie
RodgersandGeneAutrywasdeeplyembeddedinthesocialandmusicalcontextof
Southernmigration.AlthoughtheromanticimageoftheWesthadlongbeenapart
ofAmericanthought,itslackofalengthymusicaltraditionmeantthatitwas
necessarilylesscaughtupinthetypeofconflictsoveridentitythatcharacterized
musicaldepictionsoftheSouth;NorthandSouth,EastandWestallseemedto
subscribetoasimilar,albeitlargelyartificial,imageofcowboyculture.The
relativelysophisticatedpresentationofthe“singingcowboys”alsosubtly
distinguishedthemfromthepoorSouthernwhitemilieu,shieldingthemfrom
accusationsofbackwardnessandmakingthemmorepalatabletocosmopolitan
50Pecknold,TheSellingSound,48.
51Pecknold,TheSellingSound,44‐49.
32
consumers.52Theproliferationofgroupsandindividualsinvokingtheplacenames
andheritageoftheWest,includinganear‐absurdnumberofperformerstakingthe
stagenameTex,pointstotheprevalenceofaWestwardshiftinhillbillymusiceven
amongthosewithnocredibleconnectiontoSouthwesternculture.53Thediverse
musicaltraditionsofwhiterural‐to‐urbanmigrants,synthesizedwiththemusicof
theirsurroundingsandcoupledwiththewidespreadAmericaninterestintheOld
West,producedmusicalformslikehonkytonk,westernswing,andcowboyballads.
BysofteningthestarkSoutherniconographyofhillbillymusicbutstilloffering
migrantsthefamiliarsoundstheycraved,theWesternsubcategoriesofthehillbilly
genremovedthemusicawayfromitsmostpolarizingconflictswithoutlosingthe
senseofregionaluniquenesssoimportantinthiseraofdemographicflux.
AsWorldWarIIloomedonthehorizon,then,hillbillymusichadjustbegun
tomoveawayfromitsSouthernroots,buthadnotyetemergedinanysignificant
wayasanationalphenomenon.Thewarandconcurrentchangesinthemusic
industryworkedtogethertodisprovetheclaimthat—inonewriter’swords—
people“fromthecottonlands…haveneverunderstoodwhatAmericameans.”54In
1941,thebroadcastingboycottandeventualbreakdownofASCAP’s(American
SocietyofComposers,Authors,andPublishers)essentialmonopolyonmusic
licensinggrantedthelargelyunlicensedhillbillymusicmoreairplayintheshort
termandtheprotectionsithadlongbeendeniedinthelongterm.Thesuccessof
BMI(BroadcastMusicIncorporated)inchallengingASCAPdecentralizedthemusic
52Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A,145‐154.
53LaChapelle,ProudtoBeanOkie,81.
54AliceReichard,“California’sAdultChildren,”CountryGentleman110,no.2
(February1940):35.
33
industry,whichwashugelybeneficialforproducersof“so‐calledgrass‐roots
material”i.e.hillbillyandracemusic.Themusicians’strikelessthanayearlaterand
theearlyacquiescenceofthesmaller,independentrecordcompaniesspecializingin
raceandhillbillymusictothemusicians’demandsagaincatapaultedhillbilly
recordingstonationalheightsduetotheshortageofpopularmusic.Thischaosin
thepopularmusicindustrygavehillbillymusicthefootholditneeded.Asits
traditionalSouthernaudiencemigratedacrosstheU.S.inevengreaternumbers
thanbeforeandwentoverseastofight,hillbillymusicwasperfectlyplacedto
repositionitselfasthegenreofAmerica.55
From1941to1946hillbillymusicremoveditselffromexpressionsof
specificallySouthernsentimentandinsteadadoptedanunwaveringandentirely
Americanpatriotism.Inmessage,thesesongsdivergedlittlefromwartimepopular
music,expressingawiderangeofemotions,butlittleSouthernpride.“Cowards
OverPearlHarbor”vocalizedthetangibleshockandangerthattheattackandthe
U.S.’ssubsequententryintothewarengenderedintheAmericanpeople.56“Smoke
ontheWater”tracedthisangertoitslogicalconclusionwithlyricsincongruousto
thepleasanttwo‐stepmelody:
Forthereisagreatdestroyermadeoffireandfleshandsteel
Rollin’towardsthefoesoffreedom;they’llgodownbeneathitswheels
There’llbenothing’leftbutvulturestoinhabitalltheland
WhenourmodernshipsandbombersmakeagraveyardofJapan57
55Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A.,184‐190.Pecknold,TheSellingSound,54‐57.
56FredRose,“CowardsOverPearlHarbor,”Decca6008,DenverDarling,1942.
57ZekeClements&EarlNunn,“SmokeontheWater”Decca6102,RedFoley,1944.
34
Otherhillbillysongslike“1942TurkeyintheStraw,”“We’reGonnaHavetoSlapthe
DirtyLittleJap(andUncleSam’stheGuyWhoCanDoIt),”“WhenMussoliniLaidHis
PistolDown,”and“TheDevilandMr.Hitler”tookanequallyaggressivebutmore
lightheartedapproachwhileaffirmingtheinevitabilityofAmericansuccessandthe
rightnessofAmericanvalues.ThemostsuccessfulWorldWarIIhillbillysongs,
however,demonstratethegenre’soriginsintheballadeertradition.Chronicling
tragedyandpoignancy,especiallywithinthecontextofwar,remainedastrongsuit
ofhillbillysingersandsongwritersinthe40s.Songsofthistypeinclude“Searching
foraSoldier’sGrave,”“There’saGoldStarinHerWindow,”“SendThisPurpleHeart
toMySweetheart,”“StarsandStripesonIwoJima,”“TheSoldier’sLastLetter,”“Are
YouWaitingJustForMe?,”“WhiteCrossonOkinawa,”andthemostsuccessful
WorldWarII‐themedsonginanygenre,“There’saStarSpangledBannerWaving
Somewhere.”Transcendingtheboundsofmusicalgenre,thefirstrecordedversion
ofthissongsoldalmosttwomillioncopiesandinspirednumerousotherartiststo
recorditinbothpopularandhillbillystyles.58Bytheendofthewar,thegenreonce
regardedasa“specialtyproductmarketedintheDeepSouth”enjoyednational
attentionandsales.59
However,asthegenregainedmorenationalpopularityandacceptance,it
alsoattractednewlevelsofderision.Whilenationalpublicationscoveredand
recognizedthespreadofhillbillymusicacrossthenation,theirreportingwas
58Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A.,198‐200.Willman,Rednecks&Bluenecks,148‐149.
TheBillboardMusicYearBook(1944),46.
59“CornofPlenty,”Newsweek,June13,1949.
35
typicallytinged,ifnotrife,withsurpriseandscorn.60Infacttomanywriters,
hillbillymusic’sgrowingpopularityseemedonlyworthcommentbecauseitmade
the“naïve,”“folksy,”“raucous,”and“obnoxious”soundsofthegenre“anational
earache.”61In1946Collier’sdescribedthegenre’sgrowingpopularityasan
“epidemicofcorn”anditsmusiciansas“barefootfiddlerswhocouldn’treadanote
butcouldraiseavoiceonendlesstunes,especiallywiththeaidofcornliquor.”62
Mostoffensiveperhapswasthearticle“HillbillyHeaven”publishedinAmerican
Magazinein1952,whichbeganinaprofoundlycondescendingmanner:
Ifyoudon’tmind,Iwillwritethisreportlyingdown.Ifeelgiddy.Beforemy
eyesarefunnylittlemenchasingeachotherwithpitchforksandbanjos.In
myearsringsmournfulsoundssuchasneverwerebeforeonlandorsea.No,
it’snothingIet.It’sbecauseIhavebeenexposed,inperson,toanational
phenomenoncalledtheGrandOleOpry,andI’mafraiditbitme…This
noteworthynationhasbeentakendownbadwithanepidemiccalled
hillbillyitis.63
Whilethesewriterstriedtoplayintotheanti‐hillbillysentimentthatwasresurging
afterthewarasSouthernmigrationagainbecameapointofcontention,theyfailed
toswaymostAmericans’musicaltastesevenastheygainedtractionwiththeir
socialcommentary.Thisspeakstothesuccessofthecountryindustryindistancing
themselvesfromhillbillystereotypes,somethingthatsuchvitriolicanddemeaning
criticismunintentionallyspurredon.Theconstantreinforcementofnegative(and
usuallySouthern)stereotypesintroducedelementsofdefensivenessintothegenre
60Cusic,DiscoveringCountryMusic,103‐110.Pecknold,TheSellingSound,59‐60.
61“PistolPackin’Mama,”Life15,no.11(October11,1943).
62DoronK.Antrim,“Whoop‐and‐HollerOpera,”Collier’s117,no.4(January26,
1946):18,85.
63DonEddy,“HillbillyHeaven,”AmericanMagazine153,no.3(March1952).
36
thatdomuchtoexplainitsconsistentdrivetodistanceitselffromitsSouthernroots,
adrivethatonlyintensifiedinthepostwaryears.64
Buildinguponthepatrioticmomentumithadaccumulatedduringthewar,
hillbillymusictriedtosolidifyitspositionasa“nationaldesire”notjusta“regional
manifestation.”65Simultaneouslyaffirmedandchallengedbyrockandroll’s
emergenceandseparationfromitshillbillyroots,theNashville‐centeredindustry
workedtopromoteitselfasabastionof‘traditional’values.Integraltothis
conceptionwasthesupplantationofhillbillymusicalstylesbywhatbecameknown
ascountry‐pop;astheindustrybecamemoreandmoreinterestedandsuccessfulin
crossingovertothepopcharts,itabandonedmanysupposedlySouthernstylistic
traitsandinstruments,producingthefamous(orinfamous,fromtheperspectiveof
thosedisparagingthedilutionof‘real’country)NashvilleSound.Fiddlesandsteel
guitarwerereplacedwithstringsections,keyboards,backgroundvocals,anda
croonerstyle;thissoundvalueda‘smoother’soundwithslickproductionvalues.By
1960,almosthalfofallpopsingleswereproductsoftheNashvillecountry
industry.66AsNewsweekwrotein1966,theNashvilleSoundbecamean”all‐
Americansound”becauseofitsevolutiontowards“populartaste”anditsrejection
of“theraw,nasal‘hillbilly’soundalientourbanears.”67
64Pecknold,TheSellingSound,100‐103,158.
65“CountryMusicisBigBusinessandNashvilleisItsDetroit,”Newsweek,August11,
1952.
66Pecknold,TheSellingSound,91‐94.Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A.,231‐270.Russell
Sanjek,AmericanPopularMusicandItsBusiness:TheFirstFourHundredYears,
VolumeIII:From1900‐1984(OxfordUniversityPress,1988),428,256.
67“TheGoldGuitars,”Newsweek,April4,1966,96‐97.
37
Whilethismusicaltransformationwasunderway,thesongsofthe50sand
early60swerejustaspatrioticasthesongsproducedduringWorldWarII.Invoking
anti‐Communism(“No,No,Joe,”“AdvicetoJoe,”“I’mNoCommunist,”and“TheRed
WeWantistheRedWe’veGot(IntheOldRed,White,andBlue)”),pro‐warattitudes
(“ThankGodforVictoryinKorea,”“DouglasMacArthur,”“OldSoldiersNeverDie,”
and“KoreaHereWeCome”),andtraditionalChristianvalues(“DeckofCards”“They
LockedGodOutsidetheIronCurtain,”and“TheBibleontheTableandtheFlagupon
theWall”),thesesongsresoundedwiththevoiceofthenation,nottheSouth.
Perhapsmostsymbolicofthegenre’sall‐outAmericanismwasTexRitter’srelease
of“ThePledgeofAllegiance/TheGettysburgAddress”atthebeginningofthepost‐
warperiod,whichspoketothewaythelasttingesofSouthernrebellionhadbeen
quelledinthegenre.
Hillbillymusic’srenunciationofSouthernheritageandwholehearted
embraceofAmericanapavedthewayforitsreframingasthemorerespectable
countryorcountryandwestern.Althoughthetermhillbillyhadinmanywaysbeen
appropriatedwithasortofself‐effacingpridebyearliersingersandfans,bythe40s,
theword,withallitsnegative,Southern,andworkingclassassociations,nolonger
suitedtheneedsoftherapidly‐expandingindustry.Musicians,songwriters,and
recordexecutivesinitiatedanall‐outcampaignfortheabandonmentofthe
denigratinghillbillylabel.68Althoughsomeoftherationalewascertainlybasedin
angerandwoundedpride,asevidencedbyRoyAcuff’scommentthat“we’renot
68Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A.,216.LaChapelle,ProudtoBeanOkie,126.Ronnie
Pugh,“CountryMusicIsHeretoStay?,”JournalofCountryMusic19,no.1(1997):
32‐38.
38
ignorantandshouldn’tberidiculed”andJohnnyBond’sreferencetohillbillyasan
“uncomplimentaryputdown,”thestrongestreasoningwasfocusedonpublic
perceptionandconsumption,notfeelings.AsErnestTubbexplained,“alotofpeople
don’tunderstandwhathillbillymeans;theythinkofsomebody…outthereinthe
hills,barefooted,withalongbeard,andmakingmoonshine...thentheythinkofour
musicasinferiormusic.”69MusicpublisherandsongwriterFredRoseagreedwith
thisperspectiveinhis1946lettertoBillboardarguingthatcallingcountrymusic
hillbillywasadismissalofitasmusicatall,somethingwhichwascommercially
foolishgiventhe“75percentofallthepeopleintheUnitedStates”towhomthe
genreappealed.70Likewise,ColumbiaRecords’ArtSatherly’sdictumthatallartists
heworkedwith“fromAutryondowntheline”remember“we[don’t]consider
ourselvestobe‘hillbillies’”andsubstituteothertermsincluding“folkmusic,”
“mountainmusic,”or“countrymusic,”especiallywhentalkingtoreporters,
demonstratesakeensenseofimage’simportanceinthegenre’scommercial
success.71
AsDianePecknoldsuggests,“thiswranglingoverterminology”represented
botha“battleforrespect”and“themusicindustry’sstruggletograspthemeaning
andmagnitudeofcountry’spotentialpopularity.”Forcedtopayattentiontothe
genretheyhadsolongmaligned,themainstreammusicindustry’sobvious
confusionovercountrymusic’sculturaltransitionisexemplifiedinthepagesof
Billboard.Billboard’sfirstcoverageofhillbillymusicin1941relegatedittosharinga
69Qtd.inAnthonyHarkins,Hillbilly:ACulturalHistoryofanAmericanIcon(Oxford
UniversityPress,2004),99‐100.
70FredRose,Billboard,August3,1946,123.
71Qtd.inPugh,“CountryMusicIsHeretoStay?,”34‐35.
39
columnwithforeignhits,tacitlyunderminingthemusic’sAmericancredentials.By
1942,Billboardwasgrantingthegenregreaterrespectasmusicpopularacrossthe
nationandmovinggraduallyawayfromthehillbillymoniker.Thepublicationcycled
throughvariousnamesandgroupingsofmusicalstylesincluding“Westernand
Race,”“Western,Race,Polkas,”“AmericanFolkRecords:CowboySongs,Hillbilly
Tunes,Spirituals,Etc.,”and“FolkTalentandTunes.”In1944,inamovethat
symbolicallymarkedthecountryastrulyworthyofnotice,Billboardincorporated
popularitychartsintotheircoverageofthegenre,andby1949,theyboasteda
whole“Country&Western”section,includingretailsalesandradioairplaycharts.72
Althoughthetransitionwasinnowaysmooth,withhillbillystereotypes
persistingintothe50sevenamongcountryartistsandfans,hillbillymusichad
becomecountry.Recordlabelsalmostuniversallyadoptedthelabelofcountryand
pressuredstoresandradiostationstodothesame.73Indeed,asCountryMusicLife
putit,thetermhillbillyhadbecome“asobsoleteinthecountrymusicfieldasthe
term‘flyingmachine’istotheaircraftindustry.”74Thefewwhostillusedthephrase
justifiedtheirchoicewithinthecontextofhistoricityortradition.Forexample,Tex
Ritterutilizedtheterm(reportedlyaftermuchdebate)topayhomagetopasticons
in“IDreamedofaHillbillyHeaven.”75Likewise,a1962Broadsidearticlediscussed
hillbillymusicaspartoftheevolutionoffolkwithasidenoteclarifyingthathillbilly
72Pecknold,TheSellingSound,58‐59.Malone,CountryMusicU.S.A.,191,216.
73RachelRubin,“SingMeBackHome:Nostalgia,Bakersfield,andModernCountry
Music,”inAmericanPopularMusic:NewApproachestotheTwentiethCentury,ed.
RachelRubin&JeffreyPaulMelnick(UniversityofMassachusettsPress,2001),104‐
109.Pecknold,TheSellingSound,114‐116.Harkins,Hillbilly,100.
74CountryMusicLifeqtd.inLaChapelle,ProudtoBeanOkie,127.
75JohnnyBond,Reflections:TheAutobiographyofJohnnyBond(LosAngeles:John
EdwardsMemorialFoundation,1976),13‐14.
40
was“notapejorativeterm.”76Byandlarge,however,thecountrymusicindustry
hadsuccessfullydistanceditselffromthelabelthattethereditinexorablytoapoor,
unsophisticated,Southernimage.Publicationsdevotedtothegenredidnothesitate
toreaffirmitsnewfoundrespectability,claimingthatthosewhoenjoyedcountry
were“home‐owning,tax‐paying,Cadillac‐driving,sartoriallysplendidcitizenswith
thehighestidealsandmorals,”that“countrymusiclovers”madeup“theMAJORITY”
ofU.S.citizens,andthatthemusicwasintegralto“theAmericanwayoflife.”77
CountryhadplaceditselffirmlyinmiddleAmerica.
76WalterCamp,“FolkinginLosAngeles,”Broadside1,no.3(May1962):3.
77“AnOpenLettertotheU.S.Congress,”Pickin’andSingin’News,February26,1954,
2.
41
SegregationistCountryMusic
Thefirstsignsoftroublewithcountry’snewpositionasAmericanmusic
emergedintheearlytomid‐60soutsidethemajorrecordlabelsinunderground
segregationistmusic.Arisingfromtheproliferationofindependentregionalrecord
companiesthathadsprungupduringandimmediatelyafterthewar,thismusic
representedwhiteSouthernbacklashtotheCivilRightsMovementamongother
politicaldevelopmentsdeemeddetrimentaltotheSouthernlifestyle.78Theliner
notesofthemostprominentsegregationistlabelRebRebel’salbumFor
SegregationistsOnlyspellouttheirpoliticalviewsasfollows:
Theseselectionsexpressthefeeling,anxiety,confusionandproblemsduring
thepoliticaltransformationofourwayoflife...Transformationsthathave
changedpeaceandtranquilitytoriotsanddemonstrationswhichhave
producedmassdestruction,confusion,bloodshed,andevenlossoflife;
transformationsthathavechangedincentiveforself‐improvementtomuch
dependencyonnumerousfederal'GiveAway'programs,undertheguiseof
buildinga'GreatSociety'.Forthosewhotakeaconservativepositionon
integration,this'GreatSociety'program,thecontroversialwarinVietNam
andthenumerousso‐called'CivilRights'organizations,thisrecordisa
must!
WhiletheSouthisnotmentionedexplicitlyinthesenotes,thenameRebRebeland
theConfederateflagsthatservedasalogoforthelabelmadeitclearthat“ourway
oflife”meantaSouthernwayoflife,somethingthatheldtrueforallthe
78NickPittman,“JohnnyRebelSpeaks,”GambitWeekly,June10,2003,
http://www.bestofneworleans.com/gambit/johnny‐rebel‐
speaks/Content?oid=1241588.
42
undergroundcountrylabelsresponsibleforthesegregationistsound.79Itispossible
thatinlightofsegregationistpoliticianGeorgeWallace’sincreasinglynationalfocus,
segregationistmusictoohadnationalgoals.80Thiscouldexplainnotmentioningthe
Southinpromotionalmaterialsbututilizingracialsymbolismthroughthedisplayof
theConfederateflag.
Thisisborneoutinthemusicitself,whichconsistentlypromotesSouthern
prideasthenaturalcorollarytoracistandconservativemessages.Whilesome
songslikeHatenannyRecords’“ShipThoseNiggersBack”(“Americaforwhites,
Africaforblacks”)and“WeIsNonviolentNiggers”byOdisCochran&theThree
Bigotsfocusalmostsolelyonraceandotherslike“RobertE.Lee,”“TheSouth’s
GonnaRiseAgain,”“HereIFollowJohnnyReb,”and“TheLongGreyLine”onlyon
themesofSouthernpride,themajoritycombinethetwoinnoholdsbarredattacks
onCivilRightspolitics.Thesong“SegregationWagon”byColonelSharecropperon
Reb‐TimeRecordsexpressessomeofthemostovertlypro‐Southern,Confederate‐
sympathizinglyricsinviting“allsonsoffreedom”tojoina“Southernband”and
“rallyroundthestarsandbars”toprotectthe“Southernwayoflife.”Thesongalso
linkssegregationexplicitlywiththeConfederacy—“Segregationisour
watchword/Statesrightswedemand.”—andinvokesothertraditionalSouthern
tropessuchas“carpetbaggers”and“thequietlife.”Atthesametime,however,the
songinsiststhatthe“segregationwagon”wasnotawhollySouthernconcept,for
“conservativesacrosstheland”willjoininthemovement,perhapsrepresentingan
79LinernotestoForSegregationists’Only,RebRebelRecords1000,1971,qtd.in
“LabelHistory:TheStoryaboutJayMillerandhisRebRebellabel,”RebRebel,last
modified2001,http://www.aryan88.com/whiterider/rebrebel/homepage.html.
80Cobb,“FromMuskogeetoLuckenbach,”82‐83.
43
evocationofWallace’snationalplans.81Still,withitscomplementaryA‐side“Move
ThemNiggersNorth,”thisrecordpropagatedunabashedregionalandracialpride.82
SimilarlyJohnnyRebel’s“StayAwayfromDixie”suggeststhatifthe“jigaboos”and
theNAACPdidnotleave“Dixieland”alone,theregionwouldriseupagainandwin
byvirtueofasomewhatconfusingalliancewith“Yankee‐land.”83OtherJohnny
Rebelsongsincluding“WhoLikesaNigger,”“KajunKluKluxKlan,”“NiggerNigger,”
and“NiggerHatin’Me”blametheNorthandthefederalgovernmentforsupporting
uppityblacksthroughwelfareandtoleratingtheactionsofagitatorsandpainted
Southernwhitesaslong‐sufferingguardiansofracialpurity.Big‐KRecordsandThe
WhiteRiders,obviouslymoreassociatedwiththeKlanthantheothersinthiscanon,
pairthequintessentialKKKsong“StandUpandBeCounted”witharecordingof
“Dixie.”84AviolentracistandSoutherntonepervadedtheserecordingssomuchso
thatoneoftheleastmilitant,ConservativeRecords’releaseof“OldUncleJoe”by
TheDixieGreys,seemspositivelysoothinginitssofterformofracismand
Southernnessthatcallstomind(andinfactusessnippetsof)theplantationsongsof
StephenFostertoreinforceits‘UncleTom’messageofblackloveandrespectfor
theirwhitesuperiorsandhatredofMartinLutherKing,Jr.85
Whileitremainsunclearexactlyhowandtowhatextentthismusic
circulated,thevoicesofsegregationistcountrysingerswerenotignored.BillMalone
assertsthatamusicalundergrounddevelopedtodistributesuchrecords“covertly
81Cobb,“FromMuskogeetoLuckenbach,”82‐83.
82“MoveThemNiggersNorth/SegregationWagon,”Reb‐TimeRecords1861,
ColonelSharecropper.
83“StayAwayFromDixie,”RebRebelRecords518,JohnnyRebel.
84“StandUpandBeCounted/Dixie,”Big‐KRecords1915,TheWhiteRiders.
85“OldUncleJoe,”ConservativeRecords139,TheDixieGreys.
44
throughmail‐orderor‘underthecounter’purchases.”86Likewise,journalistNick
PittmanquotesFloydSoileau,acontemporaryandcompetitorofRebRebelfounder
J.D.Miller,toprovethatradiostationsrarelyplayedsuchmusicandthatmostsales
camefroman“undergroundtrade”involving“certainjukejoints”thatplayedthe
musicandboughtcopiestoresell.Soileaualsomakessuretodistancethepopularity
ofsuchrecordsfromRebRebel’shomeregionofsouthwestLouisianawhere
“peopledidn’twantthemthatmuch”incontrasttootherstateswhere“theysold
prettywell.”87RebRebel’swebsitecontradictsthis,claimingtheirmusicenjoyed
airtimeonradiostationsthroughoutthestate,includingblackradiostations.While
itisplausiblethatRebRebel’smusicwasbroadcastacrossLousiana,itseems
unlikelythatblackradiostationswouldplaytheirmusic;theinclusionofthese
stationsprobablyrepresentsanattempttoretroactivelyexcusethehatredand
racismofRebRebel’salbums.88
Eitherway,theinfluenceofthismusicextendedbeyondtheprejudicedfew.
ThatRebRebel’sinitialreleasesweremoremoderateandsatiricalgainedthelabel
manyfans.Leroy“HappyFats”LeBlanc’s“DearMr.President”setsupalesshostile
andmoreamusingpresentationofracism.Playingaconfusedfarmeraddressing
LyndonJohnson,HappyFatsaskspatentlyabsurdquestionssuchas“I'dliketo
knowifI'llbepermittedtoplantwhiteandblackpeasinseparaterowsofequal
lengthorwillIhavetomixthemtogether?”and“Mywhitecoondogwon'thuntwith
myblackbirddog.CouldIgetaninjunctiontomakethemhunttogether?...Doyou
86Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,236.
87Qtd.inPittman,“JohnnyRebelSpeaks.”
88“LabelHistory,”RebRebel.
45
supposethejudgecoulduselegalpersuasiononthemorwillyousendtroopsto
makethemhunttogether?.”89PokingfunattheCivilRightsMovementpaidoff;
accordingtoRebRebel,thesongsoldsomewherebetween200,000and300,000
copies.90Anotherearlyrelease,“FlightNAACP105,”ahighlyracistversionofan
Amosn’Andyskit,alsousescomedyandbecameanevenbiggerhitthan“DearMr.
President.”91Withlittleorpoordocumentationofsegregationistsales,itisdifficult
toassesstheirreach,butwhatstatisticsremaingiveasenseoffairlywidespread
appealinawhiteSouthunreadytointegrate.Thefactthatthismusicattracted
attentionfromseveralnationalnewssourcesfurtherillustratesitsimportanceasa
culturalphenomenon.92
Personalaccountsfromrecordcollectorsandfansofthegenrealsopointtoa
broaderlisteningpublicthanonewouldexpect.Accordingtoonecollector,who
beganhisinterestinthe60s:
Peopleallovertheplacelikedandagreedwiththemusic…itwasjust
fun…andhadsolutionsfortheproblemswewerefacing.Thetroublewiththe
numbersisthattheywouldn’tadmittheylikeditbecauseitseemedlow‐class
ortheyweretryingtoimpresssomeoneortheylistenedtotherecordsatthe
barorwiththeirfriendsbutneverboughtthem.93
Thisstatementtouchesononeofthebiggestdifficultiesinassessingthe
undergroundrecords’reach:anyofthestatisticsgathered(ofwhichtherearefew)
89“DearMr.President,”RebRebel501,HappyFats.
90“LabelHistory,”RebRebel.
91“FlightNAACP105,”RebRebel500,SonofMississippi.“LabelHistory,”RebRebel.
92NeilMaxwell,“TheBigotryBusiness:RacistRecords,BooksAreHitsintheSouth,”
WallStreetJournal,April26,1967.“CrowleyToday,”BluesUnlimited47(October
1967):4‐7.
93AnonymousRecordCollector,PersonalInterview,December2013.
46
relyonthenumberofrecordsbought,notnecessarilythenumberofrecords
enjoyed.Anotherrecordcollector,whogoesbythescreenname
LouisianaRebel1861,suggeststhat“giventhetypeofpeople”thatthesegregationist
musicattracted,manywouldhavebeen“unabletoaffordtheluxuryofbuying
recordsthemselves.”Thecollectorgoesonthesaythatthisquestionof
demographicsis“whytheundergroundstationsweresmarttoproduceonlylimited
numbersofrecordsandtargetacircuitofradiostations,bars,andsomestoresthat
wouldpromoteandplaytheirmusic.”94
Thetwocollectorsseemtocontradicteachother;onearguesthatthe
audienceforsegregationistcountrywaslargelytoopoortobuyrecords,andthe
otherclaimsthattheaudienceincludedawiderspectrumofpeoplewhocouldbuy
therecordsbutchosenottobecauseofconcernsovertheirreputationorstatus.In
alllikelihood,giventhetypesofworking‐classvenuesutilizedbycompanieslike
RebRebeltospreadtheirmessageaswellasthesimple‘down‐to‐earth’motifsof
themusicitself,thetargetaudience,atleastinitially,wasprimarilypoorSouthern
whites.However,theconcernsexpressedintheundergroundcountryrecordswere
notconcernsuniquetoaSouthernunderclass,anditisnotsurprisingthatmiddleor
evenupper‐classwhiteSoutherners,onceexposedtothegenre,latchedontoand
evensoughtsuchmusicasanexpressionoftheirfrustrationsaswell.Therecords’
associationswithapooranddisreputable(i.e.“thejukejointcrowd”)segmentofthe
populationpreventedthesefansfrompubliclyaffirmingtheirinterestinthembut
facilitatedcirculationthroughinformalnetworks(i.e.“borrowingorlistening
94AnonymousRecordCollector,LouisianaRebel1861,PersonalInterview,October
2013.
47
togetheratafriend’shouse”).Indeed,aformerdistributorforReb‐TimeandBig‐K
Recordsrecalls,“oncetheyfoundoutaboutthiskindofmusic,theyhadtohaveit,
buttheywouldn’tadmitit.”Inhiswork,thisdistributorinteractedwith“numerous
secretgroupsoffriendsorfamiliesthatwouldsharetherecords…andhavepolitical
discussionstogether.”Inhisopinion,thesetypesofnetworkswerealwaysfounded
thesameway:“oneofthemwenttoabarorageneralstoreandheardoursongs
andloveditandwantedtoshareit,buthedidn’twanttobeassociatedwiththat
crowd.”95Essentiallysegregationistsalons,thesegatheringsallowedanupwardand
outwardpercolationoftheideaofSouthernidentityespousedbyRebRebelandits
counterparts.
Whilesegregationistcountryistypicallydismissedfromlargerstudiesofthe
genre—fewscholarsincludeitandthenonlyinpassing—itsimportancein
understandingcountryasawholecannotbeoverlooked.Althoughsegregationist
labelswereoutsidethepurviewofthemainstreamNashville‐basedcountry
industry,manyoftheindividualsinvolvedwerenot.J.D.Miller,founderofReb
Rebel,forexample,signedwithinfluentialNashvillemusicpublishersAcuff‐Rose
afterKittyWellsmadehissong“ItWasn’tGodWhoMadeHonkyTonkAngels”ahit
andachievedmoderatesuccessasacountrywriterandproduceruntilhemoved
awayfromthefieldinfavorofblues,“swamp‐pop,”R&B,andCajunsounds.96He
wasalsoconnectedtothefamous“singinggovernor”JimmieDavis,servingashis
campaignmanagerinAcadiaParish,apositionwhichlikelygavehimuniqueinsight
95AnonymousDistributorforReb‐Time&Big‐KRecords,PersonalInterview,
November2013.
96ShaneBernard,“J.D.MillerandFloydSoileau:AComparisonofTwoSmallTown
RecordmenofAcadiana,”LouisianaFolklifeJournal(December1991).
48
intotheintersectionofcountrymusicandSouthernpolitics.Inadditiontohisown
involvementinJimmieDavis’campaigning,Leroy“HappyFats”LeBlancpossessed
strongtiestoNashvilleaswell,havingrecordedonmajorcountrylabelsRCAVictor
andDecca,workedwithcountrygreatsHankWilliamsandErnestTubb,andmade
appearancesonbothTheGrandOleOpryanditscompetitorLouisianaHayride.97Reb
Rebelandotherlabelslikeitfurtherclaimthatsomeoftheirperformerswerewell‐
knowncountrystarsperforminganonymouslytoavoidcontroversy;theextensive
useofpseudonymsmakesthisimpossibletoproveordisprove.98Nevertheless,the
segregationistformofcountrywasnotasremovedfromthemainstreamasitwould
appear.
Stylisticallytheserecordswerealsoconnectedtothemainstream,andas
such,theypresentedamodelofsortsforthemainstreamcountrymusicthatwould
laterincorporatesimilar,iflessaggressive,messaging.Manysongsappearto
intentionallymimicthestylesofartistspopularinmainstreamcountryatthetime.
ThemostobviouscomparisonisbetweenJohnnyRebelandJohnnyHorton.
ParticularlyinsongsthatrelyheavilyonelementsoftheSouthernpastasa
structureoraremeanttobeinspirational,JohnnyRebeladoptedasound
remarkablysimilartothatoftheHorton’ssagasongs.Thissimilarityisso
pronouncedattimesthatsome,includingcollectorsoftherecords,stillinsistthat
Horton,notCliffordJosephTrahan,isthemanbehindJohnnyRebel.Whilethisis
unlikely,Horton’stimeinLouisianaandhisrecordingof“JohnnyReb”fuelthe
97“LabelHistory,”RebRebel.RyanAndreBrasseaux,CajunBreakdown:The
EmergenceofanAmerican‐MadeMusic(OxfordUniversityPress,2009),150,201‐
203.
98“LabelHistory,”RebRebel.
49
rumor.99Theundergroundrecordsalsoemployconventionsofmainstreamcountry
suchastheuseofmarchesandsnippetsofpatrioticsongs,providinganintangible
connectionbetweenSouthernheritageandAmericannessthatforeshadowstheway
mainstreamcountryhitswouldlaterexplicitlylinkthetwo.Theanti‐elitist
sentimentsthatpervadedthesegregationistalbumsfurtheralignedwithattitudes
characteristicofthecomingwaveofexplicitlySouthernmainstreamcountry.
Similarly,theabsenceoffemalevoicesfromtheserecordslaidthe
groundworkforthewayinwhichwomenweremarginalizedinmainstream
country’sdiscourseofSouthernidentity.Afanoftheserecordsassertsthat“noone
wantedtolistentoagirlsingingabouttheConfederacy…thatwasman’s
territory.”100Anothercollectoragrees,suggestingthattheundergroundrecordsalso
servedasanunstatedbacklashagainstincreasingfemaleempowerment,
“remindingSouthernmenhowimportantitwasforthemtobemen”[italicsmine].
Implicitinmanysongsofthesegregationistcanonisasenseofdefenseofa
SouthernhomelandandthusSouthernwomanhood.Femaleacts,then,hadnoplace
inthisnarrative;infact,partofthenarrative’simportancehingeduponthembeing
excluded.101Whilesomefansandcollectorsdefendthisasnotthatdifferentfrom
mainstreamcountry,segregationistcountrywentfurtherinthatitwascompletely
male.Representingcountry’sfirstovertpoliticalexpressionofSouthernidentity,
theserecordsoffersomeinsightintowhywomenwerelargelyuninvolvedinthe
constructionofmainstreamcountry’sversionofDixiethatfollowed.Thatthefansof
99AnonymousRecordCollector,PersonalInterview,October2013.Anonymous
RecordCollector,PersonalInterview,December2013.
100AnonymousRecordCollector,PersonalInterview,December2013.
101AnonymousRecordCollector,PersonalInterview,October2013.
50
themusicweremainlymenalsoemphasizesthewayinwhichthisnotionof
Southernnesswascontingentinmanywaysonnotionsofmasculinity,whichgoesa
longwaytoexplainingthelateremergenceofmale‐centricrebelimageryin
mainstreamcountry.102
BuildingofffeelingsofpoorwhiteSouthernmaledisenfranchisementand
marginalization,thismusicbothwaspartofandfacilitatedagrassrootsupswellof
popularsentimentthatlinkedSouthernpridetoanaggressiveideologyof
superiority(overblacks,Northerners,women,liberalsetc.).Itspopularitythus
providesawayofunderstandingthemotivationsandjustificationsofthecountry
establishment’sturnSouthward.Forexample,thelabelhistorysectionofReb
Rebel’swebsitetellsthestoryofencounteringsomeblackfamiliesontheroad,who
recognizedJ.D.Miller,toldhimhowmuchtheylovedhiswork,andboughtcopies.
Onthebasisofthisfactuallyquestionableepisode,thesectiongoesontoclaimthis
asproofofmanyblackfansandthereforethelackofracistcontentintheirmusic.103
Whilethisjustificationmayseempatentlyabsurdwhenlisteningto“NiggerHatin’
Me”or“KajunKluKluxKlan,”itisoftendeployedtodefendmainstreamcountry’s
lessobviouslyhostileandoffensiveSouthernness.JoeJohnson,whoworkedwith
LittleJimmyDickens,MartyRobbins,RayPrice,PatsyCline,andGeneAutryamong
others,echoedRebRebel’srationalizationswhenhestatedthat“countrybeing
southernisn’taboutrace…blackpeopleenjoyedcountrymusic…theywereevenpart
102AnonymousRecordCollector,LouisianaRebel1861,PersonalInterview,October
2013.AnonymousDistributorforReb‐Time&Big‐KRecords,PersonalInterview,
November2013.
103“LabelHistory,”RebRebel.
51
ofit.HaveyoueverheardofCharleyPrideorStoneyEdwards?”104RickSanjek,
formerheadofAtlantic’sNashvillebranch,performsasimilarleapoflogicwhenhe
usesWillieNelson’spublicembraceofCharleyPrideandhisfriendshipwithRay
Charlestoprovethatthe‘outlaws’werenotracist.105
Segregationistrecordcollectorsalsospeakoftheirsenseofturmoiland
confusionduringthechangeofthe60sand70sandhowthesegregationisthits
werereallyjustawayofexpressingadesiretoreturntoabetterpast.Accordingto
thisrationale,thesongs’racialandpoliticalconnotations(howeverexplicitly
expressed)wereincidentalcomponentsofthegreatergoalofnavigatingthechaos
oftheera.106Thisfocusonheritageandthe‘naturalness’ofSouthernthemesin
countrymusiccharacterizesmuchofmainstreamcountry’sdefenseoftheir
stereotypedSouthandthedisavowalofthatSouth’spoliticalconnotations.Sanjek,
forexample,pointstoaSouthern“culturalheritage”incountrymusic,definedbyits
“limited…rural,uneducatedbackground.”Accordingtohimthisheritagealways
resonateswithsymbolsofregion”and“overtonesofracism”andmakescountry
“culturallyprejudicedwithoutrealizingit.”107JimBessman,areporterforBillboard,
elaborates:
“TheConfederateflaghasalwaysbeenpartofSouthernculture…artists
didn’tunderstandtheimplicationsoftheflagtoAfrican‐Americans…butjust
104JoeJohnson,PersonalInterview,September2013.
105RickSanjek,PersonalInterview,July2013.
106AnonymousRecordCollector,PersonalInterview,October2013.Anonymous
RecordCollector,PersonalInterview,December2013.
107RickSanjek,PersonalInterview,July2013.
52
sawitasawayoftalkingaboutpride,politics,andtheSouth…itwasn’tmeant
tooffendorbehateful…iftheywereeducated,theywouldstop.108
LikeRebRebel’srhetoric,theseexplanationsstrivetodistanceSouthernnessfrom
racialhostilityandtolinkittothepastinawaythatmakesSouthernpridethe
defaultforcountrymusic.Ifthisoverlapinjustificationiscombinedwithstylistic
similarities,crossoverofindividuals,andrelatedapproachestogenderpolitics,the
gapbetweenextremesegregationistlabelsandthemainstreamSouthernized
coutnrytocomebecomesmuchsmallerthanonemightexpect.
108JimBessman,PersonalInterview,July2013.
53
ConstructingtheSouthasAmerica
Infact,arenewedsenseofSouthernheritageandinterestintheConfederacy
firstbeganaroundthesametimeasthesegregationisthits,likelysparkedbythe
samewhitebacklashtoCivilRightsadvancesthatproducedthesemoreextreme
records.Thebeginningsofthisshiftwerefairlymild.Countrymusicartistsbeganto
againrecordCivilWarfavoritesincluding“JustBeforetheBattleMother,”“My
PrettyQuadroon,”and“DarlingNellieGrey.”Atthesametime,songslike“Johnny
Reb”and“TheBalladoftheBlueandGrey”surfacedandachievedremarkable
popularity.However,noneofthesesongstrulyglorifiedtheConfederacyorthe
antebellumSouth.WhiletheyembracedtheCivilWarasathematicframework,the
countrysingersrecordingsuchsongsintheearlytomid‐60sseemedmuchmore
focusedonthedestructivepowerofthewar.“TheBalladoftheBlueandGrey”tells
thestoryofbrotherfightingbrother,callingthewar“awarthatbothsideshadto
lose,nomatterwhichsidewon.”109While“JohnnyReb”ismorepro‐Confederatein
thewayithonorsfallensoldiersandtheirbravery(andhasbeenadoptedinrecent
yearsbywhitepowerandneo‐Confederategroups),ittooadvocatesapoignant
senseofreconciliationandmutualrespectinitsaccountof“honestAbe”playing
Dixieattheendofthewartohealthenation.110
Severalfactorsplayedintocountry’srenewedinterestinthewar.Forone,
theseinitialsongsseemtohavefunctionedonasymboliclevel.Inacountryever
moredeeplysplitoverthewarinVietnamandtheCivilRightsMovement,songs
109HarlanHoward,“BalladoftheBlueandGrey,”Columbia4‐41455,LeftyFrizzell,
1959.
110MerleKilgore,“JohnnyReb,”Columbia4‐41437,JohnnyHorton,1959.
54
abouttheCivilWarweretrulytopical.Thevisceralandemotionalwayinwhich
theseconflictswrackedthenation,creatingdivisionswithincommunitiesand
families,founditsnaturalmusicalaccompanimentinsongsaboutthelasttimethe
nationsplitintwo.ThetragedyinthesemusicalaccountsoftheCivilWaroffersa
critiqueofdissensionthatavoidsvilificationbutstillupholdstheidealofaunited
Americanpeople.Amoresimplistic,butprobablyequallyimportantexplanationis
thearrivalofthewar’scentennial,whichgeneratedaspateofCivilWarthemed
conceptalbumsbycountryartistslikeJimmieDriftwood,DonReno,RedSmiley,and
TennesseeErnieFord.JohnnyHortonevenusedthecentennialasapublicitystunt
forhisreleaseof“JohnnyReb,”singingthesongtoa116‐year‐oldformer
ConfederateGeneral.111Still,theseinitialrecordingscanhardlybecharacterizedas
awaveofSouthernpride,andtheroleofCivilWarsongsinthecountryindustry
remainedmarginal.
Asthe60sprogressed,anumberoftrendscoalescedtopavethewayforthe
reemergenceofmythicalSouthernnessasadominantfeatureofcountrymusic.
DuringtheVietnamWar,thepatriotismthathadcharacterizedcountrymusicsince
WorldWarIIremainedstrong.UnlikeWorldWarII,theColdWar,andtheKorean
Warcountrysongs,songsabouttheVietnamWartendedtoavoidtalkingaboutthe
waritself,perhapsbecauseofitsfundamentallycontestedidentity.Insteadoftaking
thecomplicatedandmessyrouteof“defendingAmericanpolicyinSoutheastAsia,”
thesesongschosetheeasierandmorefamiliartaskofrepresenting‘traditional’
valueslike“servicetoone’scountry,deferencetoauthority,unquestioning
111Smith&Akenson,“TheCivilWarinCountryMusicTradition,”7‐8.
55
patriotism,or,betteryet,loyaltytoapolicyevenifonequestionsit.”112Withtherise
oftheNewLeftandincreasingprotestoverthewar,countrymusic,astheself‐
determinedvoiceofmiddleAmerica,didnotsomuchalignitselfwiththewaras
againstthenew,radicalelementsofAmericansociety.Songssuchas“Dayfor
Decision,”“WhatWe’reFightingFor,”“TheMinuteMen(AreTurninginTheir
Graves),”“TheBattleHymnofLt.WilliamCalley,”“Fightin’SideofMe,”“It’sAmerica
(LoveItorLeaveIt),”“BalladofTwoBrothers,”“VietnamBlues,”“MustWeFight
TwoWars,”“WhereHaveAllOurHeroesGone?,”“TheMarchingHippies,”andthe
majorityofHarlanHoward’spatriotic,anti‐protesterconceptalbumTotheSilent
MajorityWithLoveexemplifythistheme,discussingnottheVietnamwarperse,but
thedeclineinAmericanvaluesrepresentedbythecounterculturalactivismofthe
period.
WhileadiversegroupofcountrysingersincludingBobbyBare,JohnnyCash,
JanHoward,WandaJackson,KrisKristofferson,LorettaLynn,BillyJoeShaver,and
theWilburnBrothersexpressedthesadness,cruelty,andseemingfutilityofthewar,
oranywar,thatwasasfarastheywent.Indeed,themomentsofambivalence—
outrightcriticismofthewarincountrymusicwasessentiallyabsent—andthe
momentsofpatriotismseembornefromthesameimpulse.Bothprojectthedesire
topreserveaproudAmericanheritagebasedonself‐reliance,family,democracy,
andChristianmorals—inotherwordsGod,kin,andcountry.Forexample,Bobby
BareandBillyJoeShaver’s“ChristianSoldier,”renamed“GoodChristianSoldier”
112Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,240.
56
whenKrisKristoffersoncoveredit,questionswaringeneraltermsbecauseofhow
harditistoreconcileChristianitywithfighting:
Hejustpraystomakeitthroughanotherday.
'CauseLordit'shardtobeaChristiansoldierwhenyoutoteagun
Ithurtstohavetowatchagrownmancry
Butwe'replayin'cardsandwritin'homeandhavin'lotsoffun
Tellingjokesandlearninghowtodie.
ThingsI'mseeingnowseemsoconfusin'
Lordit'sgettin'hardtotellwhat'swrongfromright
Ican'tseparatethewinnersfromthelosersanymore
SoI'mthinkingboutjustgivingupthefight.113
Asimilarruefulattitudemanifestsitselfin“LittleJohnnyfromDowntheStreet,”in
whichthedemiseofanidealizedsmall‐townyouthcanbeunderstandasalossof
innocentsmall‐townvalues.114Notnecessarilypro‐war,butemphaticallypro‐
soldierandpro‐America,thisattitudewasfamouslysummedupbyJohnnyCash,
hardlyanaggressivewarmonger,whenheevokedpowerfulovertonesofAmerican
masculinity:“Ifyou’renotgoingtosupportthepresident,getoutofmyway,soIcan
standbehindhim.”115
ThisideologylaidthebasisfortheemergenceoftheSouthasanationalideal.
TheimplicitcritiquesofmodernAmericaembeddedincountrymusic’s
condemnationofwarprotestersandcounterculturecreatedaneedforan
113BobbyBare&BillyJoeShaver,“ChristianSoldier,”INeedSomeGoodNewsBad,
MercurySR61342,BobbyBare,1971.BobbyBare&BillyJoeShaver,“Good
ChristianSoldier,”TheSilverTonguedDevilandI,MonumentZQ30679,Kris
Kristofferson,1971.
114DoyleWilburn&TeddyWilburn,“LittleJohnnyFromDowntheStreet,”Little
JohnnyFromDowntheStreet,DeccaCL75173,TheWilburnBrothers,1970.
115Qtd.inMalone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,241.
57
alternative.ThestereotypicalSouth,oncelambastedforitsbackwardness,offered
theperfectimagetocounteracttheturmoilofAmericaduringtheVietnamWar.By
reappropriatingtheSouth,countrymusicbroughtitintothegenre’spatriotic
thoughtandmadeitarepresentationofallthethingsmissingfrom1960sAmerica.
UsingtheidealizedSouthinthiswayofferedachanceofredemption,awayforthe
entirenationtoreclaimitsAmericannessthroughSouthernness.MartyRobbins’
“Ain’tIRight”embodiesthistheme,placinga“southerntown”indirectopposition
to“abeardedbathlessbunch,”“two‐facedpoliticians,”and“trampsthatmarchout
inourstreets”inanefforttoensurethat“Communisticbootswillnevertrod/Across
thefieldsoffreedomthatweregiventous/Withtheblessingsofourgreatalmighty
God.”116HarlanHowardtookamoreunusualtackin“ALittleMoreTime,”lamenting
thepassingofanunlikelytrinityofJFK,Jesus,andStephenFoster;bylinkingFoster,
themostfamousofthesongwriterselevatingtheSouthinthe19thcentury,tothe
othertwo,HowardweavesSouthernnostalgiaintohispatriotic,Christian,and
tradition‐basedworldview.117Country’srefashioningofSouthernstereotypesas
positiveisalsoevidentintheNashvilleestablishment’sacceptanceofthehillbilly
humorfoundonthenationallypopularshowHeeHaw.118
ThisideaoftheSouthasabetterversionofAmericaisatitsmostpotentin
MerleHaggard’s“OkiefromMuskogee,”oftenviewedastheultimateexpressionof
country’sjingoisticandnarrow‐mindedtendencies,whichelevatedruralMuskogee
asahavenofAmericanvalues(unpollutedbydrugsorradicals,freeofracialstrife,
116MartyRobbins,“Ain’tIRight,”SimsRecords296,JohnnyFreedom,1966.
117HarlanHoward,“ALittleMoreTime,”ToTheSilentMajorityWithLove,Nugget
RecordsNRLP‐105,1971.
118“EpisodeGuide,”tv.com,http://www.tv.com/shows/hee‐haw/episodes/.
58
andchockfullofpatrioticideas).Haggardhaslongmaintainedthatthesongwasa
jokeoratleastoriginatedasone,writtenoffthecuffinamomentofbanterontour.
Theopeningline“Wedon’tsmokemarijuanainMuskogee”supportsthis,as
Haggardwasknowntobeenmeshedin70sdrugculture.Thephrases“pitching
woo”and“manlyfootwear”alongwithHaggard’s“uncharacteristicallyflatreading”
furtherthenotionthatthesongwasadry,satiricalparodyof“patriotic
provincialism”andsmall‐townmorals.119YetHaggard’sdisclaimersaremuddiedby
someofhisotherstatements;forexample,hestatedthat“OkiefromMuskogee”was
“documentationoftheuneducatedthatlivedinAmericaandthattime,andImirror
that.Ialwayshave.Stayingintouchwiththeworkingclass…”120Undeniably,
Haggard’saudiencedidnotinterpret“OkiefromMuskogee”asajoke;thesong’s
incrediblesuccess“freed[Haggard]foreverfrommerecountrystardomwhilealso
chaininghimtightly”totheSouthernculturalconservatismhewasostensibly
mocking.121Haggardhassincegoneontherecordsayingheregretsthesong’s
release,especiallyasasingleandespeciallyfollowedby“TheFightin’SideofMe,”
whichwaslumpedinwith“OkiefromMuskogee”asrepresentativeof“angry,proud
conservatives.”Followingthereleaseofthesesongs,segregationistGeorgeWallace
askedHaggardforanendorsement.ThoughHaggardrejectedhisoffer,that
119MerleHaggard,“OkiefromMuskogee,”Capitol2626,1969.DavidCantwell,Merle
Haggard:TheRunningKind(Austin,TX:UniversityofTexisPress,2013).
120Qtd.inFox,“WhiteTrashAlchemiesoftheAbjectSublime,”51.
121Cantwell,MerleHaggard.
59
overturesweremadeatalltestifiestothefactthattheconservatismofbothsongs
wasimplicitlySouthernconservativism.122
PresentingtheSouthasmoreAmericanthanAmericatroubledtheregional
dichotomythathadlongplaguedcountrymusic.Surrenderingone’sSouthernroots
wasnolongernecessarytoberecognizednationallyortoindicatenationalpride;in
fact,SouthernprideandAmericanpridenowseemedcapableofexistingsideby
side.Arguably,thisapproachonlygainedstrengthafterthewar’sconclusion,asthe
UnitedStatescollectivelyengagedinastruggleformeaning.Countrymusic,andthe
Southitbegantoespouse,hadfoughtforhighmoralandpatrioticconcepts
throughoutthewar,andtheirrefusaltorelinquishtheseinitsaftermathprovideda
soothingcounterpointtowhatJamesCobbreferstoas“theself‐flagellationthathad
becomealmostanationalpastimeastheUnitedStatesbackedoutofSoutheast
Asia.”123
Atthesametime,thenegativeracialassociationsthathadlongbeenusedto
maligntheSouthwerelargelydisappearing.TheCivilRightsMovementwasmoving
outoftheSouth,riotswerehappeninginNorthernghettos,andblackactivistswere
challengingwhitehegemonyinnewanduncomfortableways.Northernwhites
couldnolongertreatracismasaproblemendemictoandindicativeofSouthern
backwardness.Theincreasingnationalpopularityofsegregationistpolitician
122ChrisParker,“MerleHaggardoutlastsandoutshinesallthoseshinyNash‐Vegas
prettyboys,”CharlestonCityPaper,February5,2014,
http://www.charlestoncitypaper.com/charleston/merle‐haggard‐outlasts‐and‐
outshines‐all‐those‐shiny‐nash‐vegas‐pretty‐boys/Content?oid=4857425.Chris
Heath,“TheLastOutlaw,”GQ,November2005,
http://www.gq.com/entertainment/music/200511/merle‐haggard‐profile‐chris‐
heath.
123Cobb,“FromMuskogeetoLuckenbach,”83.
60
GeorgeWallaceinthe60sand70shighlightsthewaySouthernidentityhadbecome
anostalgictouchstoneofwhiteness.KeytoWallace’scampaigningwashisevocation
ofaSouthern‘goodoldboy’image,bolsteredthroughhisuseofcountryacts.124This
linkisnotasintangibleasitmightatfirstseem;whenanunnamedworkerin
Detroitsaid,“We’reallhillbillies.WhatWallacesaysgoes,”hespokeformany
Americans,whofoundintheSouthernstereotypestheyhadsolongreviledan
affirmationoftheirracialbeliefs.125
Mainstreamcountry’sstudiousavoidanceofexplicitdiscussionofracial
issues(minusafewobliquerecordingslike“IrmaJackson”and“SkipaRope”)and
thewidespreadpopularityofaselectfewblackartists(mostnotablyCharleyPride)
actuallystrengtheneditsappealinthisregardbyplayingintowhitefeelingsthat
theywerenotbigotedbutjustwantedthingsthewaytheyusedtobe.Theway
country’sassertionsofSouthernnessdisguisedandjustifiedprejudiceasnostalgia
helpedupholdoneofthecentralmythsofwhitebacklashtotheCivilRights
Movement,thateveryoneknewtheirplaceandwashappywithitbeforethe
involvementofoutsideagitatorsandthattherestorationoftraditionalhierarchies
wouldbenefitall.“Resoundinglywhitewithoutbeingexpresslyanti‐black,”
country’sexpressionsofSouthernprideofferedakindof“whiteescapism”tothose
acrosstheUnitedStates.126
124Cobb,“FromMuskogeetoLuckenbach,”82.Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,
238‐239.
125Qtd.inJosephKraft,“MichiganApathy,”NewOrleansTimes‐Picayune,October20,
1972.
126Pecknold,TheSellingSound,225‐226.
61
CountrymusicanditsrefashionedSouthernidentity,then,becamea
convenientpoliticalstatement.AfterGeorgeWallace,thiswasfirsttakenadvantage
ofbyNixonasakeycomponentofhis‘Southernstrategy.’Thisbrandofcultural
populism,whichtookadvantageoftheliberalbentofmanyofcountrymusic’s
strongestdetractors,isevidencedbyNixon’sinvitationofMerleHaggardand
JohnnyCashtotheWhiteHouseandhisdesignationofOctoberasCountryMusic
Month.Inhismobilizationofcountrymusic,Nixonoverlookedthefairlydiverse
politicalviewsofcountryartistsandemphasizedthetraditional,patriotic,down‐to‐
earth,andthus,Southernidealsthemusicdepicted.127NixonstrategistKevin
Phillipssummedthisprocessupwhenhewroteabouthowcountrymusicspoketo
“theforgottenAmericans…whodrivethetrucks,plowthefarms,manthefactories,
andpolicethestreets”andprovidedawayto“usetheemotionalissuesofculture
andrace”topolarizewithoutalienating.128WhenhebecamethefirstPresidentto
appearonTheGrandOleOpry,Nixonelaboratedfurther:
Whatcountrymusicis,isthatfirstitcomesfromtheheartofAmerica,
becausethisistheheartofAmerica,outhereinMiddleAmerica.Second,it
relatestothoseexperiencesthatmeansomuchtoAmerica.Ittalksabout
family,ittalksaboutreligion,thefaithinGodthatissoimportanttoour
countryandparticularlytoourfamilylife.Andasweallknow,countrymusic
radiatesaloveofthisNation,patriotism.129
Asisapparentinthisquote,theSouthernvaluesofcountrymusicbecameaneasy
wayforpoliticians,particularlyontheright,tomakeastatementoftheirbeliefsand
127Pecknold,TheSellingSound,219‐226.Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,243.
128KevinPhillips,“RevolutionaryMusic,”WashingtonPost,May6,1971.
129RichardNixon,"RemarksattheGrandOleOpryHouse,Nashville,Tennessee,"
March16.1974.OnlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmerican
PresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=4389.
62
attractsupportwithoutactuallysayingmuchatall.Codingtheirpoliticalstances
throughcountrywasaconsciousandmeaningfulchoiceonthepartofthese
politicians,whosoughttobenefitfromcountry’sSoutherntraditionalismand
patriotism.Conservatives’wholeheartedembraceofSouthernnessasanemblemof
Americannessmarkedaturningpointincountrymusic;Southernidentitywasno
longersomethingtodivestbutsomethingtocelebrate.
63
TheResurgenceofRebelPride
Though“law‐and‐orderauthoritarianism”wasessentialtothereintroducing
Southernmotifsintocountrymusic,thesethemesweretakentotheirmostextreme
heightsby“theimageof‘outlaw’authenticity,”whichstoodin“fundamental
opposition”tostaidSouthernvalues.130Thetwomusicalmovementsincountry
musicthatwereparticularlyresponsibleformakingincreasinglyradicalassertions
ofSouthernnesspalatabletothemainstreamwerebothbreakawaymovements,
tryingtodifferentiatethemselvesfromtheuniformityofsoundandmessagecoming
outofthecountrymusicestablishment.Country‘outlaws’andsouthernrockers
tookthemoretraditionalSouthernprideevidentintherecordingsofthe60sand
early70sandtransformeditintoarebelliousstatement.
Althoughthe‘outlaw’movementistosomedegreeanebulousconcept,many
viewWillieNelsonandWaylonJennings’ssuccessfulfightforcreativecontrol,
upsettingtherecordcompanies’andparticularlyChetAtkins’sdominanceover
countrymusicproduction,asthebeginning.Whileotherindividualsincluding
JohnnyCash,JackClement,BobbyBare,andMickeyNewburylaidgroundworkfor
andinsomecases,becameincorporatedinto,the‘outlaws,’themovementdidnot
fullysolidifyuntilthismoment.Ironically,thiswasdueinparttosupportfrom
musicexecutivesalsoeagertoescapethestrangleholdofthecountrymusic
industry’seliteandkeenlyawareofthemarketabilityofan‘outlaw’narrative.Being
an‘outlaw,’then,becameasmuchaboutpromotionasaboutbuckingtheNashville
130AaronA.Fox,“WhiteTrashAlchemiesoftheAbjectSublime:Countryas‘Bad’
Music,”inBadMusic:TheMusicWeLovetoHate,ed.ChristopherJ.Washburne&
MaikenDerno(NewYork,NY:Routledge,2004),51.
64
establishment.WillieNelson,WaylonJennings,KrisKristofferson,andother
‘outlaws’movedawayfromtheirtraditionalcountryoriginsandtowardsarebel
image.Sheddingsuitsforlonghair,leatherjackets,andascruffierlook,theseartists
integratedsoundsfromfolk,rock,blues,andhonkytonkintotheirrepertoires,
simultaneouslyhearkeningbacktothemusicofHankWilliams,LeftyFrizzell,and
GeorgeJones(pre‐NashvilleSound)andincorporatingnewelements.131Their
rougheningandcomplicatingofstandardcountryformulas,then,wasjustified
throughasenseoftradition,likethemusicthatprecededit.However,inordertofit
the‘outlaw’mold,theseartistshadtorejectthetradition‐orientedSouthernnessof
theirimmediatepredecessorsandcontemporaries,dismissingconventionalcountry
soundsandmessagesascorruptedthroughcorporatecontrol.Thisisexemplifiedby
WaylonJennings’salbumHonkyTonkHeroesandhissong“AreYouSureHankDone
ItThisWay?”;bothelevatethestyleandethosof‘real’countryandcallforamove
awayfrom‘inauthentic’countrycharacterizedby“rhinestonesuitsandshiny
cars.”132Constructinganarrativeofacouptoredefinecountry,the‘outlaws’called
uponadifferentkindofSouthernnostalgiathanthatembodiedin“Okiefrom
Muskogee”andendedupintheConfederateSouth.
Confederatereferencesandsymbolismofferedanobviouswayfor‘outlaw’
performerstobuilduptheirrebelreputationswhilenottakingthemtoofaraway
fromtheSouthernpridethatwasprovingsolucrativetotheirmoremainstream
131MichaelStreissguth,Outlaw:Waylon,Willie,Kris,andtheRenegadesofNashville
(HarperCollins,2013),2‐4.
132WaylonJennings,“AreYouSureHankDoneItThisWay?/BobWillsisStillthe
King,”RCAVictorPB‐10379,1975.
65
peers.WillieNelsonfrequentlyworeaConfederatecapduringperformances.133
AlongsidevariousConfederatewaranthems,WaylonJenningsrecorded“TheGhost
ofGeneralLee”andwasinvolvedwiththeCivilWarconceptalbumWhiteMansions,
bothofwhichpresentedasuperficialbalancebutatrueSouthernbias.JohnnyCash
alsorecordedConfederatesongsoldandnewincluding“GodBlessRobertE.Lee”
and“TheNightTheyDroveOldDixieDown.”Sometime‘outlaw’MerleHaggarddid
notmentiontheConfederacywhenhereleasedtheaggressivesong“I’maWhite
Boy.”Intermsofracialimplications,thesong,inwhichHaggardexplainshowhe
“ain’tblack”or“yella”becausehis“daddy’snamewasn’tWillieWoodrow”andhe
“wasn’tbornandraisedinnoghetto,”wasmoreovertbutmeshedwithother
‘outlaw’hits.Thesonglyricallyaffirmedthe‘outlaw’lifestyleaswellthroughits
senseofindependence(“don’twantnohandoutlivin,’”“justlookin’foraplacetodo
mythang”)andendorsementofanunstable,pleasure‐seekingday‐to‐day(“good
timefella,”“ramblin’man,”“outtofindmeawealthywoman”).134
TherenewalofConfederatethemesin‘outlaw’country,however,ismost
abrasiveinthepersonascultivatedbyHankWilliams,Jr.andDavidAllanCoe.
William’spublicitymaterialsoftenfeaturedtheConfederateflagprominently.135
ThisevenwentsofarasthedistributionofWilliams‐themedConfederateflagboxer
shortsatNashville’sannualFanFair.136Themusicmatchedthepromotionashe
133CecilKirkHutson,“MoreSmokeThanFire,”AmericaUnderConstruction:
BoundariesandIdentitiesinAmericanPopularCulture,ed.KristiS.Long&Matthew
Nadelhaft(Routledge,1997),99.
134MerleHaggard,“I’maWhiteBoy,”AWorkingManCan’tGetNowhereToday,
CapitolRecordsST‐11693,1977.
135Hutson,“MoreSmokeThanFire,”99.
136JimBessman,PersonalInterview,July2013.
66
recorded“TheSouth’sGonnaRattleAgain,”“IfHeavenAin’tALotLikeDixie,”and“If
theSouthWouldaWon.”Thelastisespeciallyovertinitspolitics,playing“Dixie”in
thebackgroundandclaimingthat“wewouldahaditmade”iftheConfederacyhad
beenvictorious.WitharestoredcapitalinAlabama,thismythicalSouthern
governmentwouldcreatenationalholidaysforPatsyCline,ElvisPresley,Hank
Williams,Sr.andotherSouthernicons,notablyallwhite.137DavidAllanCoealso
usedConfederateimageryextensively,ofteninhisclothingorsets.138In“IStillSing
theOldSongs,”Coe’snarratorboastedthathehad“nevercrossedtheMason‐Dixon
line”andlonged“toseethedaytheSouthwillriseagain.”139Thisthemeisechoedin
“IfThatAin’tCountry”whenCoedescribes“workin’likeanigger”asoneofthe
manyattributesthatdefinehiscountry‐nessandimplicitlyhisSouthernness.140
Coe’sreleasesthroughhisownlabelD.A.C.Recordstookthisrebelpridea
stepfurther.Laterconsolidatedinto18X‐RatedHits(withcrossedConfederateflags
onthecover),theUndergroundandNothingSacredalbumscontainracistandneo‐
ConfederatecontentsoextremethatDavidAllanCoeandsegregationistsinger
JohnnyRebelareoftenconfusedandtheirsongsmisattributedtoeachother.Coe’s
song“Rails”discusseshow“niggersmademevoteforsegregation”andconcludes
“Wellit’shardtoworkforadollaraweek/andtheKluKluxKlanisbigger/SoTake
137HankWilliamsJr.,“IftheSouthWouldaWon,”WarnerBros.Records/Curb
Records7‐27862,1988.
138RickSanjek,PersonalInterview,July2013.
139DavidAllanCoe,“IStillSingtheOldSongs,”TheMysteriousRhinestoneCowboy,
ColumbiaKC32942,1974.
140DavidAllanCoe,“IfThatAin’tCountry,”DavidAllanCoeRidesAgain,ColumbiaKC
34310,1977.
67
thesheetsoffofyourbed/Andlet’sgohanganigger.”141Evenmoreoffensiveis
“NiggerFucker,”asongdedicatedto“niggerlovin’whores:”
AndtothinkI'datethepussy
Wherethatbig,blackdickhadbeen
Andkissedthelipsthatsuckedhimoff
Timeandtimeagain
It'senoughtomakeamanthrowup
Sureishardtofigure
Howanydecentgirlcouldeverfuck
Agreasynigger…
Causethere'snothingquiteasworthless
Asawhitegirlwithanigger142
WhilenotmainstreamCoehits,thesesongswereinextricablytiedtohis‘outlaw’
image,animagethatforalloftheself‐proclaimed‘outlaws’hadtoonsomelevel
includesupportfortheSouth’sConfederatepast.
Southernrockerscontinuedinthissamevein.Whilenotpreciselycountry,
thisgenrewasundeniablyborneoutofandinmanywaysoverlappedwithcountry
bothstylisticallyandlyrically.Likethe‘outlaw’movement,itrepresentsan
importantdisavowalofmainstreamcountrysounds,inthiscasethroughthe
integrationofthemwithrockandroll.Southernrockerswerealsoclosely
associatedwiththe‘outlaws.’Forexample,WillieNelsontouredwiththeMarshall
TuckerBandandcoveredoneoftheirsongs.Suchbehaviorwasnotunusualand
ensuredthatthe‘outlaw’styleofcountryandSouthernrockoverlappedand
141DavidAllanCoe,“Rails,”NothingSacred,D.A.C.RecordsLP‐0002,1978.
142DavidAllanCoe,“NiggerFucker,”UndergroundAlbum,D.A.C.RecordsLP‐0003,
1982.
68
appealedtoasimilaraudience.143Marketingexecutivesalsoplayedaroleinthe
creationofSouthernrock,arguablyinresponsetothesuccessoftherebelliously
Southerncountry‘outlaws.’Southernrockwaspromotedwithanunprecedented
“self‐conscioussoutherness”exemplifiedbyCapricorn’smarketingtechniqueof
distributing“BuySouthern”buttons.144Likewise,LynyrdSkynyrddrummerArtimus
Pyleexplains,“MCAwastryingtosellaSouthernrockbandandfiguredthatthe
Confederateflagwouldbethewaytogo.”Whileothersintheband,notablyRonnie
VanZant,claimedtheConfederateimageastheirown,allacknowledgedthe
influenceofMCAinpromotingandmarketingthebandthroughConfederate
references,mostobviously“Dixie”andtheflag.145Whatthisdemonstratesisthat
thewaysinwhichSouthernrockers’articulationsoftheSouthwereformedand
producediscomparabletothe‘outlaws.’
ThemostblatantexampleofSouthernrock’slinkagestoConfederateprideis
foundinLynyrdSkynrd.LynyrdSkynyrdusedtheConfederateflagonalmostall
theiralbumcoversandatmostoftheirconcerts,aswellasopeningwithoratleast
including“Dixie”inthevastmajorityoftheirperformances.146Theirsong“Sweet
HomeAlabama”isperceivedbymanyasanovertexpressionofwhiteSouthern
bigotry.ThisviewissummedupbyMichaelButler,whowritesthattheband“went
astepfurtherthanothersouthernrockgroupsinprojectinganadherenceto
143Streissguth,Outlaw,2‐4.
144BillMalone&DavidStricklin,SouthernMusic/AmericanMusic(Lexington,KY:
UniversityPressofKentucky,2003),113.
145Qtd.inLeeBallinger,LynyrdSkynyrd:AnOralHistory(LosAngeles:XT377
Publishing,2003),58‐59.GeneOdom,LynyrdSkynyrd‐RememberingtheFreeBirds
ofSouthernRock(NewYork:BroadwayBooks,2002),106.
146Hutson,“MoreSmokeThanFire,”96‐99.
69
traditionalsouthernracialidealsintheirglorification”ofAlabamagovernorand
ardentsegregationistGeorgeWallace.147ScholarsPaulWellsandBruceSchulman
concur.148Interpretingthesongiscomplicatedbytheconflictingstatementsand
politicalbeliefsofvariousbandmembers,someofwhomendorsedWallace’s
populistpoliticsandsomeofwhomcomparedhimtoHitlerorappeared
unconcernedwiththewholecontroversy.149RonnieVanZantandproducerAl
Kooperdefendedthesong,sayingthattheboosfollowing“inBirminghamtheylove
theguv'nor”signaleddisapprovalofWallace’sracialpoliticsandtheambiguousline
“nowwealldidwhatwecoulddo”meantthattheytriedtooustWallacefromoffice.
Thisseemsquestionableinlightofthefactthatthesonglaterincludestheline“the
guv’nor’strue.”150Wallacehimselfcertainlyviewedthesongasanendorsementor
atleastfounditpoliticallyexpedienttoactasifhedid,namingeachmemberofthe
bandanHonoraryLieutenantColonelintheAlabamaStateMilitiabecause“there
werealotofLynyrdSkynyrdfansinAlabamaatthetime,andWallacefiguredthat
someofthemmightbevoters.”151Thecharacterizationofthesongofferedin
SouthernMusic/AmericanMusicisprobablytheclosesttoaccurate,describingthe
pieceasa“militanthymnofpraise”toSouthernidentity“withatleastanambivalent
147J.MichaelButler,“‘LutherKingwasaGoodOle’Boy’:TheSouthernRock
MovementandWhiteMaleIdentityinthePost‐CivilRightsSouth,”PopularMusic
andSociety(Summer2003):46‐47.
148BruceSchulman,TheSeventies‐TheGreatShiftinAmericanCulture,Society,and
Politics(Cambridge,MA:DeCapoPress,2001),103.PaulWells,“TheLastRebel:
SouthernRockandNostalgicContinuities,” inDixieDebates:Perspectiveson
SouthernCulture,ed.RichardKingandHelenTaylor(NewYork:NewYork
UniversityPress,1995),122.
149Kemp,DixieLullaby,155.Ballinger,LynyrdSkynyrd,74‐75.
150EdKing,GaryRossington,&RonnieVanZant,“SweetHomeAlabama,”MCA‐
40258,LynyrdSkynyrd,1974.Ballinger,LynyrdSkynyrd,74‐75.
151Odom,LynyrdSkynyrd,108.
70
defense”ofWallace.”152WhilethelyricssurroundWallacearedisputed,therestare
notinquestionandundeniablyelevateasanitizedandidealizedSouththat,when
coupledwiththeConfederateflagonthealbumcover,signifiesaprofoundsenseof
Southernascendancy.153
AlthoughLynyrdSkynyrdhasbecomemostassociatedwithConfederate
referencesinsongandimagery,theywerehardlyunusualamongSouthernrock
groups.MollyHatchetandthesupposedlyprogressiveAllmanBrothersboth
featuredConfederatecostuminginpublicityphotosandalbumart.BlackOak
Arkansas’sleadguitaristStanleyKnightplayedaguitaremblazonedwiththestars
andbars,andtheflagalsohungfromthedrumriserduringconcerts.154Severalof
thebandsalsofeatured“Dixie”intheirregularconcertrepertoire.TheAllman
BrotherswentsofarastoincludepicturesofslavesandConfederatesoldierson
postersforconcerts,makingtheconnectionbetweentheSouthernrockers’useof
ConfederatesymbolismandtheracialpoliticsoftheConfederacyalltooclear.155
TheCharlieDanielsBand’s“TheSouth’sGonnaDoItAgain”exhorteditslistenersto
“beproudyou’rearebel,”andWetWillie’s“DixieRock”affirmedthewaywhite
Southernerscooptedblackmusic.156Clearly,theSouthernrockersembraced,ifnot
thefullpoliticalimplicationsofSouthernsymbolism,thesymbolismitself.
152Malone&Stricklin,SouthernMusic/AmericanMusic,114.
153EdKing,GaryRossington,&RonnieVanZant,“SweetHomeAlabama,”MCA‐
40258,LynyrdSkynyrd,1974.
154Hutson,“MoreSmokeThanFire,”96‐99.
155Butler,“‘LutherKingwasaGoodOle’Boy’,”46.
156CharlieDaniels,“TheSouth’sGonnaDoItAgain,”Epic15‐2393,TheCharlie
DanielsBand,1975.JimmyHall,JackHall,&RickyHirsch,“DixieRock,”Capricorn
RecordsCP0149,WetWillie,1975.
71
Thissymbolismhadlittleroomforfemaleparticipation.Someofthe
Southernrockgroupsincludedfemalebackupsingers.157The‘outlaw’phenomenon
wasslightlymorefriendlytowomen,andseveraldidachievesomelevelof‘outlaw’
status.However,thesewomendidsolargelybecauseoftheirconnectionstomale
‘outlaws.’JessiColter,wifeofWaylonJennings,tookherplaceinthe‘outlaw’
pantheonthroughherinclusiononthefamousWanted!TheOutlawsalbumwith
WillieNelson,WaylonJennings,andTompallGlaser.Combininga“oneoftheboys”
attitudewithanovertlysexualizedandfeminineimage,shefunctionedina
supportingroletothemale‘outlaws.’TheI’mJessiColteralbumcoveroffersvisible
evidenceofthis;Colterisdepictedinasaloon,posingsensuallyandexposingskin,
callingtomindaprototypicalWesternoutlaw’sfemalecompanions:barmaidsand
prostitutes.158Similarly,SammiSmith’sfriendshipwithWillieNelson,Kris
Kristofferson,andWaylonJenningsallowedherentrytothe‘outlaw’realm,
althoughhermusicrarelyalignedwithitsvalues.Herroleasan‘outlaw’waslimited
torecordingsongswrittenbythe‘outlaws’like“HelpMeMakeItThroughthe
Night,”attendingWillieNelson’sFourthofJulypicnics,andbeinglabeleda“girl
hero”byWaylonJennings.159Becauseofthefundamentalmalenessofthe‘Lost
Cause’ethossurroundingboththe‘outlaws’andtheSouthernrockers,womenwere
restrictedandmarginalizedassidekicksorbackupsandrarelytouchedonthe
Southernthemesaddressedbytheirmalecounterparts.Theirpresenceandsupport
157Malone&Stricklin,SouthernMusic/AmericanMusic,114.
158DanaC.Wiggins,“FromCountrypolitantoNeotraditional:Gender,Race,Class,
andRegioninFemaleCountryMusic,1980‐1989.”(PhDdiss.,GeorgiaState
University,2009),5‐6.JessiColter,I’mJessiColter,CapitalRecordsST‐11363,Jessi
Colter,1975.Bufwack&Oermann,FindingHerVoice,380‐381.
159Bufwack&Oermann,FindingHerVoice,381‐383.
72
implicitlyaffirmedandratifiedtheir“mythicalSouthernmachismo…theSouthof
hell‐raisinggoodoldboywholivesonlytoplaymusic,getdrunk,makelove,and
fightiftheneedarises”anditsconnectionstotheConfederacy.160Southernrockand
‘outlaw’countryprojectedanotionofwhiteSouthernmasculinityas1)self‐
sufficientincontrasttoslaves,women,orinferiormen;2)chivalrousandboundby
acodeofhonorthatrequiresprotectionofwomenandcommunities;3)racistand
desiringcontrolofAfrican‐Americans;and4)reminiscentofW.J.Cash’s“helluva
fella”intermsofrowdybehaviorandattitudetowardsviolence.161
Thesignificanceofthesetwomusicalmovementsisfoundinthewaythey
madetheSouththepossessionofayoungergenerationandabroaderpoliticalbase.
Bothhadconnectionstoprogressivepoliticsandeventocounterculture,whichina
waysoftenedthestridencyoftheirConfederatepride.Politically,the‘outlaws’were
adiversebunch,rangingfromKristofferson’sactivismfortheUnitedFarmWorkers
toHankWilliams,Jr.’sstaunchconservatismtothelargelyapoliticalstanceof
WaylonJennings.Mixinginsocialcirclesthatincludedfolkandrockartistsand
emergingoutofa“GreenwichVillagevibe,”theseartistscultivatedahedonistic
lifestyleandrebelliousattitudethatattractedyoungpeople,hippies,radicals,and
druggies.Atthesametime,the‘outlaws’focusedonamusicalpastandSouthern
themesthatappealedtoanoldergeneration,conservatives,andracists,aswellas
loyalfansoftheirearliermusic.Thisresultedinconfusingamalgamationof
160Malone&Stricklin,SouthernMusic/AmericanMusic,113‐114.
161TedOwnby,“Freedom,Manhood,andtheMaleTraditionin1970sSouthernRock
Music”inHauntedBodies:GenderandSouthernTexts,ed.AnnGoodwynJonesand
SusanV.Donaldson(Charlottesville,VA:UniversityPressofVirginia,1997),370‐
371.
73
audience,a“bobbing,visuallybizarremixofbeehivehairdos,nakedmidriffs,and
barehippiefeet.”KristoffersonandNelson,inparticular,possessedstrongtiesto
liberalpoliticalbeliefs.Stronglyinfluencedbyhisconnectionstoleft‐wingfolk
artistslikeJohnPrine,Kristoffersongraduallyturnedmoreandmoretowards
progressivepoliticsasheagedandbecamemoresecureinhisstardom.Nelsonis
famousforhisfriendshipandsupportofblackcountrystarCharleyPride,an
anecdoteoftencitedtoprovethat‘outlaw’assertionsofSouthernnesswerenot
racist.162Notonlydoesitdolittletoprovethatpoint,itrenderstheaggressive
Confederateprideofthe‘outlaws’allthemorepotent.Whenproducedand
consumedbyindividualswhoprofessedsympathywithprogressivepolitics,the
ideathatConfederatepridecouldbedivorcedfromitspoliticalimplicationsgained
tractionandthereforeminimizeddissenting,usuallyblack,voices.
Southernrockwasevenmorecloselytiedtoliberalpoliticsandblackculture.
Manyofthegroups’membersgrewuppoorininterracialneighborhoodsandwere
exposedatanearlyagetoelementsassociatedwithblackculture.Likelybecauseof
this,manySouthernrockgroupscoveredsongsfromandworkedwithblackartists.
Whilethiswasnothingnew,mostofthegroupsdidacknowledgetheinfluenceof
theseartistsandtreatedtheircoversashomage,whichstandsinstarkcontrastthe
unspokencooptationofblackmusicdonebymanyotherartists.163TheAllman
Brothershadseveralblackbandmembers,andalongwithWetWillie,occasionally
featuredpositivemulti‐racialimagery(i.e.holdingablackchildorsocializingina
162Streissguth,Outlaw,2‐8.JanReid,TheImprobableRiseofRedneckRock
(UniversityofTexasPress,2004),10‐14.RickSanjek,PersonalInterview,July2013.
163BrandonP.Keith,“SouthernRockMusicasaCulturalForm.”(PhDdiss.,
UniversityofSouthernFlorida,2009),14‐16,18‐22.
74
mixedracegroup)ontheiralbums.164LynyrdSkynyrdtouredwithartistslikeDr.
John,BBKing,andMuddyWaters.165Membersofthesebandsspecifically
acknowledgedtheiraffinitywithblackmusiciansandculture.Forinstance,Rick
HirschofWetWillielinkedhisJewishidentitywithanunderstandingoftheblack
struggle.166Theirmusicreflectedadegreeofracialsensitivity.LynyrdSkynyrd’s
“ThingsGoin’On”asks“Haveyoueverliveddownintheghetto?Haveyoueverfelt
thecoldwindblow?,”whichcanbeinterpretedasanindictmentofracial
inequalities.167TheAllmanBrothersrecorded“GodRestHisSoul,”asongdesigned
asatributetoMartinLutherKing,Jr.ThesonglamentsKing’spassingandsuggests
thattheCivilRightsMovementwillonlyescalateinhisabsence:
Amanlaydyinginthestreets.
Athousandpeoplefelldownontheirknees.
Anyotherdayhewouldhavebeen,
Preaching,reachingallthepeoplethere,
ButLordknowsIcan'tchangewhatIsaw.
ISayGodRestHisSoul.
TheMemphisbattlegroundwasred,
Causebloodcamepouringfromhishead.
Womenandchildrenfallin'downcrying,
Forthemantheylovedsowell
Themorningsunwillriseagain,
164Butler,“‘LutherKingwasaGoodOle’Boy’,”51.MarleyBrant,SouthernRockers:
TheRootsandLegacyofSouthernRock(NewYork:BillboardBooks,1999),42.
ScottFreeman,MidnightRiders:TheStoryoftheAllmanBrothersBand(Boston:
Little,BrownandCompany,1995),143.
165Odom,LynyrdSkynyrd,205.
166Keith,“SouthernRockMusicasaCulturalForm,”15‐16.
167GaryRossington,“ThingsGoin’On,”Pronounced…,MCA‐363,LynyrdSkynyrd,
1975.
75
Withallthepassionsgrowingthin.168
Inasimilarvein,LynyrdSkynyrd’s“TheBalladofCurtisLoew”mournsfictional
blackfigure,“thefinestpickertoeverplaytheblues”andinwhatcouldbeacritique
ofdiscriminationcallsoutthosewholabeledhim“useless.”However,thesongrelies
onstereotypesofAfrican‐Americans,byportrayingLoewaspoordrunkwhose
paramountsignificanceinlifeishisinfluenceontheyoungwhiteprotagonist.169
Southernrock’sassociationswithliberalpoliticswerefairlyovertaswell.As
teenagers,membersofTheAllmanBrothersandLynyrdSkynyrdcomplainedof
harassmentashippiesbecauseoftheirstyleandlonghair.170Thefactthatthe
SouthernrockerscampaignedforDemocratJimmyCarter,whileprimarilyachoice
borneofconvenienceand“southernunity,”inextricablytiedSouthernrocktomore
liberalvalues.171Indeed,evenatthetime,Southernrockwasviewedaskeyto
Carter’ssuccess;aNewYorkTimesarticlefrom1977suggestedthatSouthernrock
bands“predated”and“helpedcreatetheclimateforJimmyCarter.”172Althoughfew
Southernrocksmakespecificstatementsonpublicpolicy,butratherreferto
generalandvagueideology,LynyrdSkynyrd’srecordingof“SaturdayNightSpecial”
advocatingguncontrolisauniqueexception.Thesongfliesinthefaceof
stereotypicalSouthernmasculinity,associatedwithviolence,independence,and
168Keith,“SouthernRockMusicasaCulturalForm,”33‐34.SteveAlaimo,“GodRest
HisSoul,”DuaneAllman&GreggAllman,BoldRecords33‐301,TheAllmanBrothers,
1972.
169AllenCollins&RonnieVanZant,“TheBalladofCurtisLoew,”SecondHelping,
MCA‐413,LynyrdSkynyrd,1974.
170Odom,LynyrdSkynyrd,40.Freeman,MidnightRiders,96.
171Keith,“SouthernRockMusicasaCulturalForm,”41‐45.
172RobertPalmer,“SouthernRockisSpreadingAcrosstheCountry,”NewYork
Times,July24,1977.
76
thusinevitablyguns.Italsolocatesthebandfirmlyontheliberalsideofthedebate,
atleastoverthisparticularsocialissue.However,thesongadoptsself‐consciously
Southern,countrifiedlanguage(i.e.vernacular,‘Southern’phrases,andstandard
countrysymbols)tomakeitspoint:
Handgunsaremadeforkillin'.
Ain'tnogoodfornothin'else.
Andifyoulikeyourwhiskey,
Youmightevenshootyourself.
Sowhydon'twedump'empeople,
Tothebottomofthesea,
Beforesomefoolcomearoundhere,
Wannashooteitheryouorme?
It’saSaturdaynightspecial,
Gotabarrelthat'sblueandcold,
Ain'tnogoodfornothin',
Butputamansixfeetinahole.173
Southernrock,likeandarguablyevenmorethan‘outlaw’country,hadtheeffectof
renderingConfederateimageryacceptableandmainstream.Withliberalpolitics
andblackconnectionsasaconvenientexcuseofsorts,Southernrockerscouldbe
rebelliouslySouthernwhiledistancingthemselvesfromthepoliticalimplicationsof
suchanimage.
Thoughthisprocesswasmainlyintangible,someartistsactivelytriedto
musicallyreconstructtheSouthasmoretolerantversionofitself.Forefatherofthe
‘outlaw’movementMickeyNewbury’seffortstoreclaim“Dixie”produced“An
AmericanTrilogy,”acombinationof“Dixie,”“BattleHymnoftheRepublic,”andthe
173EdKing,“SaturdayNightSpecial,”Nuthin’Fancy,MCA‐2137,LynyrdSkynyrd,
1975.
77
spiritual“AllMyTrials.”Oneoftherarefemale‘outlaws’TanyaTuckerrecordedthe
mostfamousversionof“IBelievetheSouthisGonnaRiseAgain;”urginglistenersto
“forgetthebadandkeepthegood,”thesongdepictedanidyllicpost‐racialSouth
with“everybodyhandinhand”achievingascendancybut“notthewaywethoughtit
wouldbackthen.”174Similarly,BlackOakArkansas’“YouCan’tKeepaGoodMan
Down,”praisesMartinLutherKing,Jr.instereotypicallySoutherntermsas“agood
oleboy.”175Nonetheless,theinclusionthesesongsadvocatedwaspremisedona
basisofwhiteSouthernideologyandratifiedbywhiteSouthernsupremacy.By
normalizingtheborderlineneo‐Confederatetoneemergingincountrymusic,songs
likethisattemptedtodistanceSouthernpridefromitsracialovertones,amovethat
inandofitselfhadprofoundracialovertones.
JournalistChetFlippospeaksformanywhenhesuggeststhatSouthernrock,
specificallyTheAllmanBrothers,wasresponsiblefor“returningasenseofworthto
theSouth.”176InlightofSouthernrockand‘outlaw’country’sembraceof
Confederatesymbolism,thissenseofworthseemstobemoreofasenseof
vindication.RespondingtoyearsofcriticismandmockeryoftheSouth,the
turbulenceofthepost‐CivilRightsera,andtheriseofthefeministmovement,white
Southernmasculinityreasserteditselfthroughthesemusicalforms.177These
challengestowhitemaleSouthernauthoritycombinedtomakeRebelprideaviable
174BobbyBraddock,“IBelievetheSouthisGonnaRiseAgain,”CBS3134,Tanya
Tucker,1974.
175BlackOakArkansas,“YouCan’tKeepaGoodManDown,”10yrOvernightSuccess,
MCA‐2224,1976.
176Qtd.inMalone&Stricklin,SouthernMusic/AmericanMusic,114.
177Ownby,“Freedom,Manhood,andtheMaleTraditionin1970sSouthernRock
Music,”370.Butler,“‘LutherKingwasaGoodOle’Boy’,”43.
78
andmarketablemusicalstrategy.Thisinvolved“culturereflectingculture,”as
recordexecutivesandartistsstudiedtheverysocialtrendsshapingtheirownlives
to“producewhattheythoughtpeoplewouldbuy.”178Unliketheirunderground
predecessors,few‘outlaws’andSouthernrockersexplicitlyflauntedracistor
conservativebeliefs.Infact,manydidpreciselytheopposite.However,theiractions
normalizedConfederatepride,elevatedaSouthernpasthostiletoAfrican‐
Americans,andcreatedaneasyoutforthoseusingConfederateorSouthern
rhetorictoenforcespecificracialdynamics.
Lookingbackonit,someofthoseinvolvedinthecountrymusicindustry
speakof“adifferenttime,”“notunderstandingthosethingswereoffensive,”“a
sharedvisionofthesouththatwasn’taspoliticizedaseverythingisnow,”and
“moreinnocence,lesspoliticalcorrectness.”Excusesareoffered,blamingtheracial
connotationsofcountry’srebelSouthonthefactthatmanycountryartistsgrewup
withsegregationandracistpoliticsorthefactthattheywere“notpartoftheliberal
worldthatconsumesalotofnews.”179Thefactthattherewasnooutcryoverthis
musicalConfederateresurgenceistakenasevidencethattherewasnoproblem
withit,that“noonetookissuewithitorpaidattentiontoitbecauseitwasn’t
news…itwasnormal.”180GiventheclimateinwhichtheSouthernrockersand
‘outlaws’existedandtheculturalpoliticaltheythemselvesparticipatedin,thisidea
ofmassivesocialignoranceisunconvincing.Eventhoughthe“NAACPdoesn’tgoto
countryshows,”theintegrationofSouthernrockand‘outlaw’countryinto
178RickSanjek,PersonalInterview,July2013.
179JimBessman,PersonalInterview,July2013.RickSanjek,PersonalInterview,July
2013.JoeJohnson,PersonalInterview,September2013.
180JimBessman,PersonalInterview,July2013.
79
progressiveandraciallyliberalsegmentsofsocietyprovesthattheywerenot
unawareoftheimplicationsandheritageofConfederatesymbolism.181
Furthermore,the“normal”natureofsuchsymbolismispatentlyfalse,asits
disappearancefromcountry’sdiscoursepriortothe60sindicates;rather,itwas
normalizedthroughthepowerofadominant,white,male,Southernperspectivethat
encodedacertainsetofSouthernviewpointstotheexclusionofallothers.
181RickSanjek,PersonalInterview,July2013.
80
ForgetthePast?TheElementsofModernCountry’sIdealizedSouth
TheelectionofJimmyCarterinitiatedfurtherblurringofboundaries
betweenNorthandSouth.Thislossofregionaldistinctivenessfunctionedonone
leveltomakeSouthernprideandcultureseemsafetooutsidersandontheotherto
pushSouthernersmoretowardsstrongclaimsofauniquecultureevenastheir
uniquenesswasvanishing.182Carter,thefirstPresidentfromtheSouthsince1848,
hadreliedextensivelyonSouthernrockthroughouthiscampaignanddidnothide
hisSouthernidentity.HeprovidedanimageofSouthernsuccessassomeonewho
“putdecencybackintheWhiteHouse,”andSouthernersrespondedtothisimage,
winninghimeverySouthernstateexceptVirginia.183Withheadlinesexulting“We
Ain’tTrashNoMore”orseriouslysuggesting“TheSouthasTheNewAmerica,”the
resultantsurgeofaggressivelypro‐Southernmusicsomehowcouchedinthe
trappingsofrespectabilityisunsurprising.184TheriseoftheSunbelteconomy
coupledwithCarter’spresidencytosparkgreaterNorthernfascinationwiththe
SouthandcatalyzethegrowingstrainsofSouthernprideincountrymusic.185
182Hutson,“MoreSmokeThanFire,”104‐107.MeltonA.McLaurin,“Songsofthe
South,”inYouWroteMyLife:LyricalThemesinCountryMusic,ed.MeltonA.
McLaurin&RichardA.Peterson(GordonandBreachSciencePublishers,1992),26.
Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,46,245.
183Kemp,DixieLullaby,135.DeweyGrantham,TheSouthinModernAmerica‐A
RegionatOdds(NewYork:HarperCollins,1994),293.
184LarryL.King,“WeAin’tTrashNoMore:HowJimmyCarterLedtheRednecks
fromtheWilderness,”Esquire,November1976.RegMurphy,“TheSouthasTheNew
America,”SaturdayReview4,September1976.
185Hutson,“MoreSmokeThanFire,”104‐107.MeltonA.McLaurin,“Songsofthe
South,”inYouWroteMyLife:LyricalThemesinCountryMusic,ed.MeltonA.
McLaurin&RichardA.Peterson(GordonandBreachSciencePublishers,1992),26.
Malone,Don’tGetaboveYourRaisin’,46,245.
81
Whileremnantsofrebelhostilityremainincountry,ithasbecomemore
commonforartiststocombinerebelimagerywithathetraditionalAmericanized
Southof“OkiefromMuskogee.”ThecareerandmusicofAlabamaexemplifiesthis
combination.Alabama’sMyHome’sinAlabama,FeelsSoRight,andMountainMusic
albumcoversareallemblazonedwiththeConfederateflag.186Thebandalso
deployedSouthernsymbolismintheformofsexualinnuendoin“SeetheEmbers,
FeeltheFlame”(“justlikethesouth,girl,we’regonnariseagain”)and“BurnGeorgia
Burn”(“howhemadeheryearn,burn,Georgiaburn”).187Theydosomethingsimilar
in“DixielandDelight”discussing“alittleturtledovinonaMason‐Dixonnight…with
myDixielanddelight”butalsoclearlyalludetotraditionalism.Theyaffirmworking‐
classvaluesthroughthenarratorclaimingtohave“workedhardallweek,”
Americancapitalismthroughthe“spendmydollar”phrase,theelevationofrusticity
asanidealizedself‐sufficientAmericannessthroughthedepictionofanimalsand
scenery“freeasthefeelin’inthewind,”andtheidealized,dependentwomanhood
embeddedinthe“homegrowncountrygirl”heldtightlybythemasculine
narrator.188“SongoftheSouth”alsohearkensbacktothisglorifiedandpatriotic
Southernness.Thesong’sreferencestopickingcottonandpovertydeploythe
stereotypeofpoorSouthernersassimplepeoplewithagoodworkethicandplay
intotheagrarian,yeomanconceptionofAmericanidentity.Thefactthat“Daddywas
aveteran,asoutherndemocrat”issomewhatconfounding,althoughitobviously
186Smith&Akenson,“TheCivilWarinCountryMusicTradition,”17.
187JeffCook,“SeetheEmbers,FeeltheFlame,”FeelsSoRight,RCAVictorAHL1‐
3930,Alabama,1981.RogerMurrah&TimLewis,“BurnGeorgiaBurn,”FeelsSo
Right,AHL1‐3930,Alabama,1981.
188RonnieRogers,“DixielandDelight,”RCAGB‐13786,Alabama,1983.
82
injectsanelementofpatriotism.The“southerndemocrat”componentisslightly
moreconfusing,giventhatthesonglaterreferences“Mr.Roosevelt.”Ifmeantin
absolutehistoricalterms,atthetimeofRoosevelt’spresidency,thiswouldimply
supportforracistpolicies,butitseemsplausiblethatthiswasintendedtobeseen
throughamodernlensofdemocraticpolicies,tiedtoliberalpoliticsandasis
evidentthroughoutthesong,populism.Additionally,“SongoftheSouth”upholds
emblemsofthatepitomizethe‘AmericanDream’:“awashingmachineandthena
Chevrolet.”TheSouthportrayedinthesongisbecomingassimilatedintothe
Americanwayoflife“gone,gonewiththewind/thereain’tnobodylookingback
again.”189
RhettAkinsoffersalessclear‐cutexample.HisFridayNightinDixiealbumis
presentedasaConfederatestatement.ThealbuminserthasConfederateflagson
almosteverypage,AkinsispicturedwearingaConfederateStatesofAmericabelt
buckle,imagesofSouthernrocklegendCharlieDaniels(featuredonthealbum)are
prominentlydisplayed,theinscription“AnyFateButSubmission”adornsonepage,
theGeorgiastatesealconstitutesthebackgroundforthewholeCD,andthealbum’s
dedicationmakesreferencetoAkins’s“loveofSouthernhistory”andhisrelative
whofoughtintheCivilWar.Onlythetitlesong,however,addressesthe
Confederacy,mentioninga“rebelyell”inthecontextofaSouthernpartyincluding
“pickuptrucks,”“anoldbuckknife,”“shotgunshells,”“fourwheeldrives,”“amason
jarofshine,”and“500wattsofHank.”Theinclusionandacceptanceofanauthority
figureintheformofthesheriff,thepresenceofasweet“blue‐eyedcutie,”andthe
189BobMcDill,“SongoftheSouth,”RCA8744‐7,Alabama,1988.
83
overallauraofawholesomeandwell‐deservedgoodtimeshowshowAkins’s
constructionofDixierelatesbacktotheVietnam‐eracountryespousingAmerican
idealsthroughSouthernness.Thisisreinforcedbythealbum’sinclusionof
traditionalandlessaggressiveSouthernsymbolismincludingmagnoliablossoms
andanidyllic,ruralscenedrawnbyAkins’sgreat‐aunt.190Inhislatersongs“Kiss
MyCountryAss”and“DownSouth,”Akins’soundandlyricsarereminiscentofHank
Williams,Jr.,and‘outlaw’rhetoricovershadowsanyhintofthetraditionalSouth.
Probablytheresultofdesperateattemptstochartbypanderingtoextreme
Southernstereotypes,thesesongsdifferdramaticallyintonefromtheir
predecessorsanddidnotdoverywellonthecharts.
Themarriageofthe‘outlaw’/SouthernrockconceptionoftheSouthandthe
earliermorenostalgicSouth,then,definesmuchofcountrymusictoday.Therebel
ethoshasmigratedinto‘softer’country.PopcountryfavoritesTheBellamyBrothers
haveproducedsongs“YouAin’tJustWhistlin’Dixie”and“RedneckGirl.”Atthesame
time,lessrebelliouscomponentsofSouthern‐stylepatriotismcreptintotherougher
brandsofcountry.ConwayTwittysangaboutwomanizinginhisSouthernComfort
album,butonthecover,heworeasuitandembracedasingle,demure
representativeofSouthernwomanhoodforastereotypicalantebellumportraitona
plantation‐styleporch.191DwightYoakam’s“ISangDixie”addscritiqueofurban
modernityanddefenseoftheSouthasabastionoftraditiontoitsdiscussionof
190FridayNightinDixie,AudiumRecords8153,RhettAkins,2002.Smith&Akenson,
“TheCivilWarinCountryMusicTradition,”12‐15.
191SouthernComfort,Elektra60005,ConwayTwitty,1982.
84
“rebelpride.”192TheseprocesseshavemadelinkagetotheConfederacyandthe
Southvirtuallyinescapableincountrymusic.ArtistsJasonAldean,Brooks&Dunn,
GarthBrooks,LukeBryan,KennyChesney,EricChurch,theDixieChicks,Florida
GeorgiaLine,AlanJackson,theJoshAbbottBand,TobyKeith,JoshKelley,Lady
Antebellum,MirandaLambert,TimMcGraw,OldCrowMedicineShow,BradPaisley,
KelliePickler,thePistolAnnies,BlakeShelton,CarrieUnderwood.
‘Outlaws’stillexist,buttheyareperceivedaslovable,fun,DukesofHazzard‐
stylerascals.WaylonJennings’sinvolvementwiththeDukesofHazzardsymbolizes
thistransition,renderingthehard‐drinking,hard‐partying‘outlaw’family‐
friendly.193Whiletheactionsoftheseoutliersarenotcondoned,theyarerarely
explicitlycondemnedandareseenasexcesses,notaffronts.Inthiscontext,songs
likeDeaconLunchbox’s“Loweena,theUrbanRedneckQueen,”whichspeculateson
whether“RobertE.LeewouldhavewonthatdamnedCivilWar”withthehelpofthe
Hell’sAngels,NASCARdriverRichardPetty,andElvisPresley,aremerelyseenas
humorousdeviationsfromthenorm.194RebelSon’s“forthrighttunesforthe
unreconstructed”getasimilartreatment.195Moreconventionalartiststhatdraw
uponthe‘outlaw’andSouthernrockcanonstoexpressaggressiverebelpride,most
192DwightYoakam,“ISangDixie,”RepriseRecords7‐21868,1988.
193WaylonJennings,“ThemefromtheDukesofHazzard,”RCAPB‐12067,1980.
“Welcome,WaylonJennings,”DukesofHazzard.Episodeno.131,firstbroadcast
September28,1984byCBS.DirectedbyRobertSweeney.WrittenbyGyWaldron,
LenKaufman,MylesWilder,&DavidR.Toddman.
194Smith&Akenson,“TheCivilWarinCountryMusicTradition,”17.
195“Bio,”RebelSon:TheOfficialRebelSonBandWebsite,lastmodified15March
2014,http://www.rebel‐son.com/bio.htm.
85
prominentlyHankIIIandConfederateRailroad,aretoleratedandcaneven
crossovertomainstreamcountrypopularity.196
Theevolutionofcountry’sSouthernnesshascontinuedinrecentyears,and
therehavebeenseveralimportantdevelopmentsinthegenre.Firstistheuseof
‘country’ascodeforSouthern.Whilethishasitsrootsinearliercountryandis
intimatelyboundupwithcountry’snotionsofauthenticityasdependentupon
origins,ithasbecomeevermorecommoninmoderncountry.InJasonAldean’s
“She’sCountry,”Southernstereotypesandimages(cowboyboots,pickuptrucks,
prayers,etc.)areusedtodescribea“real…trueblue,outinthewoods,downhome,
countrygirl.”Notablythisgirlspeaksina“thickSoutherndrawl”andhailsfromany
numberofSouthernlocations.197“RockMyWorld(LittleCountryGirl)”utilizesthe
sametactic,describingagirl“listenstoMerle,”“looksgoodindenimandpearls,”
andis“allribbonsandcurls”onSunday.Thesongdoesnotexplicitlymentionthe
South,butespeciallyinthechorus,structuredlikeacountrytwo‐step,itisheavily
implied.198OthercompellingexamplesincludeRandyHouser’s“HowCountryFeels”
andAlanJackson’s“GoneCountry.”Whatthisdemonstratesisthatthecountry,both
theabstractideaandthemusic,hasbecomeentrenchedasSoutherninthe
Americanconsciousness.Italsoshowshowcountrymusicisbeginningtocomefull
196“HankWilliamsIII,”Billboard,lastmodified2014,
http://www.billboard.com/artist/276385/hank‐williams‐iii.Hank:Tennessee
Hellbilly,http://www.hank3.com/index.html.ConfederateRailroadOfficialSite,
http://www.confederaterailroad.com.“ConfederateRailroad,”Billboard,last
modified2014,http://www.billboard.com/artist/299587/confederate‐railroad.
197DannyMyrick&BridgetteTatum,“She’sCountry,”WideOpen,BrokenBow
BB74372,JasonAldean,2009.
198BillLaBounty&SteveO’Brien,“RockMyWorld(LittleCountryGirl),”Hard
Workin’Man,AristaRecords07822187162,Brooks&Dunn,1993.
86
circleascriticismofthegenre’spoliticsaccelerates,betrayinganunsurprising
reluctancetobeassociatedwiththeSouthernnessthathasbeencrucialtothe
genre’ssuccess.
Anothernewdevelopmentinthegenre’sexpressionofSouthernidentityis
itsinteractionwithhip‐hopandrap.Country‐rap/hip‐hoppartnershipslike
“AccidentalRacist,”“OverandOver,”“Cruise(Remix),”“Superman,”“BothofUs,”
“DirtRoadAnthem(Remix),”and“ThugStory”presentoneaspectofthistroubled
relationship.AlthoughTaylorSwiftandT‐Pain’s“ThugStory”isintendedasajoke,
itneverthelessrevealstheunderlyingproblemswiththesecollaborations.Swift,a
blonde,skinny,whitecountrystarfunctionsastheembodimentofallthingswhite,
appropriatingrapcultureinawaythatreinforcesnegativestereotypesofblacks.199
Thesuperiorityofwhitecultureandcountryisaconstantunderlyingtheme,with
raporhip‐hopservingasthediscursiveopposite,definingwhitenessthroughits
expressionofblackness.In“DirtRoadAnthem(Remix),”Ludacrisadoptsasubtly
subservientpositionwhenheraps“turnitupandletthespeakersscreamforMr.
Aldean.”200Inthevideofor“Cruise(Remix),”Nellydriveshisowncar,separatefrom
FloridaGeorgiaLine.Unlikethewhitecountrysingers,hedoesnothaveawomanin
thecarwithhimformostofthevideo.Whenonedoesjoinhim,sheisoneofthe
onlyblackwomeninthevideoandis,likeNellyhimself,dresseddifferentlyfromthe
white‘country’individuals,remindingviewersoftheimportanceandpurityof
whiteSouthernwomanhoodanditsneedtobedistancedfromdangerousblack
199TaylorSwift,RyanFollese,&NashOverstreet,“ThugStory,”TaylorSwift&T‐
Pain.FilmedfortheCMTMusicAwards,June2009.
200BrantleyGilbert,ColtFord&Ludacris,“DirtRoadAnthem(Remix),”BrokenBow,
JasonAldeanfeat.Ludacris,2011.
87
masculinity.201“BothofUs,”despiteitsanti‐racistmessagingandimageryof
interracialgroups,couples,andfamilies,createsaracialhierarchythroughits
depictionofTaylorSwiftasanangelicwhitewoman,wholyricallyispresentedasa
saviorofsorts.202Whatallofthesesongsdoisprivilegeadiscourseofwhite
openness,colorblindness,andtolerance,anarrativethatdisenfranchisesblack
musiciansandanypotentialgrievancestheymayhavewiththeracializedpoliticsof
moderncountry’sSouthernidentity.Blackmusicianswhoparticipateinthismusic
arecharacterizedas‘good’blacks,facilitatingracialreconciliationonwhiteterms,a
starkparalleltothe‘UncleTom’stereotypescommoninTinPanAlleyand
undergroundsegregationistcountrysongs.Theirelevationmeansthatallblack
criticsofsuchmusic’sracialundertonesarelabeleddisruptersofapositiveprocess
ofinterracialdialogue,wheninrealitythedialogueisone‐sidedandframeswhite
countryartistsasbenevolentconstructorsofracialjustice.Itisnotablethatgenre
namessuchas‘country‐rap’and‘hick‐hop”consistentlygive‘country’firstbilling,
andsocietalnarrativessurroundingthesesongsfocusontheincredibleoutreachof
countrystars,eveninsongsthatareprimarilyraporhip‐hopbased(e.g.“Overand
Over,”“BothofUs,”and“Superman”).
201BrianKelley,TylerHubbard,JoeyMoi,ChaseRice,JesseRice,&Nelly,“Cruise
(Remix),”UniversalRepublicNashvilleRecords,FloridaGeorgiaLinefeat.Nelly,
2013.“FloridaGeorgiaLine‐Cruise(Remix)ft.Nelly,”YouTubevideo,3:36,posted
by“FlaGeorgiaLineVEVO,”May13,2013,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bmZ9xRO7M9M.
202AmmarMalik,BobbyRaySimmons,Jr.,ClarenceMontgomeryIII,HenryWalter,
JamiesonXavierJones,LukaszGottwald,&StephenJoshuaHill,“BothofUs,”
Atlantic/GrandHustleRecords,B.o.Bfeat.TaylorSwift,2012.“B.o.B‐BothofUsft.
TaylorSwift(OfficialVideo),”YouTubevideo,3:39,postedby“B.o.B,”June27,2012,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1sa9qeV6T0o.
88
“AccidentalRacist”isperhapsthemostdiscussedandcontroversialofall
songsinthisstyleanddeservesspecialattentionbecauseitdirectlygrappleswith
themesofSouthernheritage.Fromthebeginningthesonglocatesblacksfirmlyin
theinferiorposition.ItmakessensetoassumethatthemanPaisley’shalfheartedly
apologizingto,“themanthatwaitedonmeattheStarbucksdownonMain,”isblack.
Evenifthisisnotthecase,LLCoolJbeginshissectionofthesongsaying,“DearMr.
WhiteMan.”AssociatingwhiteswiththeSouthandblackswiththeNorthfurther
ensuresthatblack,Southernvoices,thosethatwouldmostchallengethediscourse
ofSouthernidentityespousedinthesong,areabsent.Paisleypresentshimselfasa
victim“caughtbetweensouthernprideandsouthernblame,”forcedtoexplainhis
thatheis“proudofwhereI’mfrom…butnoteverythingwe’vedone”becausehehas
been‘accidentally’racist.LLCoolJissympathetictothisself‐professed“proudrebel
sonwithan‘olcanofworms,”acknowledgingthathecouldbejudgingby
appearancesandthewaytheSouthwastraumatizedaftertheCivilWar.This
automaticallyminimizesexpressionsofSouthernprideincountrymusicand
elsewhereasheritage,whichprecludesinterrogationofthenatureofthese
statementsandthosewhorepeatthemundertheguiseoffandom.Indeed,symbols
ofhip‐hop(read:black)culturearetreatedasculturalequivalentsofthelegacyof
slaveryandtheConfederacy:the“do‐rag”andthe“redflag,”“goldchains”and“iron
chains.”Ultimately,whatthisaddsuptoisanexhortationtoforgetaboutracial
enmityandthepast,to“letbygonesbebygones”because“itain’tlikeyouandme
canre‐writehistory.”Inthisframework,sittingdownandgettingabeerwillbe
sufficienttoeraseyearsofracialhostilities,prejudice,anddiscrimination.Oneofthe
89
finallinesafterthisoffensiveconclusionis“RIPRobertE.Lee,butI’vegottathank
AbrahamLincolnforfreeingme,”whichemphasizesthatblacksshouldrespect
RobertE.Leeandpropagatesanarrativeofblackpassivityandwhiteliberators.
Withinthecontextofthesong,African‐Americandisagreementwitheither
statementcanbeunderstoodasoffensiveandpossiblyevenracist,marginalizing
theirongoingstruggleagainstsystemic,institutionalizedracism.203
Collaborationsdonotconstitutethetotalityofcountry’sconnectionstorap
andhip‐hop.Country‐rapartistslikeBubbaSparxxx,JawgaBoyz,KidRock,theLacs,
theLoCashCowboys,MoccasinCreek,theMoonshineBandits,andtheRedneck
SouljersrepresentattemptstomaintainaSouthern‘country’essencewhiletapping
intothewidespreadpopularityofhip‐hopandrap.Theincongruityofthispairing
forceswhitecountry‐rapperstoconstantlyasserttheirSouthernnessthroughproud
andovert“whitetrash”or“redneck”imageryandlyrics.Moresothanmainstream
countryartists,theseindividualsfeelaneedtoprovetheirSoutherncredentials.
Thus,theyhavemoredirectlyinheritedthe‘outlaw’andSouthernrockconceptions
ofSouthernnessthanotherbrandsofcontemporarycountryandrarelyfocuson
‘softer,’traditionalthemes.Fewblackcountry‐rapcrossoverartistsexist,andthose
thatdoareprimarilynoveltygroupscateringtostereotypes.CowboyTroyfitsthis
mold,asdoesthegroupNappyRootswiththeirdebutalbumWatermelon,Chicken&
Gritz.Insteadofinterracialconversation,thesegroupsfurtherseparateandisolate
racialcategories.
203BradPaisley,LLCoolJ,&LeeThomasMiller,“AccidentalRacist,”Wheelhouse,
AristaNashville,BradPaisleyfeat.LLCoolJ,2013.
90
Thefinalsongsworthmentioninginthisareaarecountrysongsthatuserap
orhip‐hopasavehicleforcriticizingorjudgingAfrican‐Americansociety.Eric
Church’s“Homeboy”describesacountry,presumablywhite,boy,whoembraces
gangsterculture.Thedegeneracyofhip‐hopisconstructedastheoppositeofa
white,Southern,andall‐Americanfantasyofhome.204ColtFord’s“HipHopina
HonkyTonk”tieship‐hopto“dancin’likestrippers,”andBlakeShelton’s“Boys
‘RoundHere”promotes“keepingitcountry”incontrasttothosewhoknowhowto
“dothedougie.”205Similarly,ConfederateRailroad’s“IHateRap”devaluestheentire
blackcommunitythroughitsdemeaningapproachtoblackculturalproducts.A
slightlydifferentversionofthiscomesoutin“HonkyTonkBadonkadonk.”Bytaking
“badonkadonk,”ausuallycomplimentarydescriptorappliedtoblackwomen,and
transplantingitintoahonkytonksetting,Adkinsdivorcesitfromitsblackhip‐hop
cultureandrendersitridiculouswhenappliedtoblackwomen.Featuringonly
whitewomeninthevideo,thesongsubvertsatermthatdefieswhitestandardsof
beautybyremovingitfromitsAfrican‐Americancontextandusingittoupholdthe
physicalsuperiorityofwhitewomen.206ThesesongsencodewhiteSouthernness
throughmusicalforms(orthingsassociatedwithmusicalforms),furtherbreaking
downthenotionthatracialassociationsaremerelyincidentaltotheoriginsof
204EricChurch&CaseyBeathard,“Homeboy,”Chief,EMI/CapitolNashville,Eric
Church,2011.
205ThomShepherd,“HipHopinaHonkyTonk,”Chicken&Biscuits,AverageJoe’s
EntertainmentGroup,ColtFordfeat.KevinFowler,2010.CraigWiseman,Rhett
Akins,&DallasDavidson,“Boys‘RoundHere,”BasedonaTrueStory…,WarnerBros.
Records,BlakeSheltonfeat.thePistolAnnies,2013.
206JameyJohnson&RandyHouser,“HonkyTonkBadonkadonk,”SongsAboutMe,
CapitolNashville/EMIRecords,TraceAdkins,2005.“TraceAdkins‐HonkyTonk
Badonkadonk,”YouTubevideo,4:09,postedby“emimusic,”February25,2009,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNVguvNE7qc.
91
countryandmusictiedtoblackculture(overtheyears,‘race,’soul,blues,jazz,rap,
hip‐hop,etc.),thattheyareindicativeofwhiteandblackculturebecauseofan
accidentofgeographyandpopulation.Inutilizinggenretovilifyorstereotype,
countryartistsrecognizethepowerofmusictoenforceracialboundaries,
somethingthatgoesunacknowledgedbythosethatclaimcountry’sSouthernpride
hasnoracialorpoliticalovertones.
Theevolutionofcountrymusicasadistinctlypro‐Southerngenre
destabilizesthepredominantandsimplisticnarrativesfavoredbythosevilifying
country.Thisisnot,however,anykindofexcuseforConfederatereferencesin
countrymusic.Bytracingcountry’sSouthernprideorlackthereoffrom
commercializationonward,itbecomesalltooevidentthatsuchsymbolismcannot
beseparatedfromitsracialimplications.WhilethemusicofHankWilliams,Jr.may
bedifferentindegreefromthatofJohnnyRebel,theyareborneoutofthesame
feelingsandjustifiedinthesameway.Ultimately,thepoliticizationofSouthern
nostalgiaandmemorysubstantiatesthat“heritagenothate’islittlemorethana
maskforhatredinanotherform.
92
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