Southern African Humanities 22: 113–47
September 2010
Natal Museum
Induna Cave, southeastern Zimbabwe:
a ‘contact period’ assemblage in a changing social landscape
Carolyn Thorp
Natal Museum, P. Bag 9070, Pietermaritzburg, 3200 South Africa; School of
Anthropology, Gender & Historical Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, P. Bag X01,
Scottsville, 3209 South Africa; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Excavation of Induna Cave in the southeastern lowveld of Zimbabwe has established that stone tool-using
hunter-gatherers occupied the site until at least the late twelfth century AD. Relatively formal stone artefact
assemblages together with ceramics came from two contact-period levels. These assemblages suggest either
occupation of the cave by hunter-gatherers using items of material culture acquired from farmers who
were living in close proximity to the site, or alternate use of the cave by farmers and hunter-gatherers.
An earlier stone artefact assemblage with few formal tools, and some ceramics, possibly displaced from
the contact-period occupation above, may represent either a pre-contact or a contact occupation of the
site, which was probably used as a hunting camp and a place for processing ostrich eggshell beads at
this time. A small pre-ceramic assemblage shows that the area was occupied by hunter-gatherers before
farmers arrived in the region.
KEY WORDS: Zimbabwe, southeastern lowveld, interaction, hunter-gatherers, farmers.
Observations from a growing number of contact-period assemblages in southern Africa
have resulted in the recognition of a generalized pattern of the processes involved in
interaction between hunter-gatherers and farmers. It has been argued that the distance
of hunter-gatherer sites from farmer settlement affects the degree of independence
reflected in their material culture (Sadr 2002: 44; van Doornum 2008: 274). In some
cases an initial period of contact with evidence of exchange relationships between
relatively independent hunter-gatherers and farmers is followed by evidence of growing
hunter-gatherer dependence on farmers (e.g. Mazel 1989; Sadr 2002; Wadley 1996). It
has been proposed that hunter-gatherer assemblages further from farming settlement
contain fewer artefacts produced or controlled by farmers, including ceramics, remains
of domestic animals, metal artefacts and glass beads. Such assemblages are also more
similar to those found on sites dating to the period before farming was introduced (Sadr
2002: 44). Assemblages from some hunter-gatherer sites close to contemporaneous
farming settlements show less evidence of production for exchange with farmers,
and some assemblages are thought to represent historically documented dependent
relationships such as clientship or largely assimilated hunter-gatherers (Sadr 2002: 37;
Thorp 1997). The diverse nature of hunter-gatherer material culture ‘signatures’ through
time and space suggests varying degrees of hunter-gatherer interaction with farmers.
Evidence of this varied interaction has contributed to arguments for more situational
histories of hunter-gatherer groups than those first proposed by the participants of
the Kalahari debate (cf. Sadr 1997; Solway & Lee 1990; Wilmsen & Denbow 1990).
It has been proposed that foraging societies survived longer in marginal areas of
the lowveld in southern Zimbabwe than in the more favourable farming environment
of the highveld (Walker 1995: 255; Walker & Thorp 1997: 25). However, the evidence
to support this proposal is problematic. The period of contact between farmers and
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Fig. 1. Map of Malilangwe with sites mentioned in the text and inset map showing locations of:
1. Malilangwe; 2. Mtanye; 3. Dombozanga; 4. Mpato; 5. Gokomere East.
hunter-gatherers in the southern lowveld of Zimbabwe was investigated during the
1960s and 1970s at Dombozanga, Mpato and Mtanye rock shelters (Cooke & Simons
1969; Robinson 1964) (Fig. 1). Assemblages of stone artefacts in association with
Bambata and Gokomere ceramics were reported from Dombozanga and Mtanye, and
Leopard’s Kopje Tradition ceramics may also have been associated with stone artefacts
at Mtanye (Robinson 1964; Walker 1972: 12). The ceramics suggest interaction between
hunter-gatherers and farmers for a considerable period over the last two thousand years,
but radiocarbon dates from both of these sites are problematic, and a detailed account
of the culture history of hunter-gatherers in the region has not yet been produced
(Cooke 1979: 146; Thorp 2005a: 11; Walker 1983: 90).
On the highveld in southwestern Zimbabwe there were no more distinct stone toolusing hunter-gatherer communities in the Matobo area by the sixth century AD (Walker
1995: 205). On the highveld in northern Zimbabwe the most recent radiocarbon date
from a stone tool-using hunter-gatherer context is a seventh-century AD date from
Diana’s Vow (Cooke 1979: 146). Burrett (2003: 30) suggests that distinctive forager
communities survived in northeastern Zimbabwe until the sixteenth century AD on
the basis of a cache of Indian Red trade beads, apparently associated with a stone
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
115
artefact assemblage at Gosho 1 shelter. However, this shelter is in a relatively marginal
environment. Walker postulates that hunter-gatherers may have visited Gokomere
Eastern Cave (Fig. 1) on the edge of the southeastern lowveld as recently as the last
two or three centuries, but the relevant occupation is undated (Walker 1993: 22).
When Induna Cave (Fig. 1: site 58) was excavated in 1998, very little was known
about the culture history of the southeastern lowveld of Zimbabwe, and no occupation
sequences for the Stone Age or the Iron Age had been established. Recent archaeological
surveys and excavations on Malilangwe Trust’s estate in the southeastern lowveld
(Fig. 1) have produced an outline of the culture history of the area. The earliest
farming communities with ceramics, apparently both Ziwa/Gokomere and Happy
Rest, established settlements during the seventh to eighth centuries AD (Swan 2007;
Thorp 2004, 2005b). Later farming communities with Gumanye and Zimbabwe
Periods 3 and 4 ceramics are dated to between the late tenth and fifteenth centuries
AD (Thorp 2004, 2005b, 2009). Some evidence of possible interaction between these
farmers and hunter-gatherers was found on the excavated farmer sites (Swan 2007;
Thorp 2009). Here I describe the culture-historical sequence of hunter-gatherers in
the area as revealed by the excavation of Induna Cave. The site represents one small
window through which to examine hunter-gatherer material culture within a complex
system of land use that would most probably have involved seasonal movement
across the landscape. The interpretations offered here, therefore, are only a first step
towards reconstructing the history of hunter-gatherers and their interactions with
farmers in the area.
ENVIRONMENT AND LATER STONE AGE SITES
The region is prone to drought, with a mean annual rainfall for Malilangwe of
541.6 mm. Most rain falls between November and March (Clegg 1999: 46). Malilangwe
is in the Limpopo-Save Lowlands which extend across the southernmost and
southeastern regions of Zimbabwe at an average altitude of less than 650 m above sea
level. The geology of Malilangwe falls into three zones. North of the sandstone hills
the topography is gently undulating and the mostly coarse-grained sands are derived
from the underlying gneiss and granulites of the basement complex. Many dolerite
dykes that run northeast to southwest intrude the gneisses (Elwell 1996). Induna Cave
is in the sandstone hills, known as the Malilangwe Range, which runs in a northeast
to southwest direction and comprises rocks of the Lower and Upper Karoo Groups
(Swift et al. 1953). South of the Malilangwe Range is a flat basalt plain with clay soils
(Clegg 1999; Elwell 1996).
The two most widespread vegetation communities are Colophosperum mopane found
particularly on shallow basalt-derived soils, and hill communities dominated by Brachystegia
glaucescens and Androstachys johnsonii (Clegg 1999: 51). The Malilangwe GIS resources
include a detailed map of the vegetation on the estate (Malilangwe GIS 2010).
Archaeological surveys have recorded more than 55 rock art sites in the sandstone
hills (Matenga 1995; Pearce 2009; Pearce et al. 2003; Thorp 2003). Recent research
at Malilangwe suggests that the bulk of these rock paintings can be attributed to
San hunter-gatherers, apart from a few instances of possible Iron Age art attributed
to farmers (Pearce 2009: 335–6; Pearce et al. 2003). Many of these painted sites are
associated with archaeological deposit containing Later Stone Age artefacts. Stone
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artefact scatters are easier to detect in caves and rock shelters than in the open air, and
so far no open-air Stone Age sites have been recorded at Malilangwe. In spite of this
obvious bias there can be little doubt that these hills formed a focus for Later Stone
Age activity.
THE INDUNA CAVE EXCAVATION
Induna Cave is at the foot of the south side of a sandstone ridge and faces east onto
an open grassy area surrounded by sandstone outcrops. The south face of the ridge
is bounded by a major vertical joint line that may have been intruded by a dolerite
dyke. The dyke has since been weathered down to form the valley floor in front of the
cave. The cave was formed by water action along vertical and horizontal joints in the
fine-grained massive Forest Sandstone. Winnowing of soft materials in the horizontal
joints led to exfoliation of the roof, resulting in a domed cavity (T.J. Broderick pers.
comm.).
A shallow recess adjacent to the excavated cave contains rock art (Hitzeroth 1970:
38; Pearce et al. 2003: 25). The paintings include a bovine-like animal, five elephants, a
large rhinoceros, human figures, a horse-like animal, a male kudu and an antelope with
tusks or exaggerated hair around the mouth area (Pearce et al. 2003: 25).
Two previous assessments of the site, involving surface collections and the excavation
of a trial trench and coring, had indicated its archaeological potential (Matenga 1995;
Matenga n.d.; Williams 1970).
Fig. 2. Induna Cave site plan.
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
117
Fig. 3. Induna Cave stratigraphy.
During my 1998 fieldwork I excavated four square metres (Fig. 2) to bedrock at a
maximum depth of 560 mm. I identified four natural stratigraphic layers in the deposit.
Level 1 (Surface) was loose grey-brown ashy soil mixed with leaves, twigs and some
dassie (hyrax) dung. Level 2 (DNG) was a layer of hard grey-green cow dung, probably
from use of the cave as a cattle enclosure in the 1950s. Level 3CC was compacted greybrown ashy soil. Level 4 (ED) was soft powdery grey-brown ashy soil. I excavated this
layer in eight 50 mm spits, ED1 to ED8 (Fig. 3). A charcoal sample from the top of
Level 4 (Fig. 3) gave a calibrated date of AD 1160 ± 1270 (880 ± 70 b.p.; Pta-7748).
Insufficient charcoal was recovered from the bottom of Level 4 to obtain a date for
the earliest occupation of the cave.
Features
A modern hearth surrounded by large stones occurred in square F4. The stones were
visible on the surface (Fig. 2) and the hearth had been dug into Level 2 (DNG) with
its base at a depth of 13 cm in Level 3CC. A feature (Fig. 4), comprising four stake
holes of varying sizes which contained fragments of wood and other plant material,
was excavated near the top of Level 3CC. The tops of these stakes were encountered
in Level 3CC between 11 and 17.5 cm. The mouth of the hole containing stake A
was in Level 2 (DNG) (Fig. 3: F4 west). The wood from stake A was dated to the
mid-twentieth century (Pta-8037), demonstrating that this feature was intrusive into
Layer 3CC and was probably associated with the modern hearth described above. The
date of this feature is consistent with the reported use of the cave by cattle herdsmen
working for the owner of this property in the 1950s (Williams 1970: 31). Two ash
patches on the edge of this modern feature probably pre-date it and may have been
hearths in Level 3CC (Fig. 4).
Stone tools and debris
A total of 8100 stone artefacts, including 126 formal tools, was recovered from the
cave (Fig. 5, Table 1; Tables 1–3 at end of paper). Stone artefact density is highest
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Fig. 4. Induna Cave squares F3 and F4 (1x 2 meters) excavated features.
in Level 4 (spits ED1–ED3), reaching a peak in Level 4 (ED3) (Table 1, Fig. 6). The
density decreases in Level 3CC and a steep decline in density occurs in Level 2 (DNG)
and Level 1 (SF). At the base of the excavation the assemblage from Level 4 (spits
ED6–ED8) comes from a small area in one square. The increase in density of most
types of artefacts in the bottom two spits (ED7–ED8) may result from the accumulation
of material in the crevices formed by the bedrock in this square.
By comparison, the frequencies of stone artefacts from the various levels and spits
within levels of the excavation indicate that Level 4 (spits ED1–ED3) is consistently
rich in stone artefacts (Fig. 7). However, the highest frequency of stone artefacts occurs
in Level 3CC, which has the largest volume of excavated deposit (16.75 buckets where
one bucket = 10 litres; see Table 1). The lowest frequencies of stone artefacts occur in
Level 4 (spits ED6–ED8) (Fig. 7). These spits have very small volumes of excavated
deposit (Table 1).
Formal tool assemblages are small in all levels of the excavation and stone debitage
forms 98.5 % of the total stone artefact assemblage (Tables 1 & 2). The deepest spit
in Level 4 (ED8) yielded a very small number of stone artefacts, therefore the high
formal tool density is probably not significant. Formal tool density is very low in
Level 4 (spits ED4–ED7), and stone artefact assemblages from these spits are small. In
Level 4 (ED4) a very small proportion of the stone assemblage is made up of formal
tools (0.6 %) even though stone artefact density is relatively high (104 per bucket)
and the stone assemblage is relatively large (814 artefacts) (Table 1, Fig. 6). Formality
increases slightly through Level 4 (ED3–2), but a marked increase in formality occurs
in Level 4 (ED1) (4 tools per bucket). The proportion of retouched to non-retouched
artefacts is also highest in this level (3.3 % of the stone artefacts recovered are retouched
tools). Formal tool density decreases slightly again in Level 3CC during the final huntergatherer occupation of the site.
Small scrapers are the most frequent formal tools found in all levels, although their
frequency varies within the spits excavated in Level 4 (Table 1, Figs 5 & 8). Smaller
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
119
Fig. 5. Induna Cave stone and bone tools. Level 3CC: 1. small scraper (end and two sides); 2. small end
scraper; 3. small end scraper (backed by retouch); 4. small segment; 5. backed point; 6. awl;
7. triangular point; 8, 9. borers. Level 4 (ED1): 10. deep segment; 11. triangular backed
point; 12. double backed point. Level 4 (ED2): 13. medium scraper (end and two sides);
14, 15. small end scrapers; 16. adze. Level 4 (ED 3): 17. small end scraper; 18. small backed side
scraper; 19. core reduced piece. Level 3CC: 20. bone point. Level 4 (ED1): 21. bone point.
numbers of other formal tool categories, including segments (Table 1, Fig. 5), backed
bladelets (Table 1), borers (Table 1, Fig. 5) and points, (Table 1, Fig. 5) as well as
adzes (Table 1, Fig. 5), indicate varied activities at the site. However, the formal tool
samples from the deeper spits (ED5–ED8) are too small for meaningful assessment
(Table 1).
The stone debitage is largely composed of chunks (63 % of the assemblage; Table
2). Flakes and broken flakes are the second largest category within the stone assemblage
(18 % of the assemblage; Table 2). The highest densities of small (< 30 mm) flakes
occur in Levels 4 (ED2) to Level 3CC where the highest densities of formal tools
Fig. 6. Induna Cave densities of various artefact types.
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THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
Fig. 7. Induna Cave frequencies of various artefact types.
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Fig. 8. Induna Cave comparative compositions of formal tool assemblages.
Fig. 9. Induna Cave comparative densities of small and large flakes.
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
123
Fig. 10. Induna Cave comparative densities of formal tool raw materials.
are also found (Table 1, Figs 6 & 9). Opal is the raw material most frequently used
for formal tools from Level 4 (ED2) to Level 3CC, followed by quartz, which is also
favoured for formal tools in Level 4 (ED4) and the levels above (Table 3, Fig. 10).
These fine-grained raw materials produce smaller flakes than coarser-grained materials.
Small-flake production is a stage in the reduction sequence required to produce most of
the formal tools recovered from the excavation, which may explain the higher densities
of small quartz and opal flakes in Levels 4 (ED2) to Level 3CC (Fig. 11).
Quartz is the dominant raw material in the debris category in all levels of the
excavation. Its greatest density is in Level 4 (ED3), with another peak in Level 4 (ED7)
(Table 3, Fig. 12). The greatest densities of opaline debris (including small flakes) occur
in the two contact-period levels (Level 4 (ED1) and Level 3CC) (Figs 11 & 12) where
formal tools are also most dense (Fig. 6).
Basalt is the second most common raw material in Levels 4 (ED5–ED2) (Fig. 12).
These assemblages are less formal in character than those above, probably because the
emphasis was on producing basalt flakes, presumably for use as tools (Figs 11 & 13).
Quartz pebbles found in the excavation (Table 2) are the source of this raw
material and probably originated in the Karoo grit on the northern edge of the
sandstone hills (T.J. Broderick pers. comm. 2005). They could have been collected
along stream beds close to the cave. Basalt could also have been obtained locally
around the margins of dolerite dykes in the sandstone hills. Opaline material from
Fig. 11. Induna Cave comparative densities of small flake raw materials.
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THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
125
Fig. 12. Induna Cave comparative densities of stone debris raw materials.
the excavation may have been collected on the southern edge of the hills where
chalcedony/agate can be found in amygdales which occur in basalt flats. Hornfels
occurs in small quantities throughout the excavation and this material was probably
obtained some distance away from the site in the Chiwonje Hills on the southern
boundary between Malilangwe and the Gonarezhou National Park (T.J. Broderick
pers. comm. 2005).
Magnetite ore as well as other forms of iron ore (hematite and ochre) and some slag
were recovered from the excavation (Table 2). The ore is found along the southern
edge of the gneiss to the north of the Malilangwe hills and historical accounts of
pre-colonial exploitation of iron-ore sources near Malilangwe include Mhangula Hill
about 4 km from Induna Cave (Fig. 1) (Bannerman 1981: 21).
Shell beads, a copper bead and worked bone
A total of 405 shell beads was recovered from the excavation (Table 4). The highest
densities of finished and unfinished ostrich eggshell (OES) beads were in Level 4
(ED3) and Level 4 (ED4) respectively (Table 4, Fig. 6). High bead densities per bucket
from Level 4 (ED8) are a distortion due to the small amount of deposit (0.5 buckets)
excavated from this depth. The presence of unfinished beads in significant numbers
(Table 1) demonstrates that bead manufacture was taking place on the site. Land snail
Fig. 13. Induna Cave comparative densities of large flake raw materials.
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THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
beads were found in much smaller quantities. The highest density of unfinished land
snail beads was from Level 3CC and only three finished land snail beads were recovered,
all from Level 4 (ED2–ED3).
Borers are generally assumed to have been used to drill holes in shell beads (Deacon
1984: 297; Walker 1995: 277). However, the peak density of unfinished shell beads in
Level 4 (ED4) does not correspond with the occurrence of borers which were found
in Level 3CC and Level 4 (ED1) (Table 1).
A copper bead, apparently made from a strip of metal bent to join at either end, and
measuring 5.24 mm in diameter, was recovered from Level 3CC. Two broken bone points
were recovered, one from Level 3CC and the other from Level 4 (ED1) (Fig. 5).
TABLE 4
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of shell beads.
Level
Buckets
of deposit
Material
Finished
beads
Finished
beads per
bucket
Unfinished
beads
Unfinished
beads per
bucket
9
0.64
Level 1 (SF)
14.05
OES
3
0.21
Level 2 (DNG)
7.00
OES
1
0.14
Level 3 (CC)
17.00
Achatinid
7
0.41
Level 3 (CC)
17.00
OES
19
1.12
Level 4 (ED1)
9.25
Achatinid
1
0.11
Level 4 (ED1)
9.25
OES
42
4.54
19
2.05
Level 4 (ED2)
11.70
Achatinid
1
0.09
Level 4 (ED2)
11.70
OES
50
4.27
27
2.31
Level 4 (ED3)
10.25
Achatinid
2
0.20
1
0.10
Level 4 (ED3)
10.25
OES
52
5.07
24
2.34
Level 4 (ED4)
7.85
Achatinid
1
0.13
Level 4 (ED4)
7.85
OES
35
4.46
24
3.06
Level 4 (ED5)
5.00
OES
14
2.80
8
1.60
Level 4 (ED6)
2.20
OES
5
2.27
51
3.00
Level 4 (ED7)
2.25
OES
1
0.44
1
0.44
Level 4 (ED8)
0.50
OES
5
10.00
2
4.00
Total
143.1
267
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Faunal remains
The total faunal sample of 4886 bone fragments weighing 4.776 kg included 513
identifiable fragments (Table 5, Figs 7 & 8) (Scott 2003). Twenty-five species were
identified. Tortoise was most common, followed by monitor lizard and Bov III. Hunted
game animals dominate the species list, including baboon, wildebeest, bushpig, zebra,
giraffe and large carnivores. Gathered or trapped species, including monitor lizard and
especially tortoises, make up the majority of bones identified. The density of animal
bone was highest in Level 4 (ED3), which also contained the greatest variety of species,
20 in all (Fig. 6, Table 5). This spit also produced the largest identifiable sample (120
bones). Densities of faunal remains are relatively high compared with other categories
of excavated material except stone artefacts in most levels of the excavation (Fig. 6). In
Level 4
(ED1)
1/0/1
Equus burchelli (zebra)
2/1/1
2/2/1
cf Sylvicapra grimmia (duiker)
Raphicerus campestris (steenbok)
cf. Aepyceros melampus (impala)
cf. Raphicerus campestris
1/1/1
1/1/1
Connochaetes taurinus (wildebeest)
Equid
1/0/1
1/1/1
Giraffa camelopardalis (giraffe)
Suid
Potamocoerus porcus (bushpig)
Oryctoropus Afer (aardvark)
cf. Procavia capensis (hyrax)
Medium-large carnivore
Medium carnivore
Small-medium carnivore
2/2/1
1/0/1
Level 3
(CC)
2/1/1
1/1/1
Level 2
(DNG)
cf Felis lybica (wild cat)
Level 1
(SF)
Small carnivore
Vivirridae (mongoose)
Papio ursinus (baboon)
Species
1/1/1
4/4/2
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED2)
1/1/1
1/1/1
3/3/3
1/1/1
3/2/2
Level 4
(ED3)
3/3/2
1/1/1
1/1/1
1/1/1
1/1/1
1/1/1
3/3/2
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED4)
1/1/1
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED5)
1/1/1
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED6)
TABLE 5
Induna Cave : species identified quantified as number of identified skeletal parts, quantifiable skeletal parts,
minimum number of individuals (NISP/QSP/MNI).
1/0/1
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED7)
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED8)
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5/5/2
6/1/2
3/3/2
Level 4
(ED3)
3/2/3
Fish
4/0/2
2/0/1
Terrestrial gastropod
2/0/1
4/0/2
4/0/2
2/0/2
8/8/1
18/3/3
31/4/6
Toad/Frog
4/0/4
17/15/2
7/5/2
34/7/5
4/5/3
4/4/2
1/1/1
11/12/3
9/6/4
29/3/3
2/1/1
1/1/1
1/1/1
6/6/3
1/1/1
11/8/5
8/5/5
Level 4
(ED2)
1/1/1
Lizard
Small-medium lizard
Small lizard
11/11/1
5/0/1
1/0/1
Tortoise
Varanus sp. (monitor lizard)
1/0/1
2/2/1
Francolin-size bird
Medium bird
1/1/1
Small-medium bird
Small bird
1/1/1
1/1/1
5/4/2
5/4/4
Level 4
(ED1)
5/4/4
6/6/5
1/1/1
6/2/1
1/0/1
Level 3
(CC)
Lagomorph
1/1/1
Level 2
(DNG)
2/2/1
4/0/1
1/1/1
Level 1
(SF)
Small rodent
Rodentia
Bov III
Bov III (non-dom.)
Bov II (non-dom.)
Bov II
Bov I
Species
2/0/1
8/8/1
9/9/1
13/8/4
28/9/7
6/4/2
1/1/1
13/7/5
1/0/1
Level 4
(ED4)
2/1/2
5/0/1
1/0/1
5/1/1
14/1/3
5/3/2
4/2/1
1/1/1
2/3/2
2/2/1
Level 4
(ED5)
4/4/2
1/0/1
1/1/1
2/0/1
3/2/2
1/1/1
2/2/2
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED6)
TABLE 5 (continued)
Induna Cave : species identified quantified as number of identified skeletal parts, quantifiable skeletal parts,
minimum number of individuals (NISP/QSP/MNI).
6/1/2
4/2/2
2/0/1
1/1/1
6/1/1
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED7)
1/0/1
1/1/1
1/1/1
1/1/1
Level 4
(ED8)
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the final hunter-gatherer occupation in Level 3CC the density of animal bone reduces
dramatically compared with other categories of material, including stone debris, OES
fragments and land snail fragments (Fig. 6). There is also a marked drop in the variety
of species represented in this level compared with preceding assemblages in Level 4
(ED1–ED4) (Table 5).
The faunal remains show that hunter-gatherers living in the Malilangwe hills adopted
similar strategies to Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers of the Matopos in southwestern
Zimbabwe who mostly hunted, trapped and gathered small mammals and reptiles,
especially dassies (hyrax), hares, tortoises, small antelope and large lizards (Walker
1995: 221–7). Hunter-gatherers in the Kalahari caught and ate “iguanas” (Dornan
1975: 114). This suggests that large lizards (monitor lizards?) may have been used by
hunter-gatherers as food rather than being introduced into the deposit by non-human
agents. Land snail was also likely to have been used as food throughout the occupation
of the cave. Highly fragmented land snail shell is commonly found in considerable
quantities in excavated caves and rock shelters in Zimbabwe as well as in Mpumalanga
and the Limpopo Valley in South Africa (e.g. Plug 1981: 18; van Doornum 2007: 35;
Walker 1995: 98). The use of snails as food is recorded amongst hunter-gatherers in
the Zambezi Valley (Nicolle 1959: 12).
It is possible that mongoose, wild cat and the various sizes of carnivore found
(Table 5) were hunted not just for their meat, but also for their skins which would have
been a sought-after commodity.
Ceramics
Seventy-one sherds were recovered from the excavation (Table 6). This total
excludes an unknown number of sherds collected from Level 4 (ED4) for possible
thermoluminescence dating. Not one of the sherds was from a vessel rim and only
four were decorated (Table 6, Fig. 14). The largest ceramic assemblage is from Level
3CC. The proportion of sherds found in Levels 1 (SF) and 2 (DNG) compared to the
underlying levels may have been affected by previous intensive surface collection from
the site, and the exclusion of sherds collected for thermoluminescence dating means
that ceramics from Level 4 (ED4) are under-represented in Table 6.
Ceramics from various chronological periods were recovered from Level 3CC,
suggesting that this level is disturbed. However, the radiocarbon date for the top of
the underlying layer, Level 4 (ED1), plus a small Zimbabwe Period 3 body sherd (Fig.
TABLE 6
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of ceramics.
Level
Level 1 (SF)
Level 2 (DNG)
Level 3 (CC)
Level 4 (ED1)
Level 4 (ED2)
Level 4 (ED3 & 4)
Total
Decorated body
Undecorated body
Total
1
1
2
4
8
41
10
1
3
67
5
9
43
10
1
3
71
4
Sherds
per bucket
0.3
1.3
2.6
1.1
0.1
0.2
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
131
Fig. 14. Induna Cave ceramics.
14.7) recovered from the bottom of Level 3CC, suggest that Level 3CC probably
accumulated during the thirteenth century AD.
Two body sherds, one from Level 2 (DNG) and one from Level 3CC, decorated
respectively with a band of oblique impressions and comb stamping (Figs 14.8 &
14.9), probably represent the Gokomere or Ziwa facies dated between the sixth and
eighth centuries AD. Several sites with Gokomere/Ziwa ceramics were found on
Malilangwe Trust’s estate during surveys in 2002 and 2003 (Fig. 1: sites 1, 2, 39, 41,
43; Swan 2003a, b; Thorp 2003) and Gokomere/Ziwa ceramics were recovered from
subsequent excavation of one of these settlements with evidence of smelting activity
at Kwali Camp (Fig. 1: site 2; Swan 2007).
Another sherd (Fig. 14.6) from Level 3CC is decorated with a panel of broad incised
curved lines similar to a type recorded in the Gumanye occupation at Hlamba Mlonga
(Fig. 1: site 5; cf. Thorp 2005b, 2009: fig. 12.4). A sherd from the same vessel came
from the surface dust in Level 1.
All of the sherds recovered below Level 3CC were adiagnostic, undecorated body
sherds (Table 6). No pottery occurred below ED4 in Level 4.
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One hundred and twenty-two sherds collected during the 1995 surface collection
and coring exercise in the cave (Matenga n.d.) give further clues to the ceramic groups
represented at the site. A sherd with a thickened and beveled rim decorated with a band
of oblique incision (Fig. 14.1) came from 0 to 20 cm depth in core 10, sunk into the
cave deposit (Matenga n.d.: 6 & table 1). This information is not sufficient to locate the
sherd accurately in relation to the stratigraphy revealed during my 1998 excavation, but
it does suggest that it may have come from as deep as Level 4 (ED3). Another rim sherd
from this collection is decorated with oval chord or bangle impressed panels (Fig. 14.2)
and marked ‘core 1’, although its provenance is not provided. Similar pot rims, dated
to the seventh century AD, were obtained from Simbiri (Fig. 1: site 37) (Thorp 2003:
19–20). Preliminary assessment of the ceramics from Simbiri suggests that they belong
to the Happy Rest facies. One tiny decorated sherd, probably from a rim, amongst the
surface collection could represent a Happy Rest or a Gokomere vessel (Fig. 14.10).
Two sherds from the surface decorated with bands of incised cross-hatching on the
upper shoulder (Figs 14.3 & 14.4) may be attributable either to Zimbabwe Period 3 or
to nineteenth-century use of the cave either by Tsonga or Shona speakers. One sherd
decorated on the shoulder with a band of possible bead impressions is also probably
from a recent Tsonga or Shona source (Fig. 14.5).
THE INCEPTION AND EXPANSION OF FARMING SETTLEMENT
Changes in the proximity of farming settlement in relation to the sandstone hills and
in the density of these settlements through time are evident from archaeological survey
data (Thorp 2003). These changes are likely to have had an impact on hunter-gatherers.
There were two distinct patterns of site distribution during the period of early firstmillennium farming settlement at Malilangwe. Settlements are large, stretching for
160 m along the Nyamasikana river in the case of Kwali Camp (Swan 2007: 319). They
are situated on or close to alluvium adjacent to the Chiredzi and Nyamasikana rivers,
which are the largest rivers on the property (Fig. 1: sites 1, 2, 37, 39, 41, 43). This
spatial distribution is in keeping with evidence from throughout southern Africa: early
farming settlements were typically sited on arable soil in wooded savanna or coastal
environments near rivers and lakes (Maggs 1980a: 7–8).
A second distribution pattern of sites with early farming community ceramics (Swan
2003b; Fig. 1: sites 78, 80, 82, 83, 84), often together with ceramics from later periods,
occurs in the sandstone hills on top of hills or ridges sometimes a considerable distance
from alluvial soils and the larger rivers (e.g. Fig. 1: sites 78, 84). This hilltop distribution
is unlikely to represent farmer settlements but is reminiscent of Huffman’s (2000: 16)
description of Happy Rest pottery (sometimes mixed with pottery of other periods)
on hilltops in the Shashe/Limpopo area, which he attributes to rainmaking activity.
Excavations of these sites at Malilangwe are needed to clarify their purpose.
The widespread evidence of specific environmental preferences of early firstmillennium settlement in southern Africa have been explained as a consequence of the
rapid expansion of pioneering agriculturists along linear features such as rivers, lakes
and coastlines (Maggs 1984: 340, 1994–95: 172). The early first-millennium farming
settlement pattern at Malilangwe also probably reflects the initial spread of farming
into the environment of the estate. Ceramic sherds from Induna Cave include stylistic
types found on farmer settlements at Kwali Camp and Simbiri (Fig. 1: sites 2, 37),
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
133
showing that the sandstone hills were probably occupied by hunter-gatherers during
the early period of farmer settlement between the sixth and eighth centuries AD (Swan
2007: 319–20; Thorp 2005b: 22). It is likely that the hills offered hunter-gatherers the
option of a relatively independent existence alongside farming communities during
this period, as the survey data indicates that concentrations of farming populations
had not yet encroached into the hills.
Some agriculturists spread into the hills during Gumanye (Fig. 1: site 31) and
Zimbabwe Period 3 times (Fig. 1: sites 22, 50, 81), between about 1000 and 1290 AD. The
Zimbabwe Period 3 sites (Fig. 1: sites 5, 22, 50, 68, 81) vary in size. The largest hilltop
settlement at Hlamba Mlonga (site 5), which has a Gumanye and a Zimbabwe Period
3 occupation on it, also has a large and possibly contemporary area of occupation at
the foot of the ridge on the north-eastern side. Ceramics, glass beads and a burial were
found during building construction on this area but this archaeological material was not
available to me during my research. Sites 50 and 68 have evidence of several structures
whereas site 22 appears to have only one large possible house structure associated with
a smaller structure. The largest site Hlamba Mlonga (5) and one of the smaller sites (68)
are situated on the edge of the sandstone hills near extensive expanses of alluvium which
have been used for agriculture until recently (Malilangwe GIS 2010), whereas two of the
three smaller sites (22, 50, 81) are well into the sandstone hills further away from areas
of alluvium. Site 81 is only 1 km away from Induna Cave and may have been occupied
contemporaneously with the final hunter-gatherer occupation in Level 3CC.
Later Stone Age artefacts have been recovered from excavations of farming settlements
at Malilangwe. Artefacts from excavations of two early first-millennium farmer sites
include a medium end scraper with adze edge retouch made of chalcedony, a sidestruck quartz flake and seven quartz chunks from the Kwale Camp. These were found
amongst excavated concentrations of settlement and smelting debris including potsherds,
slag, bone, dhaka plaster, furnace clay, tuyere sherds, magnetite ore, charcoal, an upper
grinding stone and OES beads (Swan 2009). One small opal segment was recovered from
excavations at Simbiri amongst similar debris (Swan & Chirikure n.d.; Thorp 2005b).
Stone artefacts were also recovered from excavations at Hlamba Mlonga. The small
number of worked stones from the first Gumanye Occupation (D) deposit there includes
quartz and opal chunks, a broken opal and a broken hornfels bladelet, and an opal
endstruck flake (Thorp 2009: table 8). They could indicate hunter-gatherer interaction
with the occupants of the site. Alternatively they may have been deposited on the site by
hunter-gatherers before it was occupied by the farming community represented by the
Gumanye ceramics in occupation D. Stone artefacts from the subsequent occupations in
the excavation are few and could either represent interaction with local hunter-gatherers
or could have been included in dhaka building material brought to the site from elsewhere.
Proving direct association between stone artefacts and other excavated material on
farming settlements is difficult, and requires recovery of stone artefacts which may be
directly associated with in situ features (e.g. Hall 2000; Maggs 1980b).
CHRONOLOGY OF HUNTER-GATHERER/FARMER INTERACTION AT INDUNA CAVE
The excavated assemblages from Induna Cave can be separated into four broad
chronological periods. Firstly, the most recent assemblage from the surface and dung
levels probably reflects modern use of the site since the 1950s. The second assemblage
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from Level 3CC is likely to have accumulated during the final hunter-gatherer occupation
of the site, although it includes ceramics from various periods, which show that this
deposit is disturbed. The presence of a Zimbabwe Period 3 sherd and the date from
the top of the preceding occupation suggest a twelfth to thirteenth-century AD date
for this occupation. The lack of any diagnostic Zimbabwe Period 4 ceramics from
the site also supports the conclusion that the final hunter-gatherer occupation of the
cave dates to the thirteenth century AD when communities with Zimbabwe Period 3
ceramics were present in the area.
The third assemblage from Level 4 comprises stone artefacts with some ceramics in
the top four spits (ED1–ED4) (Table 6). This assemblage is dated at the top to between
AD 1160 and 1270. The vertical distribution of the ceramics suggests that they could to
a large degree be in situ in the top spit of Level 4 (ED1). The small number of sherds
in the deeper spits of Level 4 (ED2–ED4) are more problematic.
There are two possible interpretations that could account for the cultural material
in Level 4 spits (ED2–ED4). First, the small number of sherds from these spits may
well indicate that some downward displacement occurred (Table 6). In this case the
cultural material from these spits would be best explained as a pre-contact occupation.
Secondly, if the sherds are in situ, they could represent an early phase of contact with
farmers. If this is the case, Early Farming Community Gokomere and Happy Rest
pottery from the surface collection (Fig. 14) suggest that these deepest spits with
ceramics could date to the sixth or seventh century AD.
No ceramics were recovered from the fourth assemblage in the bottom four spits
of Level 4 (ED5–ED8) (Table 6). This pre-ceramic occupation of Induna Cave by
stone tool-using hunter-gatherers is undated. The formal tool sample from these spits
comprises two small end scrapers and a backed bladelet (Table 1, Fig. 8). Assemblages
dating to the last 5000 years in southern Zimbabwe and the Limpopo valley tend to
have relatively high percentages of small scrapers compared to backed tools (van
Doornum 2007: 39; Walker 1995: 205, table 120). This suggests that the pre-contact
occupation at Induna falls within the last 5000 years.
DISCUSSION
I deal first with the contact-period levels. The greater formality of the stone artefact
assemblages together with the decreasing density of all materials, excluding ceramics,
in the two contact-period levels (Level 3CC and Level 4 (ED1); Table 1, Fig. 6) in
comparison with the preceding levels suggests two possible interpretations. Either
decreasing stone artefact density together with the presence of ceramic sherds may
indicate a decline in the intensity of use of this site by stone tool-using huntergatherers, perhaps in conjunction with use of the site by farmers. Alternatively it
points to occupation of the site by smaller numbers of hunter-gatherers who were
increasingly interacting with and using the material culture of contemporary farming
communities nearby. Both of these explanations are in keeping with the evidence for
the spread of Zimbabwe Period 3 farming settlement into the hills which may have
been contemporary with the occupation in Level 3CC (Fig. 1).
The formal stone tools from these levels were probably knapped in the cave, since
they also contain the largest quantities of opal and quartz debris. High proportions
of formal tools in stone artefact assemblages is one of the features that elsewhere
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
135
in southern Africa has been linked to seasonal aggregation like that practised by
ethnographically documented hunter-gatherer bands (Wadley 1987, 1989, 1996).
Aggregation sites are thought to be characterized by production of large quantities
of items used in gift exchange between hunter-gatherer bands, including formal stone
tools, ostrich eggshell beads and worked bone (Wadley 1989: 43–4). However, Induna
Cave itself is too small to have been used as an aggregation camp unless the area of
the talus slope outside the cave is included, and the decreasing density of all materials
except ceramics during the younger hunter-gatherer occupations does not support an
aggregation interpretation of these more recent assemblages. A different interpretation
is therefore needed to explain their more formal character.
Scrapers are the most frequent type of formal tool recovered from the contact levels
(Table 4: Level 3CC and Level 4 (ED1)). An increase in scraper frequency is a common
feature of stone tool assemblages dated to the contact period. These tools are thought
to have been used for hide preparation (Binneman 1984) and they are often interpreted
as evidence for barter exchange of hides with farmers in contact contexts (Hall &
Smith 2000: 36; Van der Ryst 1998: 41–2; Wadley 1996: 210–14; Walker 1995: 255).
Their presence in larger numbers in the contact Levels 3CC and 4 (ED1) (see Table 1)
in comparison with preceding levels may therefore reflect the preparation of hides at
the site for exchange with farmers. The compositions of the formal tool assemblages
from the two contact-period levels vary. There is a higher percentage of backed tools
in comparison to scrapers in the earlier contact occupation (Level 4 (ED1)) than in the
final contact period (Level 3CC) (Table 4, Fig. 8). There is also a larger and more varied
sample of hunted fauna in the earlier contact level (Level 4 (ED1) in Table 5), so the
higher proportion of backed tools, which were probably used as hunting equipment,
may reflect the greater importance of hunting at this time.
The slight decline in density of OES beads and shell fragments in the contact levels
compared to the preceding levels could be due to declining numbers of hunter-gatherers
occupying the shelter, and farmers may have had an impact on this resource by exploiting
it themselves (Thorp 2009: 213, 215). Alternatively, declining bead production may
reflect disruption of social mechanisms such as hxaro-like gift exchange between or
within hunter-gatherer bands (Wiessner 1982), possibly linked to the encroachment
of farming settlement into the hills.
The final hunter-gatherer occupation in Level 3CC is probably contemporary with
the spread of farming settlement into the sandstone hills. In fact, there is a Zimbabwe
Period 3 site (Fig. 1: site 81) only 1 km from Induna Cave. Assuming that at least some
of Level 3CC, with its ceramic assemblage, results from hunter-gatherer use of the
cave, it is the best evidence for interaction with contemporary farmers, as it includes
a diagnostic Zimbabwe Period 3 sherd. Although there is only a slight decrease in
the density of most types of artefacts in this level compared with the earlier contact
level (Level 4 (ED1)), there is a marked decrease in the density of faunal remains
and in the variety of species represented (Level 3CC in Table 5). This could reflect a
general decline in the availability of game, possibly linked with an increase in farming
settlements in the area. Evidence to support this suggestion comes from the farming
settlement of Hlamba Mlonga, where a gradual decline in the quantity and variety of
game species occurred between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries AD, followed
by a marked decline during the fourteenth-century Zimbabwe Period 4 occupation
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(Thorp 2009: 209). The impact of the decreasing availability of game appears to have
been felt slightly earlier by hunter-gatherers than by farmers, and this could be an
indication of their increasing subordination as Zimbabwe Period 3 farmers occupied
more of the landscape. It is likely that the Zimbabwe Period 3 farmers grazed cattle
in the hills which are not suitable for crop production. This may have given huntergatherers an alternative food source. They may have established client relationships
with Zimbabwe Period 3 farmers, herding the cattle for them and taking payment for
this work in the form of grain and milk. Evidence of these foods is less likely to be
found archaeologically, although it could be argued that the ceramics from this context
may have been used to contain these foods.
I now turn to the spits within Level 4 with few ceramic sherds (ED2–ED4). This
context may represent either contact or pre-contact occupation of the cave. The stone
artefact assemblage is less formal than the younger assemblages from Level 3CC and
Level 4 (ED1) above, and there are higher densities of all other materials, excluding
ceramics. This suggests that the site was either occupied by more people or occupied
over a longer time.
There are considerable changes in the stone artefact assemblage in Level 4 below
spit ED1 (spits ED2–ED8). Not only does the percentage of formal tools in these
spits drop significantly compared to the more recent assemblages above, but also raw
material preference changes. Opal debris density drops as basalt debris density increases.
This is linked to the less formal character of the stone artefact assemblage, which has
considerably higher densities of small basalt flakes and higher ratios of small basalt flakes
compared to small opal flakes than the preceding assemblages in Level 3CC and Level
4 (ED1). These changes could simply result from chronological shifts in preferences
or they may relate to changes in the activities carried out inside the cave. If the changes
are activity-related, they may indicate that the cycle of aggregation and dispersal still
functioned during this period. The site could have been used as a camp during the
dispersal phase of the cycle, focusing on processing hunted, trapped and gathered foods.
If on the other hand these changes relate to chronology, they could be seen as support
for the argument that all of the deposit from Level 4 (ED2) downwards represents a
different occupation of the cave, pre-dating the arrival of farmers.
However, if the pottery in Level 4 (ED2–ED4) is in situ, and the assemblage represents
an earlier contact-period occupation, some of the attributes of the assemblage could
result from contact with farmers. In this case, for example, the high densities of OES
beads may result either from their use in barter exchange with farmers or from more
intensive gift exchange amongst hunter-gatherers themselves in order to maintain
traditional social relationships threatened by the presence of farmers. Similarly, some
of the animals traditionally hunted for their skins, including mongooses and various
carnivores, could have been used for barter exchange with farmers. On the other hand,
if the assemblage largely represents pre-contact occupation, these resources may simply
have been more plentiful due to lower levels of exploitation by people.
The iron resources of the Malilangwe area have been important in the development
of trading links with surrounding regions since pre-colonial times (Bannerman 1981:
21; McCosh 1979: 161). Groundstone fragments stained with ochre from the excavation
show that hunter-gatherers processed ochre there (Table 1), and probably used it to
produce rock art and for cosmetic purposes. They are likely to have exchanged the
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
137
specular magnetite (specularite) and other forms of iron ore with other hunter-gatherer
bands in the region. So hunter-gatherers near pioneering farmer settlements in the
region could subsequently have traded magnetite ore from the Malilangwe area with
these farming communities, thereby alerting them to the existence of the resource
and possibly motivating them to settle nearby. Fragments of slag, probably from iron
smelting, were found only in the contact and possible contact levels of the excavation
(Table 2). They may have been brought to the site by hunter-gatherers, although it is
also possible that they relate to use of the cave by farmers.
Very little can be deduced from the small pre-contact assemblage in the bottom
four spits of Level 4 (ED5–ED8) because the quantities of artefacts recovered are so
small. Once more pre-contact assemblages from the area have been documented it may
be possible to make a better assessment of the likely date of this occupation. Walker
(1995: 255) proposed that hunter-gatherers may have dispersed into the lowveld from
areas like the Matopo Hills approximately 2000 years ago, attracted by early farming
communities. The evidence of a pre-contact-period stone artefact assemblage from
Induna Cave together with evidence of a sequence of intermittent occupations at
Chinzwini rock shelter (Fig. 1: site 3; Thorp unpublished data) dated between c. 9250
BC and AD 1000 demonstrate that this proposal is no longer wholly tenable.
The final contact-period level at Induna Cave dates to around the twelfth to thirteenth
centuries AD. The occupation in this level reflects continuity in the hunter-gatherer
material-cultural ‘signature’. Evidence for this includes their continuing occupation of
the shelter, continued use of stone artefacts, and faunal evidence for continued hunting
and gathering on a much reduced scale as a means of subsistence, while increasing
quantities of farmer ceramics may signify more use of resources such as grain and
milk produced by farmers. It is not yet clear whether this hunter-gatherer ‘signature’
continued in the Malilangwe hills beyond the thirteenth century AD, once the more
stratified social organization associated with Zimbabwe Period 4 stonewalled settlements
developed in the area. The twelfth to thirteenth-century AD date from Induna is the
most recent radiocarbon date associated with a stone-tool industry yet reported from
Zimbabwe and therefore lends support to Walker’s proposal that hunter-gatherers
survived as a distinct entity until later in more marginal environments. In fact, historical
sources hint at the possible survival of culturally distinct hunter-gatherers until the early
twentieth century in this region. Dornan (1917: 37) wrote that “There are certainly
Bushmen in these countries [eastern Zimbabwe and adjoining areas of Mozambique],
a few are left in the Victoria and Sabi districts, but whether they are Masarawas or
other Bushmen I cannot say. I could get no information from Europeans or natives
who had seen them beyond the fact that they were Bushmen”.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was undertaken as part of my work as a curator at the Zimbabwe Museum
of Human Sciences, Harare. National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe
provided equipment and personnel for the excavation. I thank Malilangwe Trust for
inviting me to undertake this study, for hospitality at Kwali Camp, and for financial
support both for the fieldwork and for the radiocarbon dates. Thanks to Bruce and
Sarah Clegg, for access to and assistance with Malilangwe’s GIS data. Thanks to
Malilangwe’s scouts for assistance in the field. Tim Broderick kindly identified the rock
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types used for manufacturing stone artefacts from Induna Cave and commented on
the geology of the cave. Lorraine Swan drew the initial site plan and assisted with the
excavation. Josiah Moyo, Blessed Magadzike and Godfrey Nyaruwanga also assisted
with the excavation and Blessed Magadzike assisted with sorting and analyzing the
finds. Ignatius Mutsenhu assisted with preliminary figure drawings, Wendy Voorvelt
helped to produce the final drawings for this paper and Nkululeko Sibetha digitized
Figure 1. Gavin Whitelaw, Bronwen van Doornum and Jeremy Hollmann commented
on various drafts of the paper and I thank them for their help.
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25
1
1
N
%
2.2
2.2
Level 3
(CC)
2
1
1
N
5.4
2.7
2.7
%
33.3
25
2
Subtotal
scrapers
4
4
2
Subtotal small
scrapers
33.3
1
1
broken tool
(scraper)
100
27
26
1
backed by
retouch
60
57.8
2.2
2.2
11.1
2.2
4.4
2.2
4.4
2.2
26.7
17
15
4
2
9
45.9
40.5
10.8
5.4
24.3
5
9
7
1
1
64.3
50
7.1
7.1
35.7
14.3
7.1
7.1
%
2
N
16.7
%
N
4
4
1
1
33.3
33.3
8.3
8.3
3
2
1
1
60
40
20
20
20
20
%
1
1
1
100
100
100
%
Level 4
(ED5)
N
%
Level 4
(ED6)
N
1
1
1
100
100
100
%
Level 4
(ED7)
N
%
Level 4
(ED8)
N
68
62
6
3
5
3
3
1
1
5
2
32
1
6
1
1
1
1
2
N
Total
54.0
49.2
4.8
2.4
4.0
2.4
2.4
0.8
0.8
4.0
1.6
25.4
0.8
4.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.6
%
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
100
5
naturally
backed
25
1
2
1
end & 2 sides
small backed
1
end & side
(broken)
end and side
16.7
2
1
12
side
25
1
1
end (broken)
end
elongated end
SMALL
SCRAPERS
(< 20 mm)
2
1
1
N
1
1
(DNG)
%
Level 4
(ED1)
Subtotal
medium
scrapers
16.7
Level 2
N
Level 4
(ED2)
1
1
%
Level 1
(SF)
N
Level 4
(ED3)
naturally
backed
end & 2 sides
end & side
side
end
MEDIUM
SCRAPERS
(20–30 mm)
Stone tools
Level 4
(ED4)
TABLE 1
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of formal tools.
141
%
N
50
7
3
Subtotal
backed tools
1
2
2
awl
borer
triangular point
broken tool
2
adze
OTHER
TOOLS
1
1
broken backed
tool
double backed
point
backed point
4.4
4.4
2.2
4.4
15.6
2.2
2.2
3
%
8.1
37.8
2.7
2.7
2.7
10.8
5.4
2.7
8.1
2.7
Level 4
(ED1)
14
1
1
1
2.2
1
2.2
2
1
2.2
triangular
backed point
1
4
16.7
16.7
1
miscellaneous
backed piece
1
1
4.4
%
backed flake
obliquely
backed bladelet
broken
segment
2
N
3
segment (deep)
16.7
N
segment
1
Level 1
(SF)
%
Level 2
(DNG)
1
N
Level 3
(CC)
backed bladelet
BACKED
TOOLS
(< 25 mm)
Stone tools
1
1
2
2
N
Level 4
(ED2)
7.1
7.1
14.3
14.3
%
1
4
1
1
2
N
Level 4
(ED3)
8.3
33.3
8.3
8.3
16.7
%
1
1
1
N
20
20
20
%
Level 4
(ED4)
TABLE 1 (continued)
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of formal tools.
%
Level 4
(ED5)
N
%
Level 4
(ED6)
N
Level 4
(ED7)
N
%
1
1
100
100
%
Level 4
(ED8)
N
2
2
5
1
4
32
2
1
1
3
2
4
3
1
2
9
4
N
Total
1.6
1.6
4.0
0.8
3.2
25.4
1.6
0.8
0.8
2.4
1.6
3.2
2.4
0.8
1.6
7.1
3.2
%
142
Southern AFRICAN humanities, vol. 22, 2010
4
100
14
0.4
buckets of
deposit
formal tools
per bucket
upper grinder
(broken)
0.6
7
2.7
16.75
1
4
9.25
1
1.2
11.7
2
1
1.2
10.25
2
0.6
7.85
1
groundstone
fragment
(with ochre)
0.9
1
100
groundstone
fragment
3.3
1306
5
2.6
1444
100
20
%
0.6
1.5
1133
12
1.1
1721
100
814
265
14
1
544
100
33.3
N
% of formal
tools
37
21.4
8.3
16.7
%
Total stone
100
3
2
N
45
16.2
7.1
%
Level 4
(ED3)
100
6
1
N
6
24.4
8.1
%
TOTAL
11
3
N
4
16.7
8.9
%
1
4
N
Level 3
(CC)
Subtotal
other tools
16.7
%
Level 2
(DNG)
N
Level 4
(ED1)
1
1
%
Level 1
(SF)
N
Level 4
(ED2)
MSA endstruck flake
from prepared
core
miscellaneous
retouch
Stone tools
Level 4
(ED4)
TABLE 1 (continued)
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of formal tools.
1
0.2
5
0.2
490
100
%
Level 4
(ED5)
N
-
2.2
1
1
112
%
Level 4
(ED6)
N
0.4
2.25
0.4
238
1
100
%
Level 4
(ED7)
N
1
2
0.5
3
33
100
%
Level 4
(ED8)
N
1
3
6
1.5
0.8
8.7
%
100
20.6
Total
8100
126
26
1
11
N
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
143
irregular
thick
triangular
pointed
parallel sided
1
0.2
1
0.4
0.4
1
1
4
1
core reduced
(2 platforms)
0.4
4
BLADE
3
0.4
5
4
35
9
120
47
1
0.4
1.1
1.1
0.4
6.1
0.4
4.2
N
%
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.2
2.1
0.5
7.2
2.8
65.2
Level 3
(CC)
1093
core reduced
(1 platform)
2
%
64.8
blade
1
3
bladelet
(2 platforms)
2.4
3
13
bladelet
(1 platform)
irregular
CORE
1
16
0.4
2
16.2
87
quartz crystal
11
chip
2.8
N
Level 2
(DNG)
169
1
15
%
59.5
pebble
pitted
hammer
stone)
pebble
N
320
Level 1
(SF)
chunk
Stone debris
N
4
3
8
1
5
25
4
84
29
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.1
0.5
2.3
0.4
7.7
2.6
65.4
%
Level 4
(ED1)
717
N
1
1
1
3
6
17
4
118
22
%
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.4
1.2
0.3
8.3
1.5
61.7
Level 4
(ED2)
882
N
1
1
1
2
1
2
10
3
250
22
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.8
0.2
19.3
1.7
58.9
%
Level 4
(ED3)
762
N
1
1
5
8
1
75
9
542
0.1
0.1
0.6
1.0
0.1
9.3
1.1
67.0
%
Level 4
(ED4)
1
4
2
70
3
0.2
0.8
0.4
14.3
0.6
64.2
%
Level 4
(ED5)
314
N
TABLE 2
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of stone debris.
N
1
1
3
3
9
6
68
%
Level 4
(ED6)
0.9
0.9
2.7
2.7
8.0
5.4
60.7
N
1
2
71
5
0.4
0.8
30.0
2.1
59.5
%
Level 4
(ED7)
141
N
1
3
24
%
Level 4
(ED8)
3.1
9.4
75.0
N
6
3
3
1
13
17
7
7
29
120
28
903
1
169
5032
%
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.4
1.5
0.4
11.3
0.0
2.1
63.1
144
Southern AFRICAN humanities, vol. 22, 2010
Total
0.6
1
0.4
0.4
0.4
2
6
2
3
sidestruck
(30+ mm)
sidestruck
(< 30 mm)
cortical flake
0.6
4
4
16
1
1
endstruck
(< 30 mm)
0.4
0.2
0.2
6
1
1
endstruck
(30+ mm)
cortical flake
core rejuvenation flake
FLAKES
proximal
medial
distal
6
1
BROKEN
BLADELET
1
12
proximal
3
0.8
distal
BROKEN
BLADE
2
4
0.6
3
0.2
1
irregular
N
thick
triangular
%
1
N
1
%
Level 1
(SF)
pointed
N
Level 2
(DNG)
parallel sided
BLADELET
(< 26 mm)
Stone debris
Level 3
(CC)
0.2
0.2
1.0
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.7
0.2
0.1
0.1
%
3
2
7
3
3
3
2
1
8
1
1
N
Level 4
(ED1)
0.3
0.2
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.1
%
4
4
8
7
10
19
2
2
13
1
4
3
N
Level 4
(ED2)
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.7
1.3
0.1
0.1
0.9
0.1
0.3
0.2
%
2
1
3
6
7
1
2
1
6
2
1
N
Level 4
(ED3)
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.1
%
1
9
3
2
2
1
2
N
0.1
1.1
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
%
Level 4
(ED4)
4
2
1
4
N
TABLE 2 (continued)
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of stone debris.
Level 4
(ED5)
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.8
%
1
1
1
N
Level 4
(ED6)
0.9
0.9
0.9
%
2
1
1
2
1
N
Level 4
(ED7)
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.4
%
1
N
Level 4
(ED8)
3.1
%
18
26
39
25
6
34
4
34
4
4
49
7
12
6
N
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.1
%
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
145
Total
28
3
35
endstruck
flake
(< 30 mm)
sidestruck
flake
(30+ mm)
sidestruck
flake
(< 30 mm)
6
3
538
proximal
lateral
TOTAL
coal
1
mica
6
1
1676
23
32
1
22
1
100
1.1
1.9
0.8
59
18
%
100
1.4
1.9
0.1
1.3
3.5
1.1
6.2
1.6
Level 3
(CC)
104
27
N
2
1
261
3
5
2
3.4
0.4
9.6
1.1
%
specularite
100
0.6
1.1
0.2
0.4
9
1
25
3
N
Level 2
(DNG)
slag
ochre
2
1
haematite
2
medial
6.5
0.6
5.2
1.1
%
Level 1
(SF)
distal
BROKEN
FLAKE
6
N
endstruck
flake
(30+ mm)
Stone debris
1
1
-
2
1
100
1.0
1.0
0.4
1.4
4.2
1.6
5.1
2.0
%
Level 4
(ED1)
1096
11
11
4
15
46
17
56
22
N
2
1
3
12
%
100
2.0
1.6
0.4
2.8
5.5
1.3
4.8
2.5
Level 4
(ED2)
1430
28
23
6
40
78
19
68
36
N
1
6
2
100
1.7
1.7
0.3
1.5
3.1
1.5
4.4
1.7
%
Level 4
(ED3)
1294
22
22
4
20
40
20
57
22
N
1
4
1
809
20
8
4
12
38
14
29
22
N
100
2.5
1.0
0.5
1.5
4.7
1.7
3.6
2.7
%
Level 4
(ED4)
1
100
1.0
2.2
0.2
0.6
3.7
1.6
5.5
2.2
%
Level 4
(ED5)
489
5
11
1
3
18
8
27
11
N
TABLE 2 (continued)
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of stone debris.
100
0.9
4.5
4.5
4.5
1.8
%
Level 4
(ED6)
112
1
5
5
5
2
N
100
1.7
2.5
%
Level 4
(ED7)
237
4
6
N
32
1
1
1
N
Level 4
(ED8)
100
3.1
3.1
3.1
%
1
1
5
5
33
8
7974
116
119
21
116
333
105
406
151
N
100
1.5
1.5
0.3
1.5
4.2
1.3
5.1
1.9
%
146
Southern AFRICAN humanities, vol. 22, 2010
Total
18
22
68
10
12
15
hornfels
sandstone
basalt
jaspilite
quartzite
dolerite
3
opal
%
%
N
1721
544
TOTAL
265
45
3
28
13
1676
43
32
17
256
44
45
244
995
6
100
25.0
75.0
100
2.7
2.7
1.9
13.0
1.1
3.1
18.4
57.1
Subtotal
4
1
3
261
7
7
5
34
3
8
48
149
N
Level 2
(DNG)
1
100
50.0
50.0
100
2.8
2.2
1.9
12.6
4.1
3.3
17.1
55.9
%
100
2.2
6.7
62.2
28.9
100
2.6
1.9
1.0
15.3
2.6
2.7
14.6
59.4
Level 3
(CC)
jaspilite
sandstone
hornfels
3
quartz
FORMAL
Subtotal
538
92
opal
other
N
301
quartz
Level 1
(SF)
DEBRIS
Stone
tools
N
1133
37
2
21
14
1096
4
38
22
170
26
16
199
100
5.4
56.8
37.8
100
0.4
3.5
2.0
15.5
2.4
1.5
18.2
56.7
%
Level 4
(ED1)
621
N
1444
14
2
10
2
1430
1
14
46
19
284
42
19
123
100
14.3
71.4
14.3
100
0.1
1.0
3.2
1.3
19.9
2.9
1.3
8.6
61.7
%
Level 4
(ED2)
882
N
1306
12
1
2
4
5
1294
9
51
20
228
42
9
90
100
8.3
16.7
33.3
41.7
100
0.7
3.9
1.5
17.6
3.2
0.7
7.0
65.3
%
Level 4
(ED3)
845
814
5
1
2
2
809
1
3
26
10
220
45
9
34
461
N
100
20.0
40.0
40.0
100
0.1
0.4
3.2
1.2
27.2
5.6
1.1
4.2
57.0
%
Level 4
(ED4)
TABLE 3
Induna Cave: vertical distribution of stone raw materials.
490
1
1
489
22
14
125
9
6
23
290
N
100
100
100
4.5
2.9
25.6
1.8
1.2
4.7
59.3
%
Level 4
(ED5)
N
112
112
3
36
4
2
8
100
2.7
32.1
3.6
1.8
7.1
52.7
%
Level 4
(ED6)
59
N
238
1
1
237
4
1
35
7
8
100
100
100
1.7
0.4
14.8
3.0
3.4
76.8
%
Level 4
(ED7)
182
N
33
1
1
32
5
3
1
2
100
100
100
15.6
9.4
3.1
6.3
65.6
%
Level 4
(ED8)
21
N
TOTAL
8100
126
1
2
10
71
42
7974
2
95
246
118
1459
245
132
871
4806
%
100
0.8
1.6
7.9
56.3
33.3
100
0.0
1.2
3.1
1.5
18.3
3.1
1.7
10.9
60.3
THORP: INDUNA CAVE, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMBABWE
147