Graduate Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies
2:2 (2004), 44-63
The Vietnam Builders: Private Contractors, Military
Construction and the ‘Americanization’ of United
States Involvement in Vietnam
ȱ
JamesȱM.ȱCARTERȱ
UniversityȱofȱHoustonȱ
ȱ
ASȱ EVENȱ THEȱ mostȱ cursoryȱ glanceȱ atȱ theȱ dailyȱ newspapersȱ reveals,ȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ
(US)ȱinvolvementȱinȱIraqȱreliesȱtoȱaȱlargeȱextentȱonȱtheȱeffortsȱofȱprivateȱcorporations.ȱ
Fromȱrebuildingȱtheȱwaterȱsystemȱandȱtheȱelectricalȱgridȱtoȱprovidingȱsecurity,ȱfoodȱ
andȱ housingȱ forȱ bothȱ Iraqisȱ andȱ Americans,ȱ privateȱ corporationsȱ areȱ nowȱ aȱ
ubiquitousȱ elementȱ ofȱ USȱ foreignȱ policy.ȱ Privateȱ corporationsȱ haveȱ actuallyȱ playedȱ
anȱincreasingȱroleȱinȱtheȱconductȱofȱUSȱforeignȱpolicyȱinȱrecentȱyears.ȱFromȱSomaliaȱ
toȱ theȱ crisisȱ inȱ theȱ Balkans,ȱ theȱ USȱ governmentȱ hasȱ reliedȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ uponȱ
privateȱ corporationsȱ toȱ achieveȱ anȱ arrayȱ ofȱ shortȬȱ andȱ longȬtermȱ foreignȱ policyȱ
objectives.1ȱ Theȱ precedentȱ forȱ thisȱ expandedȱ privateȱ corporateȱ roleȱ wasȱ actuallyȱ setȱ
decadesȱ agoȱ asȱ corporationsȱ tookȱ onȱ anȱ enlargedȱ function,ȱ replacingȱ militaryȱ
personnel,ȱ inȱ theȱ mostȱ enduringȱ andȱ costlyȱ ofȱ America’sȱ nationȱ buildingȱ projectsȱ
ever:ȱtheȱcreationȱofȱ‘SouthȱVietnam’.ȱAlongȱtheȱway,ȱtheseȱconstructionȱcorporationsȱ
inȱVietnamȱembeddedȱthemselvesȱinȱtheȱcountryȱasȱtheyȱproceededȱtoȱcreateȱaȱvastȱ
militaryȱ infrastructureȱ toȱ makeȱ theȱ southernȱ halfȱ ofȱ Vietnamȱ militaryȱ defensible.ȱ
Thoughȱ theyȱ putȱ anȱ unprecedentedȱ effortȱ intoȱ ingratiatingȱ themselvesȱ amongȱ theȱ
peopleȱ andȱ intoȱ creatingȱ aȱ corporateȱ workȱ cultureȱ amongȱ theirȱ fiftyȱ thousandȱ
workers,ȱtheyȱfailedȱtoȱovercomeȱtheȱlargerȱresistanceȱtoȱtheȱwholeȱproject.ȱȱ
Byȱ 1965,ȱ theȱ yearȱ ofȱ majorȱ escalationȱ andȱ ‘Americanization’ȱ ofȱ theȱ warȱ inȱ
Vietnam,ȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱhadȱforȱtenȱyearsȱbeenȱtryingȱtoȱcreateȱaȱnewȱnationȱbelowȱ
theȱseventeenthȱparallel.2ȱAȱsubstantialȱaidȱandȱassistanceȱprogrammeȱinauguratedȱinȱ
1954ȱ hadȱ steadilyȱ grownȱ inȱ scopeȱ andȱ magnitude.ȱ Thatȱ overȬallȱ programmeȱ hadȱ
swollenȱfromȱseveralȱhundredȱUSȱmilitaryȱpersonnelȱandȱaȱcoupleȱhundredȱmillionȱ
dollarsȱinȱannualȱaidȱtoȱmoreȱthanȱ180,000ȱmilitaryȱpersonnelȱandȱoverȱsixȱhundredȱ
millionȱ inȱ aid.ȱ Despiteȱ suchȱ aȱ largeȱ scaleȱ programmeȱ designedȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ separateȱ
nationȱ outȱ ofȱ southernȱ Vietnam,ȱ theȱ experimentȱ inȱ nationȱ buildingȱ continuedȱ toȱ
flounder.ȱ Theȱ removalȱ andȱ assassinationȱ ofȱ theȱ Saigonȱ regime’sȱ leaderȱ Ngoȱ Dinhȱ
Diemȱ inȱ earlyȱ November,ȱ 1963,ȱ hadȱ onlyȱ exacerbatedȱ anȱ alreadyȱ direȱ situation.ȱ
Unitedȱ Statesȱ policymakersȱ andȱ plannersȱ respondedȱ toȱ theȱ unfoldingȱ political,ȱ
economic,ȱandȱsocialȱcollapseȱinsideȱsouthernȱVietnamȱbyȱsubstantiallyȱrampingȱupȱ
whatȱhadȱbeenȱaȱveryȱlimitedȱdirectȱUSȱmilitaryȱroleȱthere.ȱ
AnticipatingȱthisȱwiderȱUSȱmilitaryȱinvolvement,ȱtheȱadministrationȱofȱLyndonȱ
B.ȱ Johnsonȱ authorizedȱ inȱ 1964ȱ aȱ consortiumȱ ofȱ privateȱ firmsȱ toȱ beginȱ anȱ epicȱ
programmeȱ ofȱ militaryȱ constructionȱ designedȱ toȱ createȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ physicalȱ
infrastructureȱ thatȱ wouldȱ makeȱ escalationȱ possible.ȱ Thatȱ consortium,ȱ employingȱ
moreȱ thanȱ 50ȱ thousandȱ (mostlyȱ Vietnamese)ȱ workersȱ atȱ itsȱ peak,ȱ becameȱ aȱ highlyȱ
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visibleȱ andȱ relativelyȱ permanentȱ featureȱ ofȱ theȱ USȱ missionȱ asȱ itȱ wentȱ aboutȱ
transformingȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ throughȱ notȱ onlyȱ massiveȱ militaryȱ baseȱ andȱ portȱ
buildingȱprojects,ȱbutȱalsoȱthroughȱtheȱimpositionȱofȱAmericanȱcorporateȱcultureȱ inȱ
tryingȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ reliable,ȱ quiescentȱ workforce.ȱ Ironically,ȱ thoughȱ thisȱ epicȱ militaryȱ
constructionȱ programmeȱ succeededȱ beyondȱ anyone’sȱ imagination,ȱ theȱ warȱ thatȱ itȱ
madeȱ possibleȱ notȱ onlyȱ failedȱ butȱ supplantedȱ andȱ underminedȱ theȱ largerȱ aimȱ ofȱ
nationȱbuilding,ȱofȱcreatingȱanȱindependentȱVietnamȱbelowȱtheȱseventeenthȱparallel.ȱ
ȱ
‘TheȱConstructionȱMiracleȱofȱtheȱDecade’ȱ
Byȱ theȱ timeȱ theȱ Johnsonȱ administrationȱ decidedȱ toȱ escalateȱ Vietnamȱ intoȱ aȱ warȱ
insteadȱofȱanȱaidȱandȱassistanceȱprogramme,ȱtheȱU.Sȱmissionȱhadȱalreadyȱoutstrippedȱ
theȱ capacityȱ ofȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ toȱ receiveȱ it.ȱ Infrastructureȱ wasȱ nonȬexistent,ȱ
insecureȱ orȱ inadequate.ȱ Significantȱ portionsȱ ofȱ theȱ roadȱ networkȱ becameȱ atȱ timesȱ
unusableȱ dueȱ toȱ lackȱ ofȱ security,ȱ decayȱ andȱ warȱ damageȱ orȱ someȱ combinationȱ ofȱ
these.ȱ Byȱ allȱ accounts,ȱ theȱ administrationȱ facedȱ aȱ crossroadȱ inȱ itsȱ policyȱ towardȱ
Vietnamȱ byȱ earlyȱ 1965:ȱ eitherȱ allowȱ forȱ completeȱ collapseȱ ofȱ theȱ entireȱ projectȱ andȱ
withdrawȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ fromȱ theȱ situation,ȱ orȱ undertakeȱ anȱ Americanȱ militaryȱ
takeȱoverȱandȱanȱattemptȱtoȱpreventȱwhatȱnearlyȱeveryoneȱviewedȱasȱimminent.3ȱTheȱ
latterȱ course,ȱ theȱ oneȱ chosen,ȱ wouldȱ meanȱ aȱ considerableȱ investmentȱ beyondȱ justȱ
largeȱ numbersȱ ofȱ troops.ȱ Itȱ wouldȱ alsoȱ meanȱ aȱ commitmentȱ toȱ establishȱ aȱ vastȱ
physicalȱinfrastructureȱtoȱremakeȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱȱ
AllȱofȱsouthernȱVietnamȱhadȱonlyȱthreeȱairfieldsȱcapableȱofȱlandingȱjetȱaircraft.ȱ
Itsȱ nationalȱ airline,ȱ 75%ȱ governmentȱ owned,ȱ consistedȱ ofȱ twelveȱ aircraft,ȱ noneȱ ofȱ
whichȱwasȱjetȱpropelled.4ȱTanȱSonȱNhut,ȱtheȱSaigonȱairfieldȱservingȱasȱtheȱprincipalȱ
hub,ȱ receivedȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ militaryȱ aid,ȱ butȱ couldȱ notȱ beginȱ toȱ keepȱ paceȱ withȱ theȱ
floodȱofȱmateriel.ȱOfȱallȱtheȱsuppliesȱdestinedȱforȱsouthernȱVietnam,ȱoverȱ90%ȱarrivedȱ
byȱ sea.ȱ Consequently,ȱ theȱ increasedȱ volumeȱ ofȱ militaryȱ hardwareȱ andȱ Commodityȱ
Importȱ Programmeȱ (CIP)ȱ goodsȱ createdȱ significantȱ portȱ congestion.ȱ Saigon,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ
possessedȱtheȱonlyȱportȱwithȱdeepȱdraftȱberthing.ȱOtherȱportȱfacilitiesȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱ
atȱDaȱNang,ȱNhaȱTrangȱandȱHuéȱremainedȱwoefullyȱinadequate.ȱOverȱtheȱnextȱyear,ȱ
almostȱhalfȱofȱallȱmilitaryȱcargoȱandȱ90%ȱofȱallȱAgencyȱforȱInternationalȱDevelopmentȱ
(AID)ȱcargoȱpassedȱthroughȱtheȱportȱatȱSaigon.ȱTheȱcongestionȱbecameȱinfamousȱasȱ
shipsȱandȱbargesȱoftenȱwaitedȱaȱperiodȱofȱweeksȱorȱmonthsȱforȱdockȱspaceȱtoȱoffȱload.ȱ
Asȱ ofȱ earlyȱ 1965,ȱ despiteȱ yearsȱ ofȱ economicȱ aidȱ andȱ infrastructureȱ development,ȱ
southernȱ Vietnamȱ stillȱ lackedȱ anythingȱ likeȱ anȱ integrated,ȱ modern,ȱ nationalȱ
infrastructure.ȱ Inȱ pastȱ years,ȱ thoughȱ recognizedȱ periodicallyȱ asȱ anȱ obstacle,ȱ thisȱ
underdevelopedȱ infrastructureȱ wasȱ notȱ nearlyȱ theȱ problemȱ itȱ soonȱ became.ȱ Aȱ
congressionalȱteamȱexplainedȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱportȱsituationȱfollowingȱaȱseriesȱ
ofȱ investigativeȱ tripsȱ thereȱ inȱ 1966:ȱ ‘Vietnameseȱ portȱ capacityȱ isȱ theȱ chiefȱ factorȱ
bearingȱ onȱ theȱ amountȱ ofȱ assistance—bothȱ militaryȱ andȱ economic—thatȱ theȱ Unitedȱ
StatesȱisȱphysicallyȱcapableȱofȱprovidingȱtoȱVietnam.’5ȱȱ
Significantlyȱ escalatingȱ theȱ Americanȱ presenceȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ thusȱ requiredȱ
substantialȱ physicalȱ development.ȱ Theȱ neededȱ constructionȱ wouldȱ quicklyȱ dwarfȱ
thatȱ whichȱ hadȱ comeȱ before.ȱ Engineersȱ andȱ constructionȱ teamsȱ hadȱ beenȱ atȱ workȱ
buildingȱupȱtheȱphysicalȱinfrastructureȱofȱtheȱsouthernȱhalfȱofȱVietnamȱsinceȱtheȱlateȱ
1950s.ȱTheyȱhadȱbuiltȱnew,ȱorȱhadȱrefurbished,ȱcanals,ȱroadsȱandȱbridges,ȱresidentialȱ
areas,ȱ hospitals,ȱ portȱ facilities,ȱ airfieldsȱ andȱ more.ȱ Beginningȱ inȱ 1962,ȱ muchȱ ofȱ thisȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
45
workȱ wasȱ handedȱ overȱ toȱ aȱ consortiumȱ ofȱ privateȱ Americanȱ constructionȱ
corporationsȱmadeȱupȱofȱRaymondȱInternationalȱandȱMorrisonȬKnudsenȱ(RMK).ȱTheȱ
workȱ hadȱ beenȱ somewhatȱ limited,ȱ however,ȱ byȱ theȱ limitedȱ natureȱ ofȱ Americanȱ
involvement.ȱThoseȱplacedȱinȱchargeȱofȱvariousȱbuildingȱprojectsȱassumedȱtheȱworkȱ
wouldȱbeȱcompletedȱinȱonlyȱaȱfewȱyears.ȱTheȱpaceȱofȱnewȱprojectsȱseemedȱtoȱconfirmȱ
thisȱ asȱ ordersȱ trailedȱ offȱ throughoutȱ muchȱ ofȱ 1964.ȱ Inȱ August,ȱ however,ȱ thisȱ trendȱ
wasȱreversedȱasȱaȱseriesȱofȱnewȱordersȱbeganȱtoȱarriveȱatȱtheȱofficesȱofȱRMK.6ȱȱ
Originallyȱ contractedȱ forȱ aroundȱ $15ȱ millionȱ inȱ constructionȱ work,ȱ RMKȱ sawȱ
itsȱ responsibilitiesȱ expandȱ dramaticallyȱ fromȱ lateȱ 1964ȱ intoȱ earlyȱ 1965.7ȱ Byȱ spring,ȱ
constructionȱallocationsȱhadȱsoaredȱtoȱoverȱ$150ȱmillionȱandȱRMKȱcouldȱhardlyȱkeepȱ
pace.8ȱ Becauseȱ soȱ muchȱ ofȱ theȱ workȱ hadȱ toȱ beȱ completedȱ priorȱ toȱ escalation,ȱ theȱ
consortiumȱ knewȱ ofȱtheȱ imminentȱAmericanȱ expansionȱ wellȱ beforeȱ mostȱ others.ȱAtȱ
theȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱscaleȱofȱtheȱwork,ȱtheȱpaceȱofȱtheȱprojectsȱandȱtheȱfundsȱallocatedȱ
providedȱ someȱ earlyȱ indicationȱ ofȱ thingsȱ toȱ come.ȱ Theȱ congressȱ grantedȱ theȱ
administrationȱ$700ȱmillionȱinȱsupplementaryȱmilitaryȱspendingȱforȱVietnamȱinȱ1965,ȱ
andȱ $100ȱ millionȱ wasȱ earmarkedȱ forȱ construction.ȱ Theseȱ projectsȱ quicklyȱ spreadȱ
acrossȱmuchȱofȱsouthernȱVietnamȱandȱinvolvedȱports,ȱammunitionȱdumps,ȱairfields,ȱ
radioȱ installations,ȱ refugeeȱ camps,ȱ barracks,ȱ fuelȱ depots,ȱ hospitals,ȱ warehousesȱ andȱ
otherȱ facilities.ȱ Byȱ May,ȱ theȱ consortiumȱ hadȱ moreȱ thanȱ doubledȱ itsȱ workforceȱ fromȱ
theȱ 1964ȱ level,ȱ hiringȱ severalȱ hundredȱ Americanȱ constructionȱ workersȱ andȱ elevenȱ
thousandȱ Vietnamese,ȱ largelyȱ asȱ unskilledȱ labourers.9ȱ Severalȱ monthsȱ later,ȱ theȱ
ordersȱstillȱranȱfarȱaheadȱofȱtheȱcapacityȱofȱRMKȱalone.ȱOneȱexasperatedȱMKȱofficialȱ
explained,ȱ‘allȱweȱknewȱwasȱthatȱtheyȱwantedȱaȱlottaȱroads,ȱaȱlottaȱairfields,ȱaȱlottaȱ
bridges,ȱ andȱ aȱ lottaȱ ports,ȱ andȱ thatȱ theyȱ probablyȱ wouldȱ wantȱ itȱ allȱ finishedȱ byȱ
yesterday.’10ȱ Inȱ earlyȱ August,ȱ RMKȱ broughtȱ onboardȱ twoȱ otherȱ largeȱ Americanȱ
constructionȱfirms,ȱBrownȱ&ȱRootȱandȱJ.ȱA.ȱJonesȱConstructionȱtoȱformȱtheȱRMKȬBRJ.ȱ
Thisȱ consortiumȱ becameȱ theȱ soleȱ contractorȱ forȱ theȱ federalȱ governmentȱ forȱ militaryȱ
constructionȱ projectsȱ inȱ Vietnam.ȱ Theȱ USȱ Army,ȱ theȱ Navy’sȱ Seabeesȱ andȱ theȱ Airȱ
Force’sȱBaseȱEngineeringȱEmergencyȱForcesȱ(BEEF)ȱconstructionȱunitsȱalsoȱplayedȱaȱ
role,ȱbutȱtheȱRMKȬBRJȱaccountedȱforȱtheȱlion’sȱshareȱofȱallȱwork,ȱorȱaboutȱ90%ȱofȱtheȱ
total.11ȱTheȱRMKȬBRJ,ȱeventuallyȱrenamingȱitselfȱtheȱ‘VietnamȱBuilders’ȱtoȱconveyȱitsȱ
enlargedȱ role,ȱ negotiatedȱ aȱ costȬplusȬfixedȬfeeȱ contractȱ viaȱ theȱ USȱ Navyȱ forȱ aȱ
staggeringȱ arrayȱ ofȱ constructionȱ projectsȱ aimedȱ toȱ quicklyȱ prepareȱ Vietnamȱ belowȱ
theȱ17thȱparallelȱforȱaȱmajorȱUSȱmilitaryȱpresence.12ȱȱ
Quicklyȱ rampingȱ upȱ theȱ directȱ Americanȱ roleȱ acceleratedȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ moreȱ
projects.ȱOnceȱcompleted,ȱaȱgivenȱprojectȱsuchȱasȱbarracksȱorȱwarehouseȱspaceȱwasȱ
oftenȱquicklyȱinundatedȱandȱmoreȱbecameȱnecessary.ȱInȱsomeȱinstances,ȱprojectsȱhadȱ
toȱ beȱ expandedȱ evenȱ beforeȱ completion.ȱ Inȱ earlyȱ March,ȱ theȱ firstȱ contingentȱ ofȱ
combatȱtroops,ȱtwoȱMarineȱbattalions,ȱwadedȱashoreȱatȱDaȱNang,ȱofficiallyȱtoȱguardȱ
theȱairȱbaseȱthere.ȱMoreȱtroopȱdeploymentsȱsoonȱfollowed.ȱAsȱitȱbecameȱclearȱthatȱtheȱ
RollingȱThunderȱbombingȱcampaignȱbegunȱinȱ theȱspringȱhadȱlittleȱorȱ noȱimpactȱonȱ
Vietnameseȱ leadersȱ inȱ Hanoiȱ andȱ evenȱ lessȱ impactȱ inȱ theȱ south,ȱ theȱ Whiteȱ Houseȱ
authorizedȱ USȱ groundȱ forcesȱ toȱ engageȱ inȱ offensiveȱ operations.13ȱ Administrationȱ
officialsȱ thenȱ recommendedȱ increasingȱ USȱ troopȱ strengthȱ byȱ 40,000ȱ followingȱ aȱ
hastilyȬconvenedȱ Honoluluȱ conferenceȱ inȱ lateȱ April.14ȱ Theȱ periodȱ fromȱ Julyȱ toȱ
DecemberȱsawȱtheȱgreatestȱincreaseȱasȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱsentȱapproximatelyȱ150,000ȱ
soldiersȱtoȱVietnam.ȱByȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱyear,ȱtheȱtroopȱtotalȱstoodȱatȱ184,000;ȱupȱfromȱ
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justȱ 23,000ȱ aȱ yearȱ earlier.15ȱ Aȱ weekȱ priorȱ toȱ theȱ Marchȱ deploymentȱ atȱ Daȱ Nang,ȱ
SecretaryȱofȱDefenceȱRobertȱS.ȱMcNamaraȱhadȱassuredȱtheȱmilitaryȱbrassȱthatȱthereȱ
wasȱ anȱ ‘unlimitedȱ appropriation’ȱ toȱ meetȱ theȱ militaryȱ requirementsȱ inȱ Vietnam.ȱ Aȱ
largeȱ partȱ ofȱ thatȱ appropriationȱ came,ȱ asȱ itȱ cameȱ inȱ subsequentȱ years,ȱ inȱ
supplementalȱmilitaryȱspendingȱpackagesȱapprovedȱbyȱcongressȱinȱMayȱandȱagainȱinȱ
August.16ȱDuringȱtheseȱweeks,ȱeventsȱmovedȱwithȱgreatȱspeed,ȱwhichȱacceleratedȱtheȱ
constructionȱ needsȱ exponentially.ȱ Onceȱ landed,ȱ theseȱ troopsȱ neededȱ aȱ vastȱ supportȱ
networkȱincludingȱbases,ȱsupplyȱlines,ȱequipment,ȱmaintenanceȱandȱrepairȱfacilities,ȱ
messingȱ andȱ quarteringȱ facilities,ȱ waterȱ andȱ sewageȱ systems,ȱ powerȱ plants,ȱ aȱ
communicationsȱnetwork,ȱandȱmore.ȱTheȱadministrationȱcouldȱonlyȱescalateȱtheȱwarȱ
inȱVietnamȱasȱfastȱasȱanȱinfrastructureȱtoȱreceiveȱtheȱinfluxȱcouldȱbeȱbuilt.17ȱȱ
HistorianȱJohnȱPradosȱhasȱestimatedȱthatȱeachȱUSȱsoldierȱrequiredȱ50ȱpoundsȱ
ofȱsuppliesȱaȱdayȱwhenȱinȱtheȱfield.ȱAtȱthisȱrate,ȱtheȱ184,000ȱtroopsȱinȱVietnamȱbyȱtheȱ
endȱ ofȱ 1965ȱ requiredȱ 138,000ȱ tonsȱ ofȱ suppliesȱ perȱ month.ȱ Whenȱ theȱ Vietnameseȱ
militaryȱforcesȱbeingȱsuppliedȱandȱtrainedȱbyȱtheȱAmericansȱareȱadded,ȱtheȱoverȬallȱ
figureȱ jumpsȱ toȱ moreȱ thanȱ 285,000ȱ tonsȱ ofȱ suppliesȱ perȱ month.ȱ Thisȱ quantityȱ farȱ
exceededȱ theȱ entireȱ portȱ capacityȱ ofȱ southernȱ Vietnam.18ȱ Theseȱ estimatesȱ onlyȱ
accountȱforȱaȱrelativelyȱsmallȱpercentageȱofȱtheȱtotalȱsupplyȱvolumeȱrequiredȱforȱtheȱ
kindȱofȱescalatedȱroleȱnowȱbeingȱplannedȱandȱimplemented.ȱCIPȱgoodsȱforȱ1965,ȱforȱ
example,ȱhadȱgrownȱtoȱ$150ȱmillion,ȱwhileȱtotalȱaidȱswelledȱtoȱnearlyȱ$350ȱmillion.19ȱ
Notȱ countedȱ inȱ theseȱ numbersȱ areȱ additionalȱ militaryȱ materielȱ requirementsȱ whichȱ
reachedȱ650,000ȱtonsȱperȱmonthȱinȱ1966.ȱThroughoutȱtheȱyear,ȱAIDȱcommoditiesȱandȱ
warȱmaterielȱcontinuedȱtoȱfloodȱintoȱVietnameseȱportsȱandȱairfields,ȱtoȱfillȱupȱdocksȱ
andȱ toȱ consumeȱ allȱ availableȱ warehouseȱ space.ȱ Airfieldsȱ tooȱ experiencedȱ sharpȱ
increasesȱinȱtheȱflowȱofȱgoods.ȱTrafficȱincreasedȱatȱSaigon’sȱTanȱSonȱNhutȱairfieldȱbyȱ
200%ȱ inȱ justȱ overȱ aȱ year,ȱ givingȱ theȱ airportȱ aȱ heavierȱ trafficȱ loadȱ thanȱ Losȱ Angelesȱ
International.ȱ Airȱ trafficȱ atȱ theȱ Daȱ Nangȱ facilityȱ increasedȱ 5,000%ȱ fromȱ 1961,ȱ whileȱ
BanȱMeȱThuotȱsawȱaȱ500%ȱincreaseȱandȱHuéȱ300%.20ȱShipȱandȱbargeȱtrafficȱpiledȱupȱ
whileȱ waitingȱ offȬloading.ȱ Byȱ November,ȱ 1965,ȱ 122ȱ shipsȱ ladenȱ withȱ goodsȱ satȱ idleȱ
unableȱ toȱ findȱ dockȱ space.21ȱ Anȱ adȱ hocȱ constructionȱ programmeȱ simplyȱ wouldȱ notȱ
meetȱtheȱtremendousȱneeds.ȱSomethingȱmoreȱsystematicȱwouldȱbeȱneeded.ȱȱ
Militaryȱ plannersȱ quicklyȱ piecedȱ togetherȱ aȱ modelȱ forȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ aȱ
modern,ȱintegratedȱmilitaryȱinfrastructureȱtoȱencompassȱallȱofȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱTheȱ
planȱcalledȱforȱheavyȱportȱconstructionȱatȱDaȱNang,ȱQuiȱNhon,ȱCamȱRanhȱBayȱandȱ
Saigon.ȱTheseȱports,ȱonceȱsubstantiallyȱdeveloped,ȱwouldȱformȱtheȱ‘keystonesȱofȱtheȱ
baseȱdevelopmentȱplanȱandȱtheȱcentresȱofȱwhatȱeventuallyȱbecameȱsemiautonomousȱ
logisticalȱ enclaves’.ȱ Theseȱ threeȱ portȱ areas,ȱ completeȱ withȱ majorȱ airbases,ȱ wouldȱ
receiveȱtroopsȱandȱsupplies,ȱandȱthenȱfeedȱbothȱintoȱtheȱinteriorȱandȱtoȱsmallerȱportsȱ
allȱ alongȱ theȱ coast.ȱ Inȱ midȬ1965,ȱ andȱ asideȱ fromȱ theseȱ coastalȱ facilities,ȱ theȱ Unitedȱ
Statesȱ militaryȱ hadȱ noȱ wayȱ toȱ deliverȱ theȱ expandingȱ volumeȱ ofȱ suppliesȱ intoȱ theȱ
southernȱ Vietnameseȱ interior.ȱ Thereȱ simplyȱ wasȱ noȱ systemȱ asȱ such,ȱ extendingȱ intoȱ
theȱ countrysideȱ capableȱ ofȱ deliveringȱ goodsȱ onȱ anythingȱ likeȱ theȱ scaleȱ rapidlyȱ
becomingȱ necessary.ȱ Consequently,ȱ plannersȱ consideredȱ theȱ systemȱ beingȱ designedȱ
andȱ quicklyȱ constructedȱ absolutelyȱ necessary.ȱ Almostȱ simultaneouslyȱ theyȱ alsoȱ
realizedȱ that,ȱ howeverȱ grandioseȱ theirȱ initialȱ planning,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ notȱ beginȱ toȱ
accommodateȱtheȱforcesȱandȱequipmentȱrequirementsȱbeingȱassembledȱinȱtheȱcomingȱ
months.ȱ Theseȱ basicȱ plansȱ wereȱ revisedȱ andȱ expandedȱ almostȱ constantlyȱ overȱ theȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
47
nextȱ twoȱ years.ȱ Theȱ resultȱ wouldȱ beȱ anȱ immenseȱ gridȱ complexȱ ofȱ airfields,ȱ bases,ȱ
ports,ȱcanals,ȱammunitionȱdepots,ȱmilitaryȱhospitals,ȱdumps,ȱwarehouses,ȱandȱlightȱ
industryȱ forȱ militaryȱ production,ȱ allȱ wovenȱ togetherȱ toȱ formȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ militaryȱ
‘matrix’.ȱNeededȱsuppliesȱandȱmaterielȱofȱallȱkindsȱcouldȱsimplyȱbeȱpluggedȱinȱtoȱtheȱ
systemȱatȱanyȱpointȱandȱconveyedȱtoȱanyȱotherȱpointȱalongȱtheȱgrid.ȱAirfields,ȱbothȱ
largeȱ andȱ small,ȱ wouldȱ dotȱ theȱ landscapeȱ asȱ well.ȱ Theȱ planȱ wasȱ toȱ haveȱ noȱ spotȱ
anywhereȱ inȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ moreȱ thanȱ 15ȱ milesȱ fromȱ anȱ airfield,ȱ andȱ airfieldsȱ
wouldȱhaveȱreadyȱaccessȱtoȱotherȱlargerȱairfieldsȱand/orȱtheȱsystemȱofȱports.22ȱȱ
Byȱlateȱ1965ȱandȱintoȱearlyȱ1966,ȱtheȱtransformationȱofȱsouthernȱVietnamȱwasȱ
wellȱ underway.ȱ Theȱ Buildersȱ completedȱ orȱ nearedȱ completionȱ onȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ
projectsȱ atȱ Camȱ Ranh,ȱ Daȱ Nang,ȱ Quiȱ Nhon,ȱ Pleiku,ȱ Chuȱ Laiȱ and,ȱ furtherȱ southȱ atȱ
Vungȱ Tau,ȱ Bienȱ Hoa,ȱ Socȱ Trangȱ andȱ Saigon.ȱ Projectsȱ wereȱ underwayȱ atȱ dozensȱ ofȱ
constructionȱsitesȱsimultaneouslyȱtoȱassembleȱallȱofȱtheȱpiecesȱofȱtheȱlargerȱgridȱandȱ
getȱitȱupȱandȱfunctioningȱtoȱrelieveȱmassiveȱcongestionȱandȱtoȱallowȱforȱtheȱassemblyȱ
ofȱevenȱgreaterȱforcesȱandȱrelatedȱmateriel.23ȱAtȱSaigon,ȱplannersȱdecidedȱonȱaȱbrandȱ
newȱfacilityȱjustȱupstreamȱfromȱtheȱexistingȱpier.ȱTheȱnew,ȱdeepȱdraftȱfacility,ȱcalledȱ
Newport,ȱ wouldȱ consistȱ ofȱ multipleȱ deepȱ draftȱ berthsȱ andȱ receiveȱ militaryȱ cargoȱ
exclusively.ȱ Trafficȱ teemedȱ atȱ numerousȱ lesserȱ portsȱ allȱ overȱ southernȱ Vietnam.24ȱ
Hundredsȱ ofȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ squareȱ feetȱ ofȱ newȱ warehousesȱ overflowedȱ withȱ goodsȱ
andȱ moreȱ spaceȱ wasȱ hurriedlyȱ beingȱ built.ȱ Numerousȱ airfields,ȱ someȱ thatȱhadȱ onlyȱ
recentlyȱcomeȱintoȱexistenceȱatȱall,ȱnowȱaccommodatedȱhundredsȱofȱflightsȱdaily,ȱandȱ
othersȱ wereȱ inȱ variousȱ stagesȱ ofȱ construction.ȱ Anȱ extensiveȱ roadȬbuildingȱ
programmeȱwasȱalsoȱunderwayȱinvolvingȱhundredsȱofȱmilesȱofȱnewȱandȱrefurbishedȱ
roadwaysȱlinkingȱtownsȱalongȱtheȱcoastȱtoȱeachȱotherȱandȱtoȱtheȱinterior.ȱWholeȱnewȱ
industriesȱsprangȱtoȱlifeȱasȱtheȱAmericanȱconstructionȱprogrammeȱdevouredȱmassiveȱ
quantitiesȱ ofȱ cement,ȱ crushedȱ rock,ȱ sediment,ȱ andȱ landfillȱ toȱ constructȱ theȱ largeȱ
bases.ȱTheȱUSȱmilitaryȱacquiredȱtensȱofȱthousandsȱofȱacresȱofȱlandȱonȱwhichȱtoȱbuildȱ
theseȱ facilitiesȱ andȱ toȱ establishȱ rockȱ quarries,ȱ uncoveredȱ storage,ȱ stagingȱ areasȱ andȱ
rightsȬofȬway.ȱAtȱyear’sȱend,ȱtheȱconsortium’sȱworkloadȱhadȱexpandedȱbyȱ600%,ȱandȱ
theȱ valueȱ ofȱ theȱ constructionȱ projectȱ moreȱ generally,ȱ 1,000%.ȱ Inȱ February,ȱ 1966,ȱ theȱ
Navy’sȱofficerȱinȱchargeȱofȱconstructionȱ(OICC)ȱcautioned,ȱ‘we’veȱonlyȱreallyȱbegunȱ
toȱfightȱtheȱconstructionȱsideȱofȱtheȱwar’.25ȱȱ
ȱ
‘Aȱperiodȱof…ȱfrayedȱnerves,ȱdeadlines,ȱshortagesȱandȱmagnificentȱachievement’ȱ
Theȱ Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ respondedȱ toȱ theȱ demandsȱ ofȱ warȱ remarkablyȱ quickly,ȱ
organizingȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ projectsȱ atȱ dozensȱ ofȱ sitesȱ overȱ theȱ wholeȱ ofȱ southernȱ
Vietnam.ȱ Throughoutȱ 1965,ȱ asȱ theȱ paceȱ ofȱ constructionȱ workȱ quickenedȱ
exponentially,ȱ theȱ Buildersȱ embracedȱ theirȱ roleȱ andȱ grewȱ withȱ theseȱ demandsȱ byȱ
expandingȱitsȱworkforceȱtoȱmoreȱthanȱ24,000,ȱcrowningȱitsȱexecutiveȱstaffȱinȱSaigonȱ
withȱ MK’sȱ Viceȱ Presidentȱ forȱ Foreignȱ Operations,ȱ Lymanȱ Wilbur,ȱ asȱ ‘residentȱ
partner’ȱandȱacquiringȱorȱplacingȱonȱorderȱ$110ȱmillionȱinȱequipment.ȱProjectȱvolumeȱ
hadȱmushroomedȱtoȱ$12ȱmillionȱofȱworkȬinȬplaceȱperȱmonthȱ(WIP).ȱTheȱconsortium’sȱ
executivesȱ andȱ engineersȱ continuedȱ toȱ marvelȱ atȱ theȱ sheerȱ magnitudeȱ ofȱ theȱ
transformationȱ ofȱ southernȱ Vietnam.ȱ Theȱ scaleȱ andȱ paceȱ ofȱ theȱ workȱ exceededȱ
anythingȱ anyȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ companiesȱ hadȱ everȱ experienced.ȱ Theȱ equipmentȱ
requirementsȱ aloneȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ surpassedȱ allȱ theȱ equipmentȱ ownedȱ byȱ MKȱ
worldwide,ȱincludingȱitsȱsubsidiaryȱcompanies.ȱExecutivesȱlookedȱforwardȱtoȱatȱleastȱ
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anotherȱ yearȱ ofȱ growthȱ atȱ orȱ evenȱ aboveȱ theȱ rateȱ achievedȱ soȱ far.26ȱ Theyȱ andȱ theȱ
Navyȱ OICCȱ hadȱ forecastȱ correctly;ȱ constructionȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ continuedȱ toȱ expandȱ
exponentiallyȱduringȱ1966ȱandȱbeyond.ȱ
Thatȱ theȱ overȬallȱ projectȱ wouldȱ turnȱ outȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ failureȱ certainlyȱ wasȱ notȱ
obviousȱ inȱ 1966.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ particularlyȱ clearȱ whenȱ viewedȱ throughȱ theȱ lensȱ ofȱ theȱ
contractorsȱandȱamidstȱtheȱwhirlwindȱsurroundingȱtheirȱactivitiesȱfromȱ1966ȱthroughȱ
1968.ȱTheȱVietnamȱBuilders’ȱDiaryȱofȱaȱContractȱrecordedȱthatȱtheȱyearȱ1966ȱwas,ȱ
ȱ
asȱwildȱaȱperiodȱasȱanyȱhumanȱbeingȱcanȱimagine.ȱThousandsȱofȱpeopleȱwereȱarrivingȱ
fromȱ theȱ Unitedȱ States,ȱ Southȱ Korea,ȱ theȱ Philippinesȱ andȱ 27ȱ otherȱ nations;ȱ tensȱ ofȱ
thousandsȱofȱSouthȱVietnameseȱwereȱhiredȱandȱtaughtȱaȱconstructionȱtrade;ȱhundredsȱ
ofȱthousandsȱofȱtonsȱofȱmaterialsȱandȱequipmentsȱwereȱoffȬloadedȱoverȱtheȱbeachȱandȱ
deliveredȱ toȱ depots,ȱ whichȱ wereȱ themselvesȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ beingȱ built;ȱ airfields,ȱ
ports,ȱ pipelines,ȱ barracks,ȱ hospitals,ȱ ammunitionȱ dumps,ȱ storageȱ areas,ȱ roadsȱ –ȱ inȱ
fact,ȱ everyȱ typeȱ ofȱ usefulȱ facilityȱ knownȱ toȱ manȱ hadȱ toȱ beȱ builtȱ forȱ theȱ militaryȱ
services.ȱ Notȱ theȱ leastȱ ofȱ theȱ problemsȱ beingȱ facedȱ wasȱ buildingȱ theȱ baseȱ forȱ theȱ
contractor’sȱ ownȱ operationsȱ –ȱ camps,ȱ maintenanceȱ shops,ȱ warehouses,ȱ etc.ȱ Theseȱ
competedȱforȱtheȱlabor,ȱmaterialsȱandȱtimeȱwhichȱtheȱsoldiers,ȱsailors,ȱairmenȱmarinesȱ
understandablyȱ feltȱ wereȱ thereȱ toȱ fulfillȱ theirȱ ownȱ urgentȱ needs.ȱ Inȱ short,ȱ itȱ wasȱ aȱ
periodȱ ofȱ 20Ȭhourȱ days,ȱ 7Ȭdayȱ weeks,ȱ frayedȱ nerves,ȱ deadlines,ȱ shortagesȱ andȱ
magnificentȱachievement.27ȱȱ
ȱ
Indeed,ȱ theȱ Vietnamȱ Builders,ȱ theȱ nameȱ adoptedȱ earlyȱ inȱ 1966,ȱ establishedȱ
themselvesȱ asȱ aȱ relativelyȱ permanentȱ fixtureȱ withinȱ Saigonȱ andȱ withinȱ theȱ largerȱ
Americanȱ mission.ȱ Overȱ theȱ yearȱ andȱ aȱ halfȱ extendingȱ fromȱ Januaryȱ 1966,ȱ theȱ
Builder’sȱputȱinȱplaceȱ$670ȱmillionȱofȱconstructionȱprojects,ȱcomparedȱtoȱ$130ȱmillionȱ
overȱ theȱ wholeȱ ofȱ theȱ previousȱ fourȱ years.28ȱ Alongȱ theȱ way,ȱ theȱ consortiumȱ
integratedȱ itselfȱ intoȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ inȱ muchȱ theȱ sameȱ wayȱ asȱ theȱ Americanȱ
militaryȱforces.ȱTheȱmonetaryȱvalueȱofȱtheȱprojectsȱreallyȱonlyȱtellsȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱstory.ȱ
FromȱitsȱofficeȱheadquartersȱcomplexȱinȱtheȱheartȱofȱSaigon,ȱtheȱBuildersȱbeganȱ
publishingȱ aȱ newspaper,ȱ titledȱ simplyȱ Theȱ VietȬNamȱ Builders,ȱ inȱ theȱ spring,ȱ inȱ bothȱ
Englishȱ andȱ Vietnamese,ȱ withȱ aȱ combinedȱ circulationȱ ofȱ 46,000.ȱ Itsȱ pagesȱ carriedȱ
storiesȱ ofȱ constructionȱ projectsȱ underway,ȱ ofȱ budgetsȱ andȱ costsȱ andȱ ofȱ militaryȱ
adventures.ȱ Theȱ paperȱ alsoȱ ranȱ regularȱ humanȱ interestȱ andȱ entertainmentȱ featuresȱ
fromȱ localȱ dancesȱ toȱ theȱ RMKȬBRJȱ softballȱ leagueȱ gamesȱ betweenȱ theȱ allȬFilipinoȱ
‘barefootȱ boys,’ȱ andȱ betterȱ equippedȱ Americanȱ Airȱ Forceȱ andȱ Navyȱ teams.ȱ Theȱ
formerȱ soundlyȱ defeatedȱ theȱ Americanȱ teamsȱ evenȱ withoutȱ shoesȱ andȱ properȱ
equipment.29ȱTheȱpaperȱregularlyȱranȱcongratulatoryȱandȱcomplimentaryȱcommentsȱ
fromȱ bothȱ Americanȱ andȱ Vietnameseȱ politicalȱ andȱ militaryȱ officials.ȱ Itsȱ essays,ȱ
articlesȱ andȱ commentariesȱ wereȱ notablyȱ positive,ȱ upbeatȱ andȱ evenȱ fun.ȱ Theȱ paperȱ
containedȱ scarcelyȱ aȱ mentionȱ ofȱ theȱ war’sȱ destructionȱ inȱ theȱ countryside,ȱ andȱ itsȱ
violenceȱshowsȱupȱonlyȱepisodically.ȱItsȱpagesȱcontainedȱnoȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱpoliticsȱ
ofȱwarȱandȱofferedȱnoȱforumȱforȱairingȱdifferingȱviewsȱonȱtheȱvariousȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱ
warȱthenȱbeingȱhotlyȱcontestedȱbackȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStates.ȱTheseȱmattersȱlayȱbeyondȱ
theȱpurposeȱofȱtheȱpaper.30ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuildersȱservedȱtoȱconnectȱtheȱBuildersȱwithȱ
readersȱ andȱ theȱ readersȱ toȱ eachȱ otherȱ asȱ aȱ vitalȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ Americanȱ
missionȱinȱSaigonȱandȱinȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱCorrespondentsȱfromȱVungȱTau,ȱBanȱMeȱ
ThuotȱandȱQuiȱNhonȱtoȱPhanȱRang,ȱRachȱSoiȱandȱCamȱRanhȱallȱprovidedȱtheȱstoriesȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
49
thatȱcameȱtogetherȱinȱtheȱpagesȱofȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuildersȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱcommunicatedȱ
muchȱmoreȱthanȱ‘theȱnews’.ȱTheyȱhelpedȱtoȱcreateȱtheȱsenseȱofȱharmonyȱandȱunitedȱ
effortȱthatȱUSȱpolicymakersȱbackȱinȱWashingtonȱregularlyȱemphasizedȱinȱtheirȱownȱ
explanationsȱforȱwhyȱthereȱwasȱaȱwarȱtoȱbeȱfoughtȱinȱVietnam.31ȱȱ
Theȱcreationȱofȱsuchȱanȱatmosphereȱlikelyȱalsoȱservedȱwellȱaȱworkforceȱquicklyȱ
cobbledȱ togetherȱ andȱ consistingȱ ofȱ Americans,ȱ Vietnamese,ȱ Koreans,ȱ Filipinosȱ andȱ
hundredsȱofȱothersȱfromȱnumerousȱdifferentȱcountries.ȱAȱconsequenceȱofȱharshȱworkȱ
conditions,ȱlowȱpay,ȱlongȱhoursȱwithȱnoȱoverȱtime,ȱandȱjobȱhazards,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱ
difficultȱ challengesȱ layȱ inȱ keepingȱ anȱ adequateȱ numberȱ ofȱ workersȱ inȱ theȱ field.ȱ
Inflationȱalsoȱfarȱoutpacedȱwagesȱmakingȱitȱmoreȱdifficultȱtoȱattractȱskilledȱworkers.ȱ
AȱVietnameseȱworker’sȱpayȱscale,ȱforȱexample,ȱwasȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ1957ȱscheduleȱandȱ
didȱ notȱ reflectȱ theȱ considerableȱ inflationȱ duringȱ theȱ period.ȱ Relyingȱ onȱ aȱ largelyȱ
Vietnameseȱworkforceȱwasȱalsoȱcheaperȱsinceȱthoseȱworkersȱearnedȱroughlyȱhalfȱtheȱ
payȱofȱaȱNavyȱSeabeeȱandȱwereȱcompletelyȱselfȱsufficient;ȱthatȱis,ȱtheyȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱ
beȱfed,ȱclothed,ȱandȱbilletedȱbyȱtheȱUSȱgovernment.ȱTheyȱcouldȱalsoȱbeȱfiredȱatȱanyȱ
timeȱtoȱquicklyȱreduceȱcosts.32ȱȱ
TheȱBuildersȱevenȱinauguratedȱtheirȱownȱprogrammeȱforȱtrainingȱVietnameseȱ
studentsȱinȱtheȱskillsȱneededȱforȱconstruction,ȱsendingȱtheȱfirstȱ219ȱoffȱtoȱvariousȱjobȱ
sitesȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ sixȱ weekȱ programmeȱ inȱ 1966.33ȱ Atȱ itsȱ peak,ȱ theȱ consortium’sȱ
workforceȱ numberedȱ slightlyȱ moreȱ thanȱ 51,000,ȱ withȱ aroundȱ 47,000ȱ Vietnamese,ȱ
Koreans,ȱFilipinosȱandȱothers,ȱandȱ4,000ȱAmericans,ȱoverwhelminglyȱinȱsupervisoryȱ
andȱmanagementȱroles.ȱȱ
Withinȱtheseȱnumbers,ȱhowever,ȱthisȱworkforceȱchangedȱaȱgreatȱdeal.ȱOverȱtheȱ
lifeȱofȱtheȱcontractȱtheȱBuildersȱemployedȱbetweenȱ180,000ȱandȱ200,000ȱVietnamese.34ȱ
Aȱ highȱ rateȱ ofȱ turnȬover,ȱ theȱ demandsȱ ofȱ theȱ workȱ andȱ theȱ fluidityȱ ofȱ aȱ warȱ
environmentȱ inȱ generalȱ gnawedȱ awayȱ atȱ cohesionȱ andȱ unityȱ ofȱ purposeȱ thatȱ theȱ
privateȱcontractorsȱreliedȱuponȱinȱtheirȱconstantȱraceȱtoȱmakeȱdeadlinesȱandȱincreaseȱ
theȱ paceȱ ofȱ workȱ onȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ simultaneousȱ projectsȱ acrossȱ southernȱ Vietnam.ȱ
Someȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ troublingȱ labourȱ unrest,ȱ whichȱ theȱ Builders’ȱ ownȱ selfȬevaluationȱ
termedȱ aȱ ‘minorȱ civilȱ war,’ȱ beganȱ notȱ outȱ grievancesȱ betweenȱ labourȱ andȱ
management,ȱ butȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ generalȱ oppositionȱ toȱ theȱ regime.35ȱ Despiteȱ theseȱ andȱ
otherȱ considerableȱ obstacles,ȱ theȱ Buildersȱ benefitedȱ fromȱ aȱ largeȱ poolȱ ofȱ labour.ȱ
Becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ veryȱ limitedȱ natureȱ ofȱ Vietnameseȱ homeȱ productionȱ andȱ industry,ȱ
theseȱlabourersȱwereȱunlikelyȱtoȱbeȱsiphonedȱoffȱtoȱotherȱattractiveȱindustryȱand/orȱ
factoryȱjobsȱlocally.ȱNevertheless,ȱtheȱBuilders’ȱmanagementȱunderstoodȱtheȱneedȱtoȱ
attractȱ workersȱ givenȱ theȱ omnipresentȱ warȱ climate.36ȱ Theȱ creationȱ ofȱ itsȱ ownȱ
corporateȱworkȱcultureȱnoȱdoubtȱaidedȱinȱthis.ȱItȱalsoȱhelpedȱtheȱconsortiumȱtoȱeaseȱ
thousandsȱofȱAmericanȱworkersȱintoȱtheȱveryȱdifferentȱenvironmentȱofȱconstructionȱ
workȱinȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱ
Atȱleastȱoneȱofȱtheȱutilitarianȱaspectsȱofȱawardingȱprivateȱcontractorsȱtheȱlion’sȱ
shareȱ ofȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ allȱ militaryȱ constructionȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ wasȱ thatȱ theȱ
considerableȱ labourȱ requirementsȱ wouldȱ beȱ metȱ byȱ Vietnameseȱ andȱ notȱ byȱ
additionalȱUSȱmilitaryȱengineerȱforces.ȱToȱhaveȱreliedȱonȱmilitaryȱconstructionȱunitsȱ
forȱtheȱneedsȱinȱbuildingȱupȱsouthernȱVietnamȱwouldȱhaveȱmeantȱsignificantlyȱlargerȱ
deploymentsȱ andȱ muchȱ earlier.37ȱ Theȱ Johnsonȱ administrationȱ stillȱ hopedȱ toȱ keepȱ
theseȱ changesȱ inȱ USȱ policyȱ shroudedȱ inȱ secrecy.ȱ Theȱ deploymentȱ ofȱ tensȱ ofȱ
thousandsȱofȱUSȱservicemenȱtoȱbuildȱtheȱphysicalȱinfrastructureȱofȱsouthernȱVietnamȱ
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inȱ preparationȱ forȱ widerȱ warȱ wouldȱ haveȱ madeȱ secrecyȱ virtuallyȱ impossible.ȱ Theȱ
constructionȱneedsȱwereȱtooȱgreatȱandȱtheȱscaleȱofȱtheȱworkȱtooȱimmense.ȱ
Thatȱworkȱenvironmentȱwasȱbusierȱandȱtheȱactivityȱmoreȱfreneticȱthanȱeverȱinȱ
1966.ȱDespiteȱallȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱbuiltȱupȱduringȱtheȱsecondȱhalfȱofȱ1965,ȱitȱwasȱreallyȱ
justȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ aȱ muchȱ greaterȱ constructionȱ project.ȱ Engineersȱ forecastȱ theȱ
requirementsȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ equipment,ȱ manpower,ȱ capitalȱ andȱ timeȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ
supportȱneededȱforȱaroundȱ200,000ȱAmericanȱtroops.ȱNoȱoneȱyetȱimaginedȱbuildingȱ
toȱ accommodateȱ overȱ oneȱ halfȱ million.ȱ Evenȱ atȱ thisȱ stillȱ limitedȱ level,ȱ however,ȱ
constructionȱachievedȱaȱpaceȱofȱ$1ȱmillionȱofȱworkȬinȬplaceȬperȬdayȱbyȱlateȱsummer.ȱ
Theȱ contractorsȱ expectedȱ toȱ (andȱ did),ȱ achieveȱ $40ȱ millionȱ ofȱ workȬinȬplaceȱ perȱ
monthȱ inȱ theȱ fall.ȱ Toȱ compoundȱ theȱ difficulties,ȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ stillȱ lackedȱ theȱ
infrastructureȱ toȱ handleȱ theȱ barrageȱ ofȱ equipmentȱ andȱ suppliesȱ necessaryȱ toȱ carryȱ
outȱthatȱconstruction.ȱAsȱMK’sȱownȱmonthlyȱpublicationȱannouncedȱinȱAugust,ȱ1966,ȱ
‘logisticalȱproblemsȱareȱenormous,ȱforȱvirtuallyȱeverythingȱhasȱtoȱbeȱshippedȱinȱ–ȱandȱ
inȱ prodigiousȱ quantities.’ȱ Theȱ lackȱ ofȱ adequateȱ airfieldsȱ andȱ ofȱ portsȱ inȱ particularȱ
madeȱtheȱbuildȱupȱforȱwarȱallȱtheȱmoreȱchallenging.ȱMilitaryȱplannersȱexpectedȱtheȱ
engineersȱ toȱ buildȱ aȱ modernȱ nationalȱ infrastructureȱ toȱ accommodateȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ
thousandsȱ ofȱ troopsȱ andȱ majorȱ war,ȱ and,ȱ yet,ȱ theȱ veryȱ factȱ ofȱ limitedȱ orȱ absentȱ
infrastructureȱsharplyȱrestrictedȱtheirȱabilityȱtoȱdoȱso.ȱȱ
Projectsȱ required,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ closeȱ toȱ 45ȱ millionȱ metersȱ ofȱ lumber,ȱ 3,600ȱ
prefabricatedȱbuildings,ȱ4.9ȱmillionȱkilogramsȱofȱnails,ȱ750,000ȱsheetsȱofȱplywoodȱandȱ
45ȱmillionȱkilogramsȱofȱasphalt,ȱplusȱnearlyȱtwoȱthousandȱtrucksȱandȱtractors,ȱjustȱtoȱ
nameȱ aȱ veryȱ fewȱ ofȱ theȱ muchȱ neededȱ materials.38ȱ Constructionȱ materialsȱ competedȱ
withȱ anȱ increasingȱ flowȱ ofȱ commodityȱ aid,ȱ foodȱ aid,ȱ militaryȱ aidȱ andȱ allȱ otherȱ
importsȱ forȱ limitedȱ dockȱ space,ȱ deepȱ draftȱ berthingȱ andȱ airfields.ȱ Onceȱ theȱ neededȱ
materialsȱdidȱarrive,ȱaȱreliableȱtransportationȱsystemȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱthenȱdisperseȱtheȱ
rightȱ suppliesȱ andȱ equipmentȱ toȱ theȱ rightȱ jobȱ siteȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ manyȱ hundredsȱ thenȱ
underway.39ȱ Theȱ Buildersȱ alsoȱ requiredȱ theȱ simultaneousȱ constructionȱ ofȱ theirȱ ownȱ
camps,ȱ demandingȱ stillȱ moreȱ resourcesȱ ofȱ labour,ȱ time,ȱ materialsȱ andȱ aȱ systemȱ ofȱ
efficientȱandȱrapidȱsupply.ȱȱ
ȱ
CreatingȱaȱWorkforceȱandȱBuildingȱtheȱBasesȱ
Theȱworkforceȱforȱthisȱmammothȱtaskȱbeganȱtoȱtakeȱshapeȱbyȱearlyȱ1966,ȱgrowingȱtoȱ
closeȱtoȱ30,000ȱpersonnel.ȱConsistingȱoverwhelminglyȱofȱVietnamese,ȱbutȱalsoȱmadeȱ
upȱ ofȱ Koreans,ȱ Filipinosȱ andȱ otherȱ thirdȱ countryȱ nationals,ȱ problemsȱ ofȱ language,ȱ
culture,ȱ religion,ȱ andȱ basicȱ understandingȱ abounded.40ȱ Theȱ Buildersȱ employedȱ
translatorsȱ onȱ jobȱ sitesȱ allȱ overȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ whenȱ theyȱ could.ȱ Theyȱ alsoȱ
inauguratedȱaȱcrashȱEnglishȱlanguageȱprogrammeȱconductedȱinȱtentsȱonȱjobsȱsitesȱinȱ
1ȱ hourȱ sessionsȱ threeȱ daysȱ perȱ week.41ȱ Theȱ trainingȱ programmeȱ begunȱ inȱ lateȱ
summerȱ 1966,ȱ alsoȱ aimedȱ atȱ creatingȱ moreȱ cohesionȱ andȱ continuityȱ withinȱ theȱ
workforce.ȱ Generalȱ Managerȱ Jimȱ Lillyȱ hopedȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ moreȱ harmoniousȱ workȱ
environmentȱ asȱ heȱ welcomedȱ theȱ studentsȱ ofȱ theȱ programmeȱ intoȱ theȱ ranksȱ ofȱ
‘constructionȱ stiffs’ȱ whoȱ heȱ believedȱ representedȱ ‘perfectȱ examplesȱ ofȱ theȱ ruggedȱ
individualismȱthatȱhasȱpermeatedȱtheȱfreeȱenterpriseȱsystem.’ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱceremonyȱ
forȱtheȱtrainingȱprogramme,ȱTranȱLuuȱCung,ȱtheȱregime’sȱUndersecretaryȱofȱStateȱforȱ
Education,ȱalsoȱlaudedȱtheȱeffortsȱofȱtheȱBuildersȱandȱthankedȱLillyȱforȱtheȱ‘seaports,ȱ
airports,ȱmodernȱindustriesȱandȱhighways’ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱheȱassuredȱtheȱstudentsȱ
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51
inȱtheȱaudienceȱtheyȱwereȱlearningȱfromȱ‘experiencedȱspecialists’ȱtheȱveryȱknowledgeȱ
andȱ skillsȱ anȱ independentȱ Southȱ Vietnamȱ wouldȱ needȱ inȱ theȱ future.42ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ
time,ȱ theȱ Buildersȱ presidedȱ overȱ theȱ grandȱ openingȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ recreationȱ centreȱ forȱ
thirdȱcountryȱnationalsȱinȱtheȱnorthernȱpartȱofȱsouthernȱVietnamȱatȱCamȱRanhȱBay.ȱAȱ
Buildersȱspokesmanȱhopedȱ‘thatȱtheȱnewȱhallȱ[would]ȱcontributeȱevenȱfurtherȱtoȱtheȱ
harmonyȱ ofȱ allȱ theȱ nationalsȱ here.’ȱ Theȱ severalȱ hundredȱ Vietnamese,ȱ Koreans,ȱ
Filipinosȱandȱothersȱgatheredȱatȱtheȱeventȱtookȱinȱlivelyȱmusic,ȱdanceȱandȱcoldȱbeerȱ
‘likeȱ fishȱ toȱ water’ȱ accordingȱ toȱ aȱ VietȬNamȱ Buildersȱ correspondent.43ȱ Executives,ȱ
engineersȱandȱotherȱplannersȱconsistentlyȱspokeȱinȱgrandioseȱtermsȱofȱtheirȱhopesȱforȱ
theseȱ andȱ similarȱ measuresȱ toȱ yieldȱ aȱ greaterȱ harmonyȱ andȱ unifiedȱ effortȱ becauseȱ
theyȱwereȱkeenlyȱawareȱofȱtheȱproblemsȱandȱobstaclesȱinȱtheirȱpath.ȱ
Theȱ plannersȱ andȱ industryȱ observersȱ connectedȱ withȱ theȱ Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ
wereȱinȱfactȱdeeplyȱambivalentȱregardingȱtheseȱAsianȱworkers.ȱTheyȱbroughtȱtoȱtheȱ
enormousȱtaskȱofȱbuildingȱtheȱphysicalȱinfrastructureȱofȱsouthernȱVietnamȱtheȱsameȱ
featuresȱ ofȱ arrogance,ȱ paternalismȱ andȱ racismȱ thatȱ pervadedȱ otherȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ USȱ
policyȱ towardȱ Vietnam.ȱ MKȱ chairmanȱ H.W.ȱ Morrisonȱ referredȱ toȱ Vietnamȱ asȱ ‘thisȱ
littleȱlandȱofȱconfusionȱandȱsuffering’ȱwithoutȱrecognizingȱtheȱroleȱplayedȱbyȱhisȱownȱ
corporationȱ andȱ hisȱ countryȱ inȱ thatȱ confusionȱ andȱ suffering.ȱ Morrisonȱ andȱ othersȱ
believedȱtheseȱproblemsȱwereȱAsianȱproblems;ȱtheyȱwereȱproblemsȱassociatedȱwithȱ
communism,ȱwithȱcivilȱwar,ȱwithȱregionalȱdifferences,ȱorȱperhapsȱembeddedȱdeepȱinȱ
Vietnam’sȱhistory.ȱTheyȱwere,ȱ inȱanyȱcase,ȱproblemsȱtheȱVietnamȱBuildersȱbelievedȱ
theyȱ wereȱ activelyȱ tryingȱ toȱ solve.44ȱ Vietnamȱ andȱ Southeastȱ Asiaȱ inȱ general,ȱ wasȱ aȱ
bewilderingȱ placeȱ thatȱ defiedȱ easyȱ understandingȱ byȱ Americanȱ engineersȱ andȱ
workers.ȱ Theseȱ Americans,ȱ likeȱ thoseȱ inȱ theȱ military,ȱ AID,ȱ atȱ theȱ USȱ Embassyȱ andȱ
elsewhere,ȱ viewedȱ theȱ Vietnameseȱ andȱ theȱ objectivesȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ throughȱ aȱ
decidedlyȱAmericanȱandȱWesternȱlens.ȱTheyȱviewedȱthemselvesȱasȱonȱtheȱrightȱsideȱ
ofȱwhateverȱwereȱtheȱtermsȱofȱtheȱstruggle.ȱTheyȱwereȱbringingȱtoȱVietnamȱallȱofȱtheȱ
accoutrementsȱ ofȱ aȱ modern,ȱ developedȱ societyȱ and,ȱ inȱ doingȱ so,ȱ liftingȱ theȱ
Vietnameseȱ peopleȱ outȱ ofȱ theirȱ conditionȱ ofȱ relativeȱ backwardnessȱ andȱ usheringȱ
themȱ intoȱ aȱ newȱ eraȱ ofȱ peace,ȱ modernity,ȱ democracyȱ andȱ prosperity.ȱ Itȱ canȱ alsoȱ beȱ
saidȱthatȱifȱtheyȱexpectedȱanyȱresponseȱinȱreturnȱforȱtheirȱefforts,ȱitȱwasȱgratitude,ȱnotȱ
resistanceȱ andȱ scorn.ȱ Theȱ American’sȱ attitudesȱ towardȱ theȱ workforce,ȱ whetherȱ
Vietnamese,ȱKorean,ȱFilipinoȱorȱAmerican,ȱwereȱmanifestȱmostȱclearlyȱinȱtheȱpagesȱofȱ
itsȱ newspaperȱ publishedȱ inȱ Saigon,ȱ itsȱ inȬhouseȱ monthlyȱ magazine,ȱ Theȱ EmȬKayan,ȱ
andȱ inȱ otherȱ industryȱ andȱ tradeȱ periodicalsȱ whichȱ devotedȱ articlesȱ toȱ theȱ Vietnamȱ
Builders’ȱconstructionȱeffort.ȱȱ
Articlesȱ andȱ featuresȱ dealingȱ explicitlyȱ withȱ theȱ consortium’sȱ workforceȱ
quicklyȱ becameȱ theȱ mostȱ commonȱ featureȱ ofȱ Theȱ VietȬNamȱ Builders.ȱ Asȱ mentioned,ȱ
writersȱ madeȱ aȱ considerableȱ effortȱ toȱ highlightȱ socialȱ andȱ entertainmentȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ
workingȱforȱtheȱBuilders.ȱFromȱdances,ȱgalas,ȱandȱsoftballȱtournamentsȱtoȱbarbeques,ȱ
fundraisersȱandȱpicnics,ȱtheȱpagesȱofȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuildersȱwereȱfilledȱwithȱanȱarrayȱ
ofȱarticlesȱthatȱconveyedȱtheȱsenseȱofȱunityȱandȱevenȱfamilyȱthatȱexecutivesȱregularlyȱ
trumpetedȱinȱtheirȱpublicȱstatements.ȱȱ
Articlesȱ alsoȱ regularlyȱ highlightedȱ specificȱ workersȱ andȱ specificȱ episodesȱ forȱ
outstandingȱ accomplishment.ȱ Nineteenȱ yearȱ oldȱ Hoangȱ Thiȱ Phuong,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ
cameȱ inȱ forȱ highȱ praiseȱ asȱ theȱ onlyȱ femaleȱ workȬshopȱ interpreterȱ atȱ theȱ Buildersȱ
manyȱ jobsites.ȱ Despiteȱ herȱ diminutiveȱ stature,ȱ theȱ newspaperȱ intoned,ȱ sheȱ hadȱ
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becomeȱ anȱ invaluableȱ assetȱ inȱ theȱ carpentryȱ shop.ȱ Havingȱ previouslyȱ workedȱ asȱ aȱ
translatorȱ forȱ theȱ USȱ Airȱ Force,ȱ sheȱ quicklyȱ adaptedȱ toȱ theȱ alienȱ terminologyȱ ofȱ
militaryȱ constructionȱ andȱ hadȱ becomeȱ ‘oneȱ ofȱ theȱ pillarsȱ ofȱ theȱ carpentryȱ shop,’ȱ
accordingȱtoȱaȱgeneralȱsuperintendent.ȱSheȱhadȱbecome,ȱwroteȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuildersȱ
correspondent,ȱ ‘conversantȱ withȱ theȱ newȱ terminologyȱ asȱ ifȱ she’dȱ beenȱ bornȱ andȱ
raisedȱinȱthe…shop.’45ȱȱ
Anotherȱ articleȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ editionȱ ofȱ Theȱ VietȬNamȱ Buildersȱ praisedȱ aȱ
Vietnameseȱ worker,ȱ Dinhȱ Vanȱ Khang.ȱ Khangȱ hadȱ workedȱ forȱ theȱ consortiumȱ sinceȱ
1963ȱ asȱ aȱ surveyorȱ andȱ climbedȱ theȱ companyȱ ladderȱ toȱ aȱ higherȱ rankȱ thanȱ heldȱ byȱ
anyȱotherȱVietnamese.ȱHowever,ȱallȱtheȱpaper’sȱreadersȱshouldȱtakeȱinspirationȱfromȱ
thisȱexample.ȱAsȱtheȱarticleȱsuggested,ȱthoughȱ‘noneȱofȱhisȱcountrymenȱrankȱasȱhighȱ
inȱ theȱ jointȱ venture…theȱ roadȱ isȱ open,ȱ andȱ Khangȱ hasȱ blazedȱ theȱ trail.’ȱ Further,ȱ heȱ
hadȱ achievedȱ suchȱ aȱ loftyȱ statusȱ byȱ ‘burningȱ theȱ midnightȱ oilȱ assiduously’.ȱ Khangȱ
wasȱ aȱ hardȱ workerȱ whoseȱ commitmentȱ andȱ energyȱ toȱ theȱ projectȱ othersȱ couldȱ andȱ
shouldȱimitate.ȱAlsoȱtalentedȱonȱtheȱguitarȱandȱclarinet,ȱheȱhadȱplayedȱwithȱconcertȱ
orchestras,ȱ taughtȱ musicȱ andȱ earlierȱ graduatedȱ fromȱ theȱ Daȱ Latȱ Nationalȱ Militaryȱ
School.ȱ Soȱ accomplishedȱ wasȱ heȱ thatȱ theȱ article’sȱ authorȱ dubbedȱ himȱ ‘“King”ȱ
Khang’.46ȱȱ
PhamȱVanȱBinhȱalsoȱreceivedȱhighȱmarksȱinȱtheȱpagesȱofȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuildersȱ
forȱhisȱ‘aquabatics.’ȱPhamȱhadȱforȱyearsȱbeenȱemployedȱbyȱtheȱconsortiumȱasȱaȱdiver.ȱ
Plungingȱ intoȱ theȱ depthsȱ ofȱ Vietnam’sȱ canals,ȱ harbours,ȱ ports,ȱ andȱ rivers,ȱ Theȱ VietȬ
Namȱ Buildersȱ viewedȱ himȱ ‘asȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ humanȱ submarine,’ȱ whoȱ cutȱ steelȱ withȱ anȱ
acetyleneȱ torch,ȱ tightenedȱ bolts,ȱ retrievedȱ lostȱ tools,ȱ droveȱ pilesȱ andȱ accomplishedȱ
whateverȱ otherȱ tasksȱ layȱ beneathȱ theȱ watersȱ surface.ȱ Heȱ servedȱ theȱ Buildersȱ onȱ theȱ
massiveȱNewportȱprojectȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱBienȱHoaȱhighwayȱbridge,ȱQuayȱ1,ȱWharfsȱ1ȱ
andȱ 2,ȱ andȱ Islandȱ Depotȱ projects.ȱ Heȱ wasȱ consideredȱ theȱ bestȱ diverȱ inȱ theȱ Saigonȱ
area.47ȱ
Articlesȱ alsoȱ communicatedȱ aȱ palpableȱ senseȱ ofȱ paternalismȱ betweenȱ theȱ
Americansȱ andȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ workers.ȱ Inȱ oneȱ example,ȱ aȱ Buildersȱ foremanȱ Peterȱ
Abeytaȱ tookȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ aȱ workerȱ whoȱ hadȱ frequentlyȱ beenȱ theȱ objectȱ ofȱ
ridiculeȱandȱabuse.ȱTheȱforemanȱ‘realizedȱthatȱheȱwasȱlittleȱbitȱretarded’ȱandȱtriedȱtoȱ
protectȱ him.ȱ Abeytaȱ decidedȱ toȱ takeȱ theȱ Vietnameseȱ workerȱ ‘underȱ myȱ wing.ȱ Youȱ
haveȱtoȱbeȱpatientȱwithȱhimȱandȱshowȱhimȱhowȱtoȱdoȱthings,ȱbutȱheȱlearnsȱandȱnowȱ
he’sȱaȱgoodȱlittleȱworker.’ȱTheȱarticleȱfeaturedȱaȱphotoȱ(asȱmostȱdid)ȱofȱtheȱforemanȱ
toweringȱ aȱ fullȱ headȱ aboveȱ hisȱ ‘protégé,’ȱ bothȱ wearingȱ theȱ ubiquitousȱ hardȱ hatsȱ
distributedȱ toȱ allȱ workers.48ȱ Thisȱ anecdoteȱ isȱ instructiveȱ notȱ simplyȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ
relationshipȱ itȱ illustratesȱ orȱ becauseȱ itȱ noȱ doubtȱ reflectsȱ somethingȱ ofȱ theȱ largerȱ
relationship.ȱ Itȱ isȱ instructiveȱ becauseȱ itȱ madeȱ theȱ pagesȱ ofȱ theȱ contractor’sȱ
newspaper.ȱ
Theȱ storiesȱ featuredȱ inȱ theȱ pagesȱ ofȱ Theȱ VietȬNamȱ Buildersȱ spokeȱ directlyȱ toȱ
almostȱ everyȱ conceivableȱ elementȱ ofȱ thisȱ variedȱ workforce.ȱ Thereȱ wereȱ profilesȱ onȱ
wayfaringȱ Americanȱ secretaries,ȱ onȱ Vietnameseȱ warehouseȱ workersȱ beingȱ suppliedȱ
coatsȱ andȱ glovesȱ toȱ loadȱ walkȬinȱ freezers,ȱ onȱ anȱ Americanȱ pileȱ driverȱ narrowlyȱ
escapingȱ anȱ insurgent’sȱ grenade,ȱ onȱ theȱ heroicsȱ ofȱ twoȱ Americanȱ employeesȱ whoȱ
repelledȱanȱapparentȱinsurgentȱattackȱonȱaȱquarry,ȱtheȱnotableȱefficiencyȱofȱworkersȱ
buildingȱaȱstretchȱofȱnewȱroadwayȱfromȱtheȱvillageȱofȱQuiȱNhonȱtoȱPhuȱCat,ȱandȱtheȱ
openingȱofȱnewȱmessȱfacilitiesȱwhereȱAmerican,ȱFilipino,ȱKoreanȱandȱotherȱworkersȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
53
sharedȱ meals.49ȱ Theȱ contractorsȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ pagesȱ ofȱ thisȱ newspaperȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ
unity;ȱ theȱ storiesȱ boundȱ theȱ workersȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ inȱ muchȱ theȱ sameȱ wayȱ companyȱ
newsletters,ȱmagazinesȱandȱotherȱoutletsȱforȱshoptalkȱandȱsidewalkȱgossipȱforgedȱaȱ
senseȱofȱworkȱcultureȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStates.ȱȱ
Constructionȱ industryȱ writersȱ observingȱ thisȱ epicȱ buildingȱ programmeȱ inȱ
Vietnamȱ revealedȱ muchȱ aboutȱ Americanȱ thinkingȱ onȱ theȱ subjectȱ ofȱ Vietnameseȱ
workersȱasȱwell.ȱAȱwriterȱforȱtheȱindustryȱjournalȱEngineeringȱNewsȬRecordȱwroteȱinȱaȱ
Mayȱ 1965ȱ articleȱ thatȱ theȱ Vietnameseȱ wereȱ notȱ initiallyȱ capableȱ ofȱ thisȱ kindȱ ofȱ
difficultȱ work.ȱ Oftenȱ untrainedȱ andȱ withoutȱ anyȱ particularȱ skills,ȱ theȱ Vietnameseȱ
workersȱhadȱtoȱbeȱtaughtȱquicklyȱtheȱbasicȱskillsȱneededȱtoȱmakeȱaȱcontribution.ȱTheȱ
articleȱ portrayedȱ themȱ asȱ ‘smallȱ men,ȱ oftenȱ weigh[ing]ȱ onlyȱ 90ȱ lbȱ orȱ so.’ȱ Theyȱ
‘look[ed]ȱ likeȱ childrenȱ atȱ theȱ wheelȱ ofȱ aȱ bigȱ bulldozerȱ orȱ truck.ȱ Someȱ areȱ strongȱ
enoughȱforȱonlyȱfourȱorȱfiveȱhoursȱaȱdayȱofȱsuchȱwork.’50ȱDespiteȱtheȱassertion,ȱtheȱ
authorȱ offeredȱ noȱ explanationȱ ofȱ howȱ theȱ sameȱ Vietnameseȱ everȱ becameȱ suchȱ
efficientȱandȱproductiveȱfarmersȱinȱthisȱclimateȱthatȱexhaustedȱtheȱAmericanȱsoldier.ȱ
Theȱ articleȱ revealsȱ asȱ muchȱ aboutȱ Americanȱ paternalistȱ notionsȱ ofȱ smallȱ andȱ weakȱ
Asiansȱasȱitȱdoesȱaboutȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheȱworkȱbeingȱdone.ȱ
MorrisonȬKnudsen,ȱ theȱ leadȱ companyȱ ofȱ theȱ consortium,ȱ revealedȱ somethingȱ
ofȱ itsȱ ownȱ assumptionsȱ regardingȱ Asiansȱ asȱ itȱ advertisedȱ theȱ degreeȱ toȱ whichȱ itȱ
includedȱ Vietnameseȱ inȱ itsȱ workforce.ȱ Inȱ aȱ photoȱ spreadȱ containedȱ inȱ itsȱ monthlyȱ
magazineȱ inȱ lateȱ summerȱ 1965,ȱ theȱ contractorȱ displayedȱ fullȬbodyȱ photosȱ ofȱ moreȱ
thanȱ twoȱ dozenȱ Vietnameseȱ womenȱ whoȱ workedȱ asȱ secretariesȱ inȱ variousȱ Vietnamȱ
Buildersȱoffices.ȱReferredȱtoȱasȱtheȱ‘galleryȱofȱcharmȱinȱSouthȱVietȱNam,’ȱtheȱphotosȱ
wereȱaȱclumsyȱandȱpaternalȱattemptȱtoȱappreciateȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheseȱwomenȱwho,ȱtheȱ
captionȱ noted,ȱ wereȱ dressedȱ inȱ theirȱ traditionalȱ ‘costumes’ȱ forȱ theȱ occasion.51ȱ Theȱ
women,ȱ eachȱ wearingȱ traditionalȱ dress,ȱ stoodȱ posedȱ inȱ aȱ tightȱ bunchȱ forȱ severalȱ
photos.ȱStandingȱinȱtheȱcalm,ȱneatȱandȱorganizedȱspaceȱofȱtheȱBuilders’ȱoffices,ȱtheyȱ
wereȱ farȱ removedȱ fromȱ notȱ onlyȱ theȱ moreȱ dangerousȱ andȱ uglyȱ sideȱ ofȱ militaryȱ
constructionȱwork,ȱbutȱalsoȱfromȱtheȱwarȱwhichȱragedȱjustȱbeyondȱthoseȱofficeȱwalls.ȱ
TheȱreadersȱofȱTheȱEmȬKayanȱmagazine,ȱwhichȱwasȱnotȱcirculatedȱinȱVietnam,ȱwouldȱ
notȱ haveȱ gleanedȱ fromȱ theseȱ photographsȱ theȱ difficultyȱ ofȱ piecingȱ togetherȱ andȱ
maintainingȱ sufficientȱ labourȱ toȱ carryȱ outȱ theȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ militaryȱ constructionȱ
projectsȱthenȱunderwayȱsimultaneouslyȱallȱoverȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱ
Byȱ lateȱ summerȱ 1966,ȱ theȱ workforceȱ hadȱ grownȱ toȱ moreȱ thanȱ 48,000.ȱ Ofȱ thisȱ
number,ȱoverȱ39,000ȱwereȱVietnamese,ȱ5,100ȱthirdȱcountryȱnationals,ȱandȱnearlyȱ4,000ȱ
USȱ supervisors.52ȱ Theȱ workforceȱ remainedȱ muchȱ moreȱ fluidȱ thanȱ theȱ contractorsȱ
wouldȱhaveȱpreferred.ȱTheȱcontinuingȱriseȱofȱwarȱandȱitsȱrelatedȱdestructionȱbroughtȱ
onȱ lessȱ stabilityȱ evenȱ inȱ theȱ relativelyȱ rarefiedȱ environmentȱ ofȱ workingȱ forȱ theȱ
Americanȱcontractors.ȱHundredsȱofȱworkersȱwereȱinjuredȱorȱkilledȱonȱtheȱjob,ȱwentȱ
onȱstrike,ȱrefusedȱtoȱwork,ȱorȱsimplyȱdisappearedȱfromȱjobsȱforȱextendedȱperiods.ȱInȱ
August,ȱ workersȱ launchedȱ aȱ twoȱ dayȱ generalȱ strikeȱ atȱ theȱ massiveȱ Longȱ Binhȱ baseȱ
projectȱ toȱ protestȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ anȱ eightȱ hourȱ workingȱ dayȱ forȱ allȱ
Vietnameseȱ personnel.ȱ Inȱ November,ȱ Diepȱ Vanȱ Lien,ȱ aȱ sheetȱ metalȱ worker,ȱ diedȱ
whenȱcaughtȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱaȱfireȱfightȱbetweenȱtheȱregime’sȱforcesȱandȱinsurgentsȱ
onȱ hisȱ wayȱ toȱ work.ȱ Inȱ January,ȱ 1967,ȱ insurgentsȱ detonatedȱ explosivesȱ onboardȱ theȱ
consortium’sȱlargestȱdredge,ȱtheȱJamaicaȱBay,ȱsinkingȱitȱimmediatelyȱandȱkillingȱthreeȱ
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workersȱ andȱ injuringȱ severalȱ more.53ȱ Theseȱ andȱ similarȱ incidentsȱ hadȱ becomeȱ
commonplace.ȱȱ
TheȱrealitiesȱofȱpiecingȱtogetherȱsuchȱaȱlargeȱworkforceȱcompelledȱtheȱBuildersȱ
inȱ earlyȱ 1966ȱ toȱ establishȱ itsȱ ownȱ Laborȱ Relationsȱ Divisionȱ toȱ beginȱ toȱ tryȱ andȱ dealȱ
withȱsomeȱofȱtheȱproblems.ȱTheȱBuildersȱrecognizedȱ‘thatȱthroughoutȱtheȱhistoryȱofȱ
Vietȱ Nam,ȱ noȱ singleȱ companyȱ hadȱ everȱ employedȱ theȱ numbersȱ ofȱ Vietnameseȱ
workersȱasȱRMKȬBRJȱwouldȱrequire.’ȱConsequently,ȱtheȱnewȱundertakingȱcalledȱforȱaȱ
greatȱdealȱofȱattentionȱandȱcare,ȱparticularlyȱinȱthisȱwarȱenvironmentȱthatȱcontributedȱ
toȱtheȱlackȱofȱworkerȱcohesionȱandȱstability.ȱTheȱLRDȱattemptedȱtoȱdealȱwithȱissuesȱ
ofȱ anȱ inadequateȱ payȱ scale,ȱ ofȱ electingȱ workerȱ representatives,ȱ ofȱ bringingȱ thirdȱ
countryȱ nationalsȱ intoȱ theȱ fold,ȱ ofȱ workȱ conditionsȱ andȱ more.ȱ Despiteȱ theseȱ efforts,ȱ
theȱ Buildersȱ onlyȱ managedȱ toȱ mitigateȱ aȱ smallȱ proportionȱ ofȱ theseȱ andȱ otherȱ
problems.ȱ
Inȱtheȱsummerȱ1966,ȱlowȱwagesȱandȱaȱrapidlyȱrisingȱcostȱofȱlivingȱledȱtoȱ‘aȱmostȱ
damagingȱ seriesȱ ofȱ strikes,’ȱ accordingȱ toȱ aȱ comprehensiveȱ reportȱ writtenȱ byȱ theȱ
contractors.ȱ Officialsȱ inȱ theȱ Saigonȱ regimeȱ andȱ USȱ governmentȱ agenciesȱ rejectedȱ aȱ
recommendationȱ toȱ increaseȱ workerȱ payȱ thatȱ theȱ LRDȱ believedȱ wouldȱ ‘precludeȱ
laborȱ problems’.ȱ Fromȱ Aprilȱ 1965,ȱ toȱ Julyȱ 1966,ȱ theȱ costȱ ofȱ livingȱ roseȱ moreȱ thanȱ
124%.ȱ Wagesȱ hadȱ notȱ increasedȱ overȱ thisȱ period.ȱ Workersȱ inȱ theȱ Saigonȱ areaȱ
respondedȱtoȱtheȱrejectionȱofȱtheȱwageȱincreaseȱproposalȱbyȱgoingȱonȱstrike.ȱTheȱLRDȱ
estimatedȱtheȱstrikeȱcostȱ695,000ȱmanȱhours,ȱwhichȱaccountedȱforȱ2/3ȱofȱallȱtheȱtimeȱ
lostȱtoȱlabourȱproblemsȱforȱmostȱofȱthatȱyearȱoverȱallȱofȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱFurther,ȱ
lowȱ wagesȱ hadȱ beenȱ ‘theȱ onlyȱ majorȱ complaintȱ expressedȱ byȱ theȱ workers’ȱ andȱ theȱ
strikeȱendedȱwhenȱaȱwageȱincreaseȱwasȱfinallyȱguaranteed.54ȱȱ
Almostȱ simultaneously,ȱ ‘generalȱ civilȱ unrest’ȱ substantiallyȱ disruptedȱ theȱ
constructionȱ effortȱ toȱ theȱ northȱ inȱ Daȱ Nang.ȱ Beginningȱ inȱ April,ȱ allȱ theȱ Vietnameseȱ
workersȱ(85%ȱofȱtheȱworkforce)ȱ‘failedȱtoȱreport’ȱtoȱtheȱjobȱsites,ȱeffectivelyȱshuttingȱ
downȱ theȱ work.ȱ Thisȱ generalȱ strikeȱ amongȱ Vietnameseȱ workingȱ forȱ theȱ Vietnamȱ
Buildersȱ apparentlyȱ hadȱ nothingȱ toȱ doȱ withȱ wages.ȱ Rather,ȱ itȱ grewȱ outȱ ofȱ aȱ largerȱ
antiȬgovernmentȱmovementȱamongȱtheȱpeopleȱinȱtheȱarea.ȱFromȱAprilȱ5ȱuntilȱAprilȱ
13,ȱ Vietnameseȱ workersȱ stayedȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ sites.ȱ Eventuallyȱ aȱ ‘minorȱ civilȱ war’ȱ
eruptedȱ involvingȱ tanks,ȱ mortars,ȱ aircraft,ȱ smallȱ armsȱ andȱ considerableȱ violence.ȱ
Vietnameseȱ insurgentsȱ andȱ forcesȱ loyalȱ toȱ theȱ regimeȱ clashedȱ inȱ andȱ aroundȱ Daȱ
Nang,ȱmakingȱconstructionȱimpossible.ȱJobsȱsitesȱwereȱshutȱdownȱentirelyȱasȱbridgesȱ
andȱ roadsȱ closedȱ dueȱ toȱ concernsȱ overȱ safety.ȱ Theȱ closingsȱ heldȱ upȱ theȱ deliveryȱ ofȱ
muchȱneededȱequipmentȱandȱsupplies.ȱTheȱcontractorsȱestimatedȱtheyȱlostȱ30ȱdaysȱofȱ
productivityȱdueȱtoȱthisȱincident.ȱTheȱdisruptionȱfinallyȱendedȱinȱlateȱMay,ȱbutȱonlyȱ
aboutȱhalfȱofȱtheȱVietnameseȱworkersȱreturnedȱtoȱwork.55ȱȱ
Theȱ Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ citedȱ aȱ laundryȱ listȱ ofȱ problemsȱ withȱ holdingȱ togetherȱ
suchȱ aȱ workforceȱ inȱ thisȱ environment.ȱ Livingȱ conditionsȱ onȱ jobȱ cites,ȱ inadequateȱ
communicationsȱ andȱ transportation,ȱ insurgentȱ activity,ȱ unorganizedȱ workers,ȱ
languageȱ barriers,ȱ culturalȱ differencesȱ amongȱ workers,ȱ racialȱ prejudices,ȱ wideȱ
varianceȱ inȱ skillȱ level,ȱ jobȱ siteȱ location,ȱ ‘unscrupulousȱ agitationȱ byȱ unions,’ȱ andȱ anȱ
inabilityȱtoȱmeetȱdemandsȱforȱwageȱincreasesȱallȱcontributedȱtoȱtheȱseriousȱproblemsȱ
ofȱ instabilityȱ withinȱ theȱ workforce.56ȱ Intoȱ 1967,ȱ pressureȱ alsoȱ mountedȱ toȱ curbȱ theȱ
overallȱ costsȱ ofȱ theȱ constructionȱ programme,ȱ whichȱ toppedȱ theȱ $1ȱ billionȱ markȱ inȱ
May.57ȱ Sinceȱ muchȱ ofȱ theȱ equipmentȱ andȱ supplyȱ costsȱ hadȱ beenȱ builtȱ inȱ andȱ wereȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
55
henceȱ unavoidableȱ atȱ thisȱ point,ȱ theȱ onlyȱ possibilityȱ forȱ reducingȱ costsȱ cameȱ inȱ
cuttingȱ theȱ sizeȱ ofȱ theȱ workforce.ȱ Byȱ lateȱ Februaryȱ 1967,ȱ theȱ Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ hadȱ
reducedȱitsȱworkforceȱtoȱlessȱthanȱ40,000,ȱlayingȱoffȱmanyȱVietnamese,ȱthirdȱcountryȱ
nationalsȱ andȱ Americansȱ inȱ theȱ process.ȱ Theȱ consortiumȱ reducedȱ itȱ labourȱ forceȱ byȱ
overȱ4,000ȱforȱtheȱmonthȱofȱFebruaryȱalone.58ȱȱ
Throughoutȱ theȱ latterȱ halfȱ ofȱ 1965ȱ andȱ allȱ ofȱ 1966,ȱ theȱ paceȱ ofȱ theȱ militaryȱ
constructionȱ hadȱ beenȱ remarkablyȱ harried.ȱ Theȱ Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ ownȱ
comprehensiveȱ narrativeȱ ofȱ theȱ programmeȱ characterizedȱ theȱ periodȱ asȱ oneȱ ofȱ ‘go,ȱ
go,ȱgoȱ–ȱgetȱitȱbuilt.’59ȱByȱlateȱ1967,ȱhowever,ȱchangeȱwasȱinȱtheȱwind.ȱMuchȱofȱtheȱ
physicalȱ infrastructureȱ deemedȱ necessaryȱ toȱ launchȱ aȱ majorȱ militaryȱ campaignȱ
againstȱ theȱ insurgencyȱ wasȱ nowȱ eitherȱ inȱ placeȱ orȱ wellȱ underway.ȱ Hundredsȱ ofȱ
majorȱ projects,ȱ massiveȱ militaryȱ bases,ȱ airfields,ȱ deepȱ draftȱ portȱ facilities,ȱ
warehouses,ȱ barracks,ȱ petroleumȬoilȬlubricantȱ (POL)ȱ storage,ȱ militaryȱ hospitals,ȱ
hundredsȱ ofȱ milesȱ ofȱ roadways,ȱ improvedȱ harboursȱ andȱ canalsȱ forȱ transportationȱ
andȱ moreȱ hadȱ nowȱ beenȱ built.ȱ Majorȱ warȱ ragedȱ overȱ allȱ ofȱ southernȱ Vietnam.ȱ
Furthermore,ȱ theȱ costsȱ ofȱ theȱ warȱ soaredȱ beyondȱ allȱ earlierȱ estimates.ȱ Byȱ theȱ lateȱ
1960s,ȱ theȱ warȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ costȱ upwardsȱ ofȱ $25ȱ billionȱ annually.60ȱ Thoughȱ theȱ
contractȱ remainedȱ inȱ placeȱ untilȱ 1972,ȱ theȱ storiedȱ daysȱ ofȱ impendingȱ deadlines,ȱ
mountingȱdemandsȱforȱmoreȱconstructionȱprojects,ȱanȱinsatiableȱneedȱforȱmoreȱandȱ
moreȱworkers,ȱandȱlavishȱspendingȱwereȱover.ȱ
ȱ
NationȱBuilding,ȱWarȱandȱtheȱDestructionȱofȱVietnamȱ
Theȱ Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ constructedȱ fromȱ scratchȱ anȱ enormousȱ modern,ȱ militaryȱ
infrastructureȱthroughoutȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱTheȱmassiveȱprojectsȱatȱLongȱBinh,ȱandȱ
Newport,ȱ theȱ sprawlingȱ headquartersȱ installationȱ atȱ Tanȱ Sonȱ Nhut,ȱ andȱ theȱ Camȱ
Ranhȱ Bayȱ andȱ Daȱ Nangȱ portsȱ toȱ theȱ north,ȱ representedȱ $790ȱ millionȱ inȱ completedȱ
constructionȱ projects.ȱ Theseȱ fiveȱ projects,ȱ however,ȱ representȱ lessȱ thanȱ halfȱ ofȱ theȱ
wholeȱ constructionȱ programmeȱ forȱ southernȱ Vietnam.61ȱ Manyȱ othersȱ competedȱ forȱ
materialsȱ andȱ labourȱ andȱ theirȱ costsȱ ranȱ toȱ manyȱ millionsȱ ofȱ dollars.ȱ Theȱ greatȱ
airbaseȱatȱBienȱHoa,ȱforȱexample,ȱcostȱ$80ȱmillionȱandȱbecameȱaȱfullȱserviceȱfacilityȱ
completeȱwithȱitsȱ3,000ȱmeterȱjetȱlandingȱstrip,ȱammunitionȱdepot,ȱPOLȱstorageȱandȱ
barracks.ȱ Likewise,ȱ theȱ largeȱ modernȱ militaryȱ installationsȱ atȱ Pleiku,ȱ Quiȱ Nhon,ȱ
Vungȱ Tau,ȱ andȱ Nhaȱ Trangȱ allȱ requiredȱ dozensȱ ofȱ milesȱ ofȱ roadȱ construction,ȱ
prodigiousȱquantitiesȱofȱlabourȱandȱresources,ȱtheȱeliminationȱofȱhundredsȱofȱacresȱofȱ
jungleȱandȱaȱhugeȱvolumeȱofȱsuppliesȱofȱallȱkindsȱtoȱkeepȱthemȱoperational,ȱcostingȱ
nearlyȱ$200ȱmillionȱtoȱconstruct.ȱ
OtherȱprojectsȱincludedȱthoseȱatȱCatȱLo,ȱCanȱTho,ȱSocȱTrang,ȱPhanȱRang,ȱPhuȱ
Cat,ȱ Vingȱ Long,ȱ Rachȱ Gia,ȱ Myȱ Tho,ȱ Banȱ Meȱ Thuotȱ andȱ Anȱ Khe.ȱ Theseȱ projectsȱ
requiredȱ theȱ establishmentȱ ofȱ hugeȱ quarriesȱ inȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ toȱ obtainȱ theȱ
millionsȱ ofȱ tonsȱ stoneȱ neededȱ forȱ roadsȱ andȱ fill,ȱ andȱ theȱ acquisitionȱ ofȱ manyȱ
thousandsȱofȱacresȱofȱlandȱonȱwhichȱtoȱbuildȱbases,ȱandȱasȱrightsȱofȱway.ȱDuringȱtheȱ
lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ contractȱ theȱ Buildersȱ movedȱ 70ȱ millionȱ cubicȱ metersȱ ofȱ earth,ȱ usedȱ 49ȱ
millionȱmetricȱtonsȱofȱrockȱproduct,ȱnearlyȱ11ȱmillionȱmetricȱtonsȱofȱasphalt,ȱpouredȱ
3.4ȱ millionȱ kilometresȱ ofȱ concrete,ȱ enoughȱ toȱ haveȱ builtȱ aȱ wallȱ 60ȱ centimetresȱ wideȱ
andȱ1.5ȱmetersȱhighȱcompletelyȱaroundȱsouthernȱVietnam,ȱandȱmovedȱanȱaverageȱofȱ
moreȱthanȱ500,000ȱmetricȱtonsȱofȱgoodsȱeveryȱmonth.ȱTheȱUSȱNavyȱandȱtheȱBuildersȱ
valuedȱ theȱ constructionȱ putȱ inȱ placeȱ acrossȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ atȱ $1.9ȱ billionȱ atȱ theȱ
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completionȱ ofȱ theȱ contractȱ period.62ȱ Certainly,ȱ suchȱ aȱ mammothȱ constructionȱ
programmeȱ broughtȱ inȱ muchȱ capital,ȱ technologyȱ andȱ leftȱ aȱ physicalȱ infrastructureȱ
unparalleledȱinȱallȱofȱSoutheastȱAsia.ȱOnlyȱwhenȱassessedȱinȱfullȱmeasureȱdoesȱoneȱ
beginȱ toȱ appreciateȱ whyȱ thoseȱ involvedȱ referredȱ toȱ theirȱ workȱ asȱ ‘theȱ constructionȱ
miracleȱofȱtheȱdecade.’ȱȱ
Oddly,ȱ thisȱenormousȱ militaryȱ constructionȱ programme,ȱwhichȱ madeȱ theȱwarȱ
itselfȱpossible,ȱisȱcompletelyȱabsentȱfromȱnearlyȱallȱaccountsȱofȱtheȱwarȱinȱVietnam.63ȱ
TheȱVietnamȱBuildersȱbecameȱasȱmuchȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱlifeȱofȱsouthernȱVietnamȱasȱdidȱ
theȱ USȱ military.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ everywhereȱ atȱ once,ȱ carryingȱ outȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ
constructionȱ jobsȱ simultaneously.ȱ Theyȱ trainedȱ manyȱ tensȱ ofȱ thousandȱ Vietnameseȱ
andȱ othersȱ inȱ Englishȱ language,ȱ welding,ȱ pipeȱ fitting,ȱ carpentry,ȱ roadȱ building,ȱ
heavyȱ equipmentȱ operation,ȱ surveying,ȱ mechanicsȱ andȱ manyȱ otherȱ requiredȱ skills.ȱ
TheȱconsortiumȱemployedȱfarȱmoreȱVietnameseȱthanȱanyȱotherȱbusinessȱinȱsouthernȱ
Vietnam.ȱTheȱBuilders,ȱtogetherȱwithȱtheȱUSȱmilitary,ȱwereȱfarȱandȱawayȱtheȱsingleȱ
largestȱ employersȱ inȱ southernȱ Vietnam.ȱ Throughȱ theirȱ newspaper,ȱ theȱ VietȬNamȱ
Buildersȱreachedȱoutȱtoȱaȱdisparateȱworkforceȱtoȱcommunicateȱaȱparticularȱworkȱandȱ
corporateȱ culture.ȱ Aȱ presenceȱ inȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ forȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ decade,ȱ theȱ
privateȱ constructionȱ firmsȱ carriedȱ outȱ aȱ staggeringȱ arrayȱ ofȱ militaryȱ building.ȱ Theyȱ
substantiallyȱtransformedȱtheȱphysicalȱfeaturesȱofȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱTheȱareaȱwentȱ
fromȱ anȱ underdevelopedȱ formerȱ Frenchȱ colonyȱ toȱ aȱ complexȱ systemȱ ofȱ modernȱ
militaryȱbases,ȱairfieldsȱandȱports,ȱmakingȱitȱdefendable,ȱinȱonlyȱaȱfewȱshortȱyears.ȱ
Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱmassiveȱmilitaryȱbuildȬupȱandȱensuingȱwarȱunderminedȱ
theȱ veryȱ nationȱ buildingȱ campaignȱ thatȱ hadȱ launchedȱ theȱ Americanȱ missionȱ toȱ
Vietnamȱ fromȱ theȱ midȬ1950s.ȱ Theȱ influxȱ ofȱ overȱ 500,000ȱ USȱ troops,ȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ
contractorȱemployees,ȱhundredsȱofȱmillionsȱofȱdollarsȱinȱmilitaryȱandȱcommodityȱaid,ȱ
togetherȱwithȱintenseȱwarfareȱinȱtheȱsouthȱVietnameseȱcountryside,ȱallȱcontributedȱtoȱ
theȱgeneralȱdestructionȱandȱdislocationȱvisitedȱuponȱVietnamȱduringȱtheȱperiod.ȱByȱ
theȱlateȱ1960s,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱwarȱproducedȱapproximatelyȱ4ȱmillionȱVietnameseȱasȱ
refugeesȱ whoȱ fledȱ theȱ warȱ inȱ theȱ countrysideȱ andȱ eitherȱ movedȱ intoȱ theȱ congestedȱ
andȱ chaoticȱ urbanȱ environmentȱ orȱ intoȱ refugeeȱ campsȱ builtȱ byȱ theȱ Americansȱ toȱ
receiveȱtheȱgrowingȱinflux.ȱManyȱVietnameseȱvillagesȱandȱfarmlandsȱwereȱdestroyedȱ
byȱ bombing,ȱ warfare,ȱ andȱ byȱ defoliantsȱ designedȱ toȱ destroyȱ vegetationȱ andȱ exposeȱ
theȱenemy.ȱManyȱrefugeesȱfledȱtheseȱcollectionȱcentresȱandȱreturnedȱtoȱtheirȱvillagesȱ
onlyȱtoȱfindȱthemȱdestroyedȱand/orȱdeserted.ȱ
Theȱ increasedȱ warfareȱ alsoȱ ledȱ toȱ aȱ generalȱ publicȱ healthȱ crisis.ȱ Noȱ
infrastructureȱ existedȱ toȱ contendȱ withȱ thisȱ outcome.ȱ Casesȱ ofȱ choleraȱ spreadȱ fromȱ
onlyȱaȱfewȱhundredȱinȱ1963ȱtoȱmoreȱthanȱ20,000ȱbyȱ1965.ȱObserversȱcommentedȱonȱ
theȱlackȱofȱsanitation,ȱcleanȱwaterȱandȱreliableȱmedicalȱcareȱwithinȱtheȱcampȱsystem.ȱ
Littleȱorȱnoȱworkȱcouldȱbeȱfoundȱforȱthoseȱhousedȱthere.ȱOverȱtheȱnextȱfewȱyears,ȱtheȱ
warȱclaimedȱ100,000ȱcivilianȱcasualtiesȱannually.ȱByȱ1968,ȱanȱestimatedȱ30,000Ȭ50,000ȱ
amputeesȱ awaitedȱ prostheticsȱ thatȱ mostȱ neverȱ received.ȱ Anotherȱ 50,000ȱ orȱ moreȱ
civilianȱwarȱvictimsȱdiedȱeachȱyearȱbeforeȱreachingȱunderstaffed,ȱunderȱfundedȱandȱ
overcrowdedȱhospitals.ȱAnȱinvestigationȱbyȱDr.ȱJohnȱH.ȱKnowles,ȱsuperintendentȱofȱ
Massachusettsȱ Generalȱ Hospital,ȱ foundȱ thatȱ nearlyȱ oneȬthirdȱ ofȱ theȱ Vietnameseȱ
peopleȱ contractedȱ tuberculosis,ȱ 80%ȱ sufferedȱ fromȱ ‘wormsȱ ofȱ oneȱ sortȱ orȱ another’ȱ
andȱ thatȱ theȱ regimeȱ inȱ Saigonȱ onȱ whoseȱ behalfȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ fought,ȱ ‘spend[s]ȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
57
lessȱthanȱoneȱpercentȱofȱ[its]ȱbudgetȱonȱhealthȱservices,ȱlessȱthanȱanyȱcountryȱ–ȱwithȱ
orȱwithoutȱwar.’64ȱMuchȱofȱVietnamȱwasȱinȱtatters.ȱ
Theȱ economy,ȱ byȱ nowȱ entirelyȱ dependentȱ uponȱ continuedȱ USȱ aid,ȱ
haemorrhagedȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱlargeȱscaleȱwarfare.ȱInflationȱsoared,ȱwithȱtheȱcostȱ
ofȱlivingȱgrowingȱbyȱ74%ȱinȱ1966ȱalone.ȱTheȱpriceȱofȱfood,ȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱsingleȱ
costȱ inȱ aȱ Vietnameseȱ family’sȱ budget,ȱ alsoȱ roseȱ 70%.ȱ Theȱ Saigonȱ regime’sȱ taxȱ baseȱ
wasȱ minimalȱ andȱ couldȱ notȱ beginȱ toȱ payȱ forȱ itself,ȱ withȱ incomeȱ taxesȱ neverȱ
amountingȱ toȱ evenȱ 10%ȱ ofȱ theȱ budget.ȱ Theȱ cityȱ ofȱ Saigonȱ collectedȱ 14%ȱ ofȱ itsȱ totalȱ
revenueȱ fromȱ nightclubsȱ andȱ barsȱ patronizedȱ overwhelminglyȱ byȱ theȱ Americans.ȱ
Corruptionȱ wasȱ commonplaceȱ andȱ grandȱ inȱ scale.ȱ Officialsȱ ofȱ theȱ regime,ȱ
businessmen,ȱ USȱ servicemenȱ andȱ thoseȱ clandestineȱ operatorsȱ onȱ theȱ thrivingȱ blackȱ
marketȱ fleecedȱ theȱ USȱ aidȱ programmeȱ forȱ countlessȱ millionsȱ eachȱ year.65ȱ Yet,ȱ theȱ
scaleȱ ofȱ warȱ madeȱ continuingȱ thisȱ alreadyȱ alarminglyȱ ineffectiveȱ andȱ costlyȱ
programmeȱnecessary.ȱ
Whileȱ theȱ enormousȱ militaryȱ constructionȱ programmeȱ hadȱ merelyȱ madeȱ
southernȱ Vietnamȱ militarilyȱ defendable,ȱ itȱ simplyȱ exacerbatedȱ whatȱ wereȱ alreadyȱ
deepȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ politicalȱ problems.ȱ Thoseȱ Vietnameseȱ workingȱ forȱ theȱ
Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ hadȱ beenȱ trainedȱ forȱ jobsȱ theyȱ wouldȱ neverȱ occupyȱ onceȱ theȱ
Americansȱ hadȱ goneȱ becauseȱ theȱ nationȱ ofȱ ‘Southȱ Vietnam’ȱ hadȱ neverȱ andȱ wouldȱ
neverȱ materialize.ȱ Theȱ warȱ couldȱ neverȱ addressȱ orȱ remedyȱ theȱ mostȱ difficultȱ
problemsȱfacingȱtheȱAmericanȱeffortȱbelowȱtheȱseventeenthȱparallel.ȱ‘SouthȱVietnam’ȱ
grewȱoutȱofȱtheȱsomewhatȱarbitraryȱGenevaȱsettlementȱofȱ1954.ȱSupposedȱtoȱbeȱonlyȱ
temporary,ȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱneverthelessȱattemptedȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱdivisionȱpermanentȱ
andȱ toȱ buildȱ theȱ newȱ nationȱ asȱ aȱ nonȬcommunistȱ bulwarkȱ inȱ Southeastȱ Asia.ȱ Theȱ
difficultiesȱ inȱ doingȱ soȱ wereȱ alwaysȱ farȱ moreȱ politicalȱ thanȱ military.ȱ Politicalȱ
problemsȱ provedȱ intractableȱ and,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ onlyȱ worsenedȱ asȱ theȱ yearsȱ passed.ȱ
Answeringȱ thoseȱ problemsȱ withȱ anȱ enormousȱ militaryȱ constructionȱ buildȬup,ȱ theȱ
‘Americanization’ȱofȱtheȱwholeȱprogrammeȱandȱtheȱlaunchingȱofȱmajorȱwarȱdidȱlittleȱ
toȱ changeȱ that,ȱ despiteȱ theȱ nearȱ totalȱ physicalȱ transformationȱ ofȱ southernȱ Vietnamȱ
whichȱoccurredȱinȱtheȱprocess.ȱ
ȱ
FollowingȱtheȱTetȱOffensiveȱofȱearlyȱ1968,ȱUSȱpolicymakersȱbeganȱlookingȱforȱwaysȱ
toȱ endȱ theȱ tragicȱ andȱ failedȱ involvementȱ inȱ Vietnamȱ asȱ aȱ meansȱ ofȱ restoringȱ theȱ
nation’sȱvauntedȱroleȱinȱtheȱworld.ȱLyndonȱJohnson’sȱsuccessor,ȱRichardȱM.ȱNixon,ȱ
alsoȱ viewedȱ theȱ salvagingȱ ofȱ Americanȱ credibilityȱ inȱ theȱ worldȱ asȱ amongȱ hisȱ mostȱ
importantȱtasks.66ȱAfterȱ1968,ȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱmovedȱinȱthisȱdirection,ȱdramaticallyȱ
reducingȱitsȱdirectȱmilitaryȱroleȱtoȱfewerȱthanȱ50,000ȱbyȱsummerȱ1972.ȱTheȱwarȱitselfȱ
finallyȱcameȱtoȱanȱendȱinȱJanuaryȱ1973,ȱwithȱtheȱtotalȱwithdrawalȱofȱallȱUSȱforces.ȱTheȱ
Vietnamȱ Buildersȱ sharplyȱ drewȱ downȱ theirȱ ownȱ operationsȱ andȱ theȱ decadeȬlongȱ
contractȱcameȱtoȱanȱendȱinȱtheȱsummerȱofȱ1972.ȱRecognizingȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱcontractȱ
andȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ anȱ epicȱ constructionȱ programme,ȱ theȱ contract’sȱ leadȱ sponsor,ȱ
MorrisonȬKnudsen,ȱ opined,ȱ ‘thereȱ areȱ noȱ moreȱ pyramidsȱ toȱ build.ȱ Weȱ haveȱ justȱ
completedȱ theȱ largestȱ constructionȱ effortȱ inȱ history.’67ȱ Theȱ author,ȱ MorrisonȬ
Knudsen’sȱformerȱGeneralȱManagerȱforȱSaigonȱoperations,ȱfailedȱtoȱrecognizeȱthatȱasȱ
heȱ wroteȱ thoseȱ words,ȱ theȱ warȱ tooȱ wasȱ rapidlyȱ comingȱ toȱ anȱ end,ȱ albeitȱ anȱ
unsuccessfulȱ oneȱ forȱ theȱ Unitedȱ States.ȱ Despiteȱ thatȱ ‘largestȱ constructionȱ effortȱ inȱ
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history,’ȱ andȱ maybeȱ inȱ partȱ becauseȱ ofȱ it,ȱ theȱ manyȱ yearsȱ ofȱ nationȱ buildingȱ inȱ
southernȱVietnamȱhadȱendedȱinȱfailureȱandȱtheȱcollapseȱofȱtheȱentireȱproject.ȱ
TheȱVietnamȱBuilders,ȱdespiteȱtheȱenormousȱeffortȱandȱphysicalȱtransformationȱ
ofȱsouthernȱVietnam,ȱwereȱneverȱableȱtoȱovercomeȱVietnameseȱnationalismȱandȱtheȱ
popularityȱandȱpersistenceȱofȱtheȱinsurgency.ȱTheyȱcouldȱnotȱmakeȱ‘SouthȱVietnam’ȱaȱ
reality.ȱ ȱ Theyȱ encounteredȱ theȱ problemsȱ thatȱ hadȱ doggedȱ theȱ entireȱ USȱ effortȱ overȱ
manyȱyears.ȱMassiveȱconstructionȱprojects,ȱaȱlargeȱmilitaryȱeffort,ȱandȱtheȱimpositionȱ
ofȱvariousȱfeaturesȱofȱUSȱcultureȱcouldȱneverȱsucceedȱwithoutȱpopularȱsupportȱandȱ
widespreadȱlegitimacyȱamongȱtheȱpeople.ȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
59
NOTESȱ
ȱJamesȱDobbins,ȱetȱal.,ȱAmerica’sȱRoleȱinȱNationȱBuildingȱFromȱGermanyȱtoȱIraq,ȱRANDȱCorporation,ȱ
SantaȱMonica,ȱ2003.ȱȱ
2ȱFollowingȱtheȱVietnameseȱvictoryȱinȱtheȱFirstȱIndochinaȱWarȱbetweenȱtheȱVietnameseȱandȱtheȱ
Frenchȱinȱ1954,ȱaȱconferenceȱheldȱinȱGenevaȱinȱthatȱyearȱproducedȱaȱsettlementȱtemporarilyȱdividingȱ
Vietnamȱatȱtheȱ17thȱparallel,ȱwithȱnationalȱelectionsȱtoȱfollowȱinȱ1956ȱtoȱreunifyȱtheȱcountry.ȱSeeȱ‘Foreignȱ
RelationsȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱ(FRUS),ȱ1952Ȭ1954,ȱv.ȱXIII,ȱIndochina,ȱ1828Ȭ1834’.ȱGeorgeȱC.ȱHerring,ȱ‘‘Aȱ
GoodȱStoutȱEffort’:ȱJohnȱFosterȱDullesȱandȱtheȱIndochinaȱCrisis,ȱ1954Ȭ1955,’ȱinȱRichardȱImmerman,ȱetȱal.,ȱ
JohnȱFosterȱDullesȱandȱtheȱDiplomacyȱofȱtheȱColdȱWar,ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱNewȱJersey,ȱ1990,ȱpp.213Ȭ
34.ȱ
3ȱGeorgeȱMcT.ȱKahin,ȱIntervention:ȱHowȱAmericaȱBecameȱInvolvedȱinȱVietnam,ȱAnchorȱBooks,ȱNewȱ
York,ȱ1987,ȱpp.310Ȭ1.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱMcNamaraȱaidȱJohnȱMcNaughtonȱrankedȱtheȱfactorsȱcallingȱforȱ
greaterȱAmericanȱinterventionȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱorder:ȱ70%,ȱ‘toȱavoidȱaȱhumiliatingȱdefeat,’ȱ20%,ȱtoȱkeepȱ
theȱterritoryȱoutȱofȱ‘Chineseȱhands,’ȱandȱonlyȱ10%,ȱtoȱ‘permitȱtheȱpeople…ȱtoȱenjoyȱaȱbetter,ȱfreerȱwayȱofȱ
life.’ȱPaperȱPreparedȱbyȱtheȱAssistantȱSecretaryȱofȱDefenseȱforȱInternationalȱSecurityȱAffairsȱ
(McNaughton),ȱMarchȱ10,ȱ1965,ȱFRUS,ȱv.ȱII,ȱ1965,ȱpp.427Ȭ32.ȱSeeȱalsoȱTheȱPentagonȱPapers,ȱGravelȱ
Edition,ȱv.ȱIII,ȱ(henceforthȱPP)ȱpp.423Ȭ6ȱforȱaȱgeneralȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱsituationȱinȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱȱ
4ȱAgencyȱforȱInternationalȱDevelopmentȱ(AID)ȱAdministrativeȱHistory,ȱLyndonȱBainesȱJohnsonȱ
PresidentialȱLibraryȱ(LBJL),ȱp.424.ȱUnitedȱStatesȱEconomicȱAssistanceȱtoȱSouthȱVietnam,ȱ1954Ȭ1975,ȱ
(henceforthȱUSEASV),ȱAID,ȱv.ȱII,ȱp.408.ȱCarrollȱH.ȱDunn,ȱBaseȱDevelopmentȱinȱSouthȱVietnam,ȱ1965Ȭ1970,ȱ
DepartmentȱofȱtheȱArmy,ȱWashingtonȱD.C,ȱ1972,ȱpp.7Ȭ12.ȱ
5ȱAnȱInvestigationȱofȱtheȱUSȱEconomicȱandȱMilitaryȱAssistanceȱProgrammesȱinȱVietnam,ȱOctoberȱ12,ȱ
1966,ȱHouseȱofȱRepresentatives,ȱ89thȱCongress,ȱ2ndȱsession,ȱReportȱNo.ȱ2257,ȱp.64.ȱSeeȱalso,ȱ
‘MemorandumȱforȱMr.ȱRobertȱKomer,ȱSubject:ȱReportȱofȱSpecialȱMissionȱ–ȱPortȱofȱSaigon,ȱVietnam’,ȱ14ȱ
Juneȱ1966,ȱNationalȱSecurityȱFileȱ(NSF),ȱKomerȬLeonhartȱFile,ȱBoxȱ20,ȱLBJL.ȱ
6ȱA.H.ȱLahlum,ȱ‘DiaryȱofȱaȱContract’,ȱSaigon,ȱJulyȱ1967,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers,ȱp.22.ȱOriginally,ȱtheȱ
privateȱconsortiumȱconsistedȱofȱRaymondȱInternationalȱandȱMorrisonȬKnudsen.ȱInȱAugust,ȱ1965,ȱBrownȱ
andȱRootȱandȱJ.ȱA.ȱJonesȱConstructionȱwereȱbothȱaddedȱinȱorderȱtoȱgainȱgreaterȱreachȱandȱaccessȱtoȱ
greaterȱresourcesȱcommensurateȱwithȱanȱexpandedȱAmericanȱmilitaryȱroleȱandȱrelatedȱconstructionȱ
needsȱinȱVietnam.ȱAllȱdocumentsȱreferredȱtoȱasȱRMKȬBRJȱPapersȱwereȱobtainedȱfromȱtheȱcompaniesȱ
involvedȱandȱcameȱinȱnoȱdiscernableȱorderȱorȱarrangement.ȱTheyȱareȱallȱinȱtheȱauthor’sȱpossession.ȱ
7ȱContractȱNo.ȱNByȬ44105,ȱ‘RaymondȬMorrisonȬKnudsenȱJointȱVentureȱContractorȱforȱAirfieldsȱandȱ
CommunicationsȱFacilities,ȱVietnam,’ȱUSȱNavyȱBureauȱofȱYardsȱandȱDocks,ȱ19ȱJanuary,ȱ1962,ȱRMKȬBRJȱ
Papers.ȱ
8ȱ‘MilitaryȱConstructionȱinȱSouthȱVietnam,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan:ȱMagazineȱofȱMorrisonȬKnudsenȱCo.,ȱ
Novemberȱ1963:ȱpp.8Ȭ9,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱCaptainȱCharlesȱJ.ȱMerdinger,ȱ‘CivilȱEngineers,ȱSeabees,ȱandȱ
BasesȱinȱVietnam,’ȱUSȱNavalȱInstituteȱProceedings,ȱNo.ȱ807ȱ(Mayȱ1970),ȱp.261.ȱTheȱrateȱofȱworkȱtakingȱ
placeȱwasȱmeasuredȱonȱaȱworkȬinȬplaceȬperȬmonthȱbasisȱ(WIP).ȱAtȱtheȱendȱofȱ1964,ȱtheȱWIPȱfigureȱstoodȱ
atȱ$1.7ȱmillion.ȱByȱtheȱnextȱspring,ȱitȱhadȱleaptȱtoȱoverȱ$4ȱmillion.ȱAsȱplansȱforȱexpansionȱcontinued,ȱtheȱ
amountȱofȱworkȱexpanded,ȱtoȱanȱeventualȱpeakȱofȱmoreȱthanȱ$65ȱmillionȱWIP.ȱ
9ȱTheȱVietnameseȱworkforceȱwasȱincreasedȱfromȱ4,900ȱtoȱ11,000,ȱaȱleapȱofȱnearlyȱ125%.ȱAsȱofȱApril,ȱ
1965,ȱaccordingȱtoȱA.H.ȱLahlum’sȱ‘DiaryȱofȱaȱContract’ȱ(citedȱabove),ȱ‘everyȱdayȱsomeȱnewȱandȱbiggerȱ
phaseȱofȱworkȱwasȱreceivedȱandȱnoȱdiminishingȱofȱthisȱtrendȱwasȱforeseen,’ȱA.H.ȱLahlum,ȱpp.27Ȭ28.ȱ
‘WorkȱIncreasesȱasȱWarȱExpands,’ȱEngineeringȱNewsȬRecord,ȱ13ȱMayȱ1965,ȱpp.25Ȭ28.ȱ‘Constructionȱ
ExpandsȱinȱSouthȱVietȱNam,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱJuneȱ1965,ȱp.7,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱ
10ȱJohnȱMecklin,ȱ‘BuildingȱbyȱtheȱBillionȱinȱVietnam,’ȱFortune,ȱSeptemberȱ1966,ȱp.114.ȱ
11ȱLetterȱfromȱMorrisonȬKnudsenȱtoȱRaymondȱIntl.,ȱBrownȱandȱRootȱandȱJ.ȱA.ȱJones,ȱ‘JointȱVentureȱ
Agreement,’ȱ16ȱAugustȱ1965;ȱLetterȱfromȱLymanȱWilburȱ(MorrisonȬKnudsen)ȱtoȱH.C.ȱBoschenȱ
(RaymondȱInternational,ȱInc.),ȱ25ȱAugustȱ1965,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱDunn,ȱp.27.ȱLieutenantȱDavidȱL.ȱ
Browne,ȱ‘DustȱandȱMudȱandȱtheȱVietȱCong,’ȱUSȱNavalȱInstituteȱProceedings,ȱNo.ȱ811ȱ(Sept.ȱ1970),ȱpp.53Ȭ
57.ȱCommanderȱW.D.ȱMiddleton,ȱ‘SeabeesȱinȱVietnam,’ȱUSȱNavalȱInstituteȱProceedings,ȱNo.ȱ774ȱ(Aug.ȱ
1967),ȱpp.55Ȭ64.ȱ
12ȱTheȱcontractȱwasȱconvertedȱtoȱaȱcostȬplusȬawardȬfeeȱtypeȱarrangementȱinȱlateȱspring,ȱ1966.ȱ
SupplementalȱAgreementȱNo.ȱ3ȱtoȱContractȱNByȱ44105,ȱ25ȱMayȱ1966,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱ
13ȱNationalȱSecurityȱActionȱMemorandumȱ(NSAM)ȱȬ328,ȱAprilȱ6,ȱ1965,ȱFRUS,ȱv.ȱII,ȱ1965,ȱ537Ȭ539.ȱPP,ȱ
v.ȱIII,ȱpp.447Ȭ8.ȱ
1
60
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14ȱPP,ȱv.ȱIII,ȱpp.436Ȭ40ȱandȱ705Ȭ706.ȱRobertȱBuzzanco,ȱMastersȱofȱWar,ȱCambridge:ȱ
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996,ȱp.207.ȱLarryȱBerman,ȱPlanningȱaȱTragedy:ȱTheȱAmericanizationȱofȱtheȱ
WarȱinȱVietnam,ȱNortonȱandȱCompany,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ1982,ȱpp.58Ȭ62.ȱ
15ȱTheseȱtroopȱincreasesȱwereȱnot,ȱofȱcourse,ȱwithoutȱcontroversyȱandȱheatedȱdebateȱamongȱtheȱ
principals.ȱTheȱpresident,ȱinȱparticular,ȱrecognizedȱthatȱsendingȱlargeȱnumbersȱofȱAmericanȱtroopsȱtoȱ
Vietnamȱearlyȱinȱtheȱyearȱwouldȱcertainlyȱhighlightȱchangesȱinȱpolicyȱthatȱwasȱkeenȱtoȱkeepȱquiet,ȱandȱ
wouldȱalsoȱserveȱasȱaȱlighteningȱrodȱforȱcriticsȱinȱtheȱcongressȱwhoseȱsupportȱwasȱbeingȱcarefullyȱ
cultivatedȱduringȱtheseȱweeksȱandȱmonths.ȱSeeȱPP,ȱv.ȱIII,ȱpp.330Ȭ2ȱandȱ354.ȱRandallȱBennettȱWoods,ȱ
Fulbright:ȱAȱBiography,ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ1995,ȱchapterȱ19.ȱ
16ȱMcNamaraȱcontinuedȱinȱthisȱmemorandum,ȱ‘Underȱnoȱcircumstancesȱisȱlackȱofȱmoneyȱtoȱstandȱinȱ
theȱwayȱofȱaidȱtoȱthatȱnation.’ȱEachȱyearȱbeginningȱinȱ1965,ȱMcNamaraȱwentȱbeforeȱcongressȱtoȱaskȱforȱ
militaryȱspendingȱsupplementsȱforȱVietnam.ȱThroughȱthisȱdevice,ȱmuchȱofȱtheȱincreasedȱspendingȱonȱ
Vietnamȱcouldȱbeȱkeptȱoffȱtheȱofficialȱbudgetȱand,ȱthus,ȱbeyondȱpublicȱandȱcongressionalȱscrutiny.ȱ
LeonardȱB.ȱTaylor,ȱFinancialȱManagementȱofȱtheȱVietnamȱConflict,ȱ1962Ȭ1972.ȱDepartmentȱofȱtheȱArmy,ȱ
WashingtonȱD.C,ȱ1974,ȱpp.17Ȭ19.ȱSeeȱalso,ȱPP,ȱv.ȱIII,ȱ474Ȭ5.ȱSupplementalȱMilitaryȱProcurementȱandȱ
ConstructionȱAuthorizations,ȱFiscalȱYearȱ1966,ȱCommitteeȱonȱArmedȱServicesȱHearings,ȱUSȱSenate,ȱ2ndȱ
Session,ȱ89thȱCongress,ȱJanuaryȱ–ȱFebruary,ȱ1966.ȱ
17ȱInterestingly,ȱHanoiȱofficialsȱandȱtheirȱChineseȱalliesȱhadȱalreadyȱanticipatedȱtheseȱlatestȱmovesȱonȱ
theȱpartȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱStates.ȱHanoiȱaskedȱforȱChineseȱaidȱinȱbuildingȱitsȱownȱinfrastructureȱinȱ
preparationȱforȱwar.ȱTheȱChineseȱassented,ȱsendingȱdozensȱofȱthousandsȱofȱengineeringȱtroopsȱintoȱ
northernȱVietnamȱduringȱearlyȬȱtoȱmidȬ1965.ȱTheyȱbeganȱimmediatelyȱbuildingȱroads,ȱbridges,ȱbaseȱ
areas,ȱandȱsoȱon.ȱByȱtheȱtimeȱtheȱlastȱtheseȱChineseȱunitsȱleftȱnorthernȱVietnamȱinȱsummer,ȱ1970,ȱtheyȱ
hadȱcompletedȱhundredsȱofȱmilesȱofȱnewȱrailwayȱandȱrepairedȱhundredsȱofȱmilesȱofȱoldȱlines,ȱbuiltȱ
dozensȱofȱbridgesȱandȱtunnels,ȱandȱestablishedȱmanyȱnewȱrailwayȱstations.ȱDespiteȱsuchȱaid,ȱNorthȱ
VietnamȱkeptȱitsȱChineseȱbenefactorsȱatȱarm’sȱlength.ȱTheȱkeyȱdifferenceȱinȱHanoiȱduringȱtheseȱyears,ȱ
accordingȱtoȱhistorianȱChenȱJianȱwasȱthatȱ‘CommunistȱNorthȱVietnamȱwasȱaȱmuchȱmoreȱmature,ȱ
independent,ȱandȱselfȬconfidentȱinternationalȱactorȱthanȱtheȱVietȱMinhȱhadȱbeenȱduringȱtheȱFirstȱ
IndochinaȱWar.’ȱChenȱJian,ȱMao’sȱChinaȱandȱtheȱColdȱWar,ȱUniversityȱofȱNorthȱCarolinaȱPress,ȱChapelȱ
Hill,ȱ2001,ȱpp.221Ȭ3.ȱ
18ȱJohnȱPrados,ȱTheȱHiddenȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱVietnamȱWar,ȱIvanȱR.ȱDee,ȱChicago,ȱ1995,ȱpp.102Ȭ10.ȱ
19ȱThisȱfigureȱexcludesȱmilitaryȱaidȱandȱallocationsȱforȱtheȱmilitaryȱconstructionȱprogramme.ȱItȱ
includesȱtheȱCIP,ȱFoodȱForȱPeaceȱProgramme,ȱProjectȱAid,ȱandȱtheȱcostȱofȱPiasterȱpurchases.ȱSeeȱAID,ȱ
UnitedȱStatesȱEconomicȱAssistanceȱtoȱSouthȱVietȱNam,ȱ1954Ȭ1975,ȱTerminalȱReport,ȱDecemberȱ31,ȱ1975.ȱ
20ȱ‘USȱAllyȱinȱVietnam:ȱCivilȱWorks,’ȱEngineeringȱNewsȬRecord,ȱMayȱ5,ȱ1966:ȱpp.15Ȭ17.ȱ
21ȱ‘ConstructionȱEscalatesȱinȱVietnam,’ȱEngineeringȱNewsȬRecord,ȱFebruaryȱ3,ȱ1966,ȱpp.11Ȭ14.ȱPrados,ȱ
p.108.ȱ
22ȱDunn,ȱpp.38Ȭ40ȱandȱ63.ȱ
23ȱLahlum,ȱpp.ȱ91Ȭ122.ȱ
24ȱPaulȱD.ȱHarder,ȱ‘Vietnamȱ–ȱParadoxȱofȱConstructionȱandȱDestruction,’ȱPowerȱParade,ȱv.ȱ20,ȱNo.ȱ2,ȱ
1967,ȱp.6.ȱForȱaȱlistingȱofȱtheȱ‘nineȱprincipalȱports’ȱinȱsouthernȱVietnamȱandȱestimatedȱcapacityȱ
requirementsȱforȱeach,ȱseeȱMemorandumȱforȱtheȱAssistantȱSecretaryȱofȱDefenseȱ(InternationalȱSecurityȱ
Affairs),ȱ23ȱSeptemberȱ1965,ȱNSF,ȱKomerȬLeonhartȱFile,ȱBoxȱ20,ȱLBJL.ȱ
25ȱ‘ConstructionȱEscalatesȱinȱVietnam,’ȱp.11.ȱ
26ȱ‘VietȱNam:ȱBuildingȱforȱBattle,ȱBuildingȱforȱPeace,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱSeptemberȱ1966:ȱ8Ȭ11,ȱRMKȬBRJȱ
Papers.ȱDiaryȱofȱaȱContract,ȱpp.77ȱandȱ87Ȭ89,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱH.W.ȱMorrison,ȱ‘Chairman’sȱMemo:ȱ
Productiveȱ1965ȱIsȱPacesetterȱforȱ1966,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱMayȱ1966,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱ1966ȱAnnualȱReport,ȱ
ForeignȱOperations,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱ‘ConstructionȱEscalatesȱinȱVietnam,’ȱp.12.ȱ
27ȱLahlum,ȱp.135.
28ȱibid.ȱȱ
29ȱTheȱVietnameseȱlanguageȱversionȱofȱtheȱperiodicalȱcirculatedȱ34,000ȱcopiesȱperȱprintingȱwhileȱtheȱ
Englishȱlanguageȱversionȱcirculatedȱ12,000ȱcopiesȱperȱprinting.ȱLahlum,ȱpp.139ȱandȱ143.ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱ
Builders,ȱSeptemberȱ1,ȱ1966,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱp.ȱ8.ȱ
30ȱAlthough,ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱMorrisonȬKnudsen’sȱchairman,ȱH.W.ȱMorrison,ȱsharplyȱcriticizedȱ
thoseȱatȱhomeȱwhoȱspokeȱoutȱagainstȱtheȱwarȱinȱVietnam.ȱInȱJuly,ȱ1966,ȱheȱwroteȱinȱtheȱcompany’sȱ
magazineȱofȱ‘aȱcertainȱfewȱpeopleȱinȱourȱownȱcountryȱ[who]ȱerodeȱtheȱmoraleȱofȱourȱfightingȱmenȱandȱ
weakenȱnationalȱresolveȱbyȱtheirȱwordsȱandȱdeeds.’ȱHeȱcontinued,ȱ‘howȱdisconcertingȱitȱisȱthatȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
61
televisionȱandȱnewspapersȱtendȱtoȱgiveȱcontinuingȱprominenceȱtoȱtheȱactionsȱofȱaȱfewȱheadlineȬseekingȱ
studentsȱandȱvociferousȱpoliticians,ȱtherebyȱdepictingȱourȱnationȱtoȱpeopleȱabroadȱasȱaȱlandȱdividedȱofȱ
purposeȱandȱdirection.ȱItȱisȱaȱsadȱcommentary,ȱindeed,ȱwhenȱoneȱbeardedȱstudentȱwhoȱburnsȱaȱdraftȱ
cardȱcanȱreceiveȱtheȱfullȱattentionȱofȱnewsȱmediaȱwhileȱmillionsȱofȱtrueȱAmericansȱmustȱgoȱunnoticedȱ
becauseȱtheyȱareȱsoȱuninteresting,ȱsoȱoldȬfashionedȱandȱsoȱrighteousȱthatȱtheyȱstillȱflyȱtheȱflagȱandȱ
wouldȱwillinglyȱlayȱdownȱtheirȱlivesȱforȱtheirȱcountry.’ȱH.W.ȱMorrison,ȱ‘Subject:ȱSteadfastȱAmericaȱCanȱ
WinȱinȱVietȱNam,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱVol.ȱ25,ȱNo.ȱ5,ȱJuly,ȱ1966.ȱ
31ȱAȱfewȱtitlesȱillustrateȱtheȱpoint:ȱ‘BarberȱRemembersȱtheȱMane;ȱMeetsȱFormerȱPateȬronsȱInȱVN,’ȱ
‘CurfewȱCurtailsȱOGNȱGalaȱDance,’ȱ‘‘King’ȱKhang:ȱTopȱVNȱSurveyor,’ȱallȱinȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱ
I,ȱNo.ȱ15.ȱ‘R.ȱAdm.ȱHusbandȱPraisesȱOICCȬJointȱVentureȱTeam,’ȱ‘ProjectȱNo.ȱ1ȱ–ȱItȱNeedsȱYourȱHelp,’ȱ
‘QuiȱNhonȱ–ȱAnotherȱPortȱReadyȱforȱBusiness,’ȱ‘VNȱEmployee,ȱ52,ȱPerformsȱAquabaticsȱforȱSaigonȱ
RiverȱMarineȱProjects,’ȱallȱinȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱNovemberȱ1,ȱ1966,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ19.ȱ
32ȱ‘TrimȱForcesȱforȱFast,ȱSmallȬScaleȱWork,’ȱinȱConstructionȱEquipmentȱandȱMaterialsȱMagazine,ȱJune,ȱ
1966.ȱ
33ȱ‘RMKȬBRJȱStartsȱStudentȱCoȬOpȱTrainingȱProgramme,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱ
Septemberȱ1,ȱ1966,ȱp.1.ȱ
34ȱDiaryȱofȱaȱContract,ȱpp.148ȱandȱ153.ȱ‘WorkȱIncreasesȱasȱWarȱExpands,’ȱEngineeringȱNewsȬRecord,ȱ
Mayȱ13,ȱ1965.ȱȱ
35ȱTheȱdocumentaryȱrecordȱisȱrepleteȱwithȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱperennialȱproblemȱofȱinsufficientȱlabourȱ
inȱbothȱnumericalȱtermsȱandȱinȱtermsȱofȱquality.ȱThereȱare,ȱinȱaddition,ȱaȱnumberȱofȱreferencesȱtoȱstrikes,ȱ
riotsȱandȱinsurgentȱactivityȱamongȱworkersȱwhichȱdisruptedȱtheȱconstructionȱprocess.ȱSee,ȱinterȱalia,ȱ
EvaluationȱofȱContractor’sȱPerformance,ȱ1ȱAprilȱ1966ȱ–ȱ30ȱSeptemberȱ1966,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers,ȱIIIȬbȬ1,ȱVIȬ
cȬ1ȱtoȱVIȬcȬ4..ȱJonesȱConstructionȱCentennial,ȱ154.ȱ‘USȱAllyȱinȱVietnam:ȱCivilȱWorks,’ȱEngineeringȱNewsȬ
Record,ȱMayȱ5,ȱ1966.ȱȱ
36ȱTheȱaverageȱVietnameseȱcarpenter,ȱforȱexample,ȱearnedȱ25ȱpiastersȱperȱhourȱ(aboutȱ$.33).ȱAsȱpartȱ
ofȱtheȱdriveȱtoȱreduceȱtheȱsizeȱofȱtheȱworkforceȱandȱtoȱincreaseȱtheȱnumberȱofȱVietnameseȱsupervisorsȱtoȱ
replaceȱAmericans,ȱRMKȬBRJȱGeneralȱManagerȱJimȱLillyȱbeganȱaȱtrainingȱprogrammeȱtoȱteachȱskillsȱandȱ
offerȱincentivesȱtoȱparticularlyȱtalentedȱandȱhardȱworkingȱVietnamese.ȱTheyȱcould,ȱpotentially,ȱdoubleȱ
theirȱpayȱinȱ24ȱweeksȱafterȱpassingȱaȱseriesȱofȱevaluationsȱandȱtests.ȱLillyȱwasȱoptimistic,ȱpointingȱoutȱ
thatȱtheȱprogrammeȱwouldȱbeȱ‘moreȱextensiveȱthanȱtheȱentireȱcraftsmanshipȱdevelopmentȱprogrammeȱ
ofȱtheȱstateȱofȱCalifornia.’ȱ‘VNȱIncentiveȱProgrammeȱLaunched,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱ1,ȱNo.ȱ19,ȱ
Novemberȱ1,ȱ1966.ȱ
37ȱSeeȱJonesȱConstructionȱCentennial:ȱLookingȱBack,ȱMovingȱForward,ȱLaneyȬSmith,ȱInc.,ȱCharlotte,ȱ1989,ȱ
p.154.ȱSeeȱalsoȱDunn,ȱp.132.ȱȱ
38ȱ‘ConstructionȱofȱMilitaryȱFacilitiesȱbyȱRMKȬBRJȱisȱChangingȱFaceȱofȱSouthȱVietȱNam,’ȱTheȱEmȬ
Kayan,ȱVol.ȱ25,ȱNo.ȱ6,ȱAugust,ȱ1966,ȱpp.12Ȭ13.ȱToȱdate,ȱtheȱBuildersȱhadȱpavedȱ1,260ȱacresȱinȱairfieldsȱ
alone,ȱimportedȱ1,628ȱmilesȱofȱwaterȱpipeȱandȱpouredȱenoughȱcementȱmonthlyȱtoȱpaveȱ35ȱmilesȱofȱfourȬ
laneȱhighway.ȱChairman’sȱMemo,ȱ‘Subject:ȱImpressiveȱAchievementsȱinȱSouthȱVietȱNam,’ȱTheȱEmȬ
Kayan,ȱVol.ȱ25,ȱNo.ȱ10,ȱDecember,ȱ1966,ȱp.1.ȱ
39ȱDiaryȱofȱaȱContract,ȱpp.148ȱandȱ154.ȱ
40ȱ‘MilitaryȱConstructionȱGrowsȱinȱSouthȱVietȱNam,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱMarch,ȱ1966,ȱ3Ȭ6.ȱLieutenantȱ
DavidȱL.ȱBrowne,ȱ‘DustȱandȱMudȱandȱtheȱVietȱCong,’ȱUSȱNavalȱInstituteȱProceeding,ȱNo.ȱ811ȱ(Sept.ȱ1970),ȱ
p.55.ȱ
41ȱPaulȱD.ȱHarder,ȱ‘NewȱSkillsȱforȱtheȱVietnameseȱ–ȱaȱPrimeȱContribution,’ȱTheȱPowerȱParade,ȱVol.ȱ20,ȱ
No.ȱ2,ȱ1967,ȱpp.20Ȭ21.ȱ
42ȱ‘RMKȬBRJȱStartsȱStudentȱCoȬOpȱTrainingȱProgramme,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱ
September,ȱ1966.ȱSeeȱalso,ȱ‘Companyȱ‘Bookies’ȱStackȱBetsȱonȱVNȱFuture,’ȱinȱibid.,ȱ2,ȱandȱ‘VNȱIncentiveȱ
ProgrammeȱLaunched,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ19,ȱNovember,ȱ1966.ȱ
43ȱ‘NewȱRecȱHallȱforȱ3dȱNats.ȱatȱCRB,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱSeptember,ȱ1966,ȱp.4.ȱ
44ȱH.W.ȱMorrison,ȱChairman’sȱMemo:ȱ‘SteadfastȱAmericaȱCanȱWinȱinȱVietȱNam,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱJuly,ȱ
1966.ȱ
45ȱ‘HomeȱinȱtheȱWorkȬShop,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱSeptember,ȱ1966,ȱp.3.ȱ
46ȱ‘‘King’ȱKhang:ȱTopȱSurveyor,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱSeptember,ȱ1966,ȱp.3.ȱ
47ȱ‘VNȱEmployee,ȱ52,ȱPerformsȱAquabaticsȱforȱSaigonȱRiverȱMarineȱProjects,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱ
Vol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ19,ȱNovember,ȱ1966,ȱp.3.ȱ
48ȱCaption:ȱ‘AbeytaȱandȱhisȱProtégé,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱSeptember,ȱ1966,ȱp.7.ȱ
62
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49ȱ‘SaigonȱGirlsȱWereȱ‘SecretariesȱAtȬLarge’,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ24,ȱJanuary,ȱ1967.ȱ
‘WarmingȱUpȱtheȱJob,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ24,ȱJanuary,ȱ1967.ȱ‘PileȬDriverȱEscapesȱVCȱ
Grenade,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ19,ȱNovember,ȱ1966.ȱ‘EmployeesȱRoutȱPhuȱCatȱTerrorists,’ȱ
TheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱII,ȱNo.ȱ6,ȱJuly,ȱ1967.ȱ‘PhuȱCattersȱStretchȱFundsȱ59ȱMiles,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱ
Builders,ȱVol.ȱII,ȱNo.ȱ6,ȱJuly,ȱ1967.ȱ
50ȱ‘WorkȱIncreasesȱasȱWarȱExpands,’ȱEngineeringȱNewȬRecord,ȱMayȱ13,ȱ1965,ȱp.27.ȱSeeȱalso,ȱMikeȱ
Spronck,ȱ‘TheȱConstructionȱWar,’ȱConstructionȱEquipmentȱandȱMaterialsȱMagazine,ȱJune,ȱ1966,ȱp.129.ȱ
51ȱ‘GalleryȱofȱCharmȱinȱSouthȱVietȱNamȱConstructionȱOffices,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱSeptember,ȱ1965,ȱp.12.ȱ
52ȱ‘ConstructionȱofȱMilitaryȱFacilitiesȱbyȱRMKȬBRJȱisȱChangingȱFaceȱofȱSouthȱVietȱNam,’ȱTheȱEmȬ
Kayan,ȱAugust,ȱ1966,ȱpp.12Ȭ13.ȱ
53ȱ‘2ȬDayȱStrikeȱatȱLongȱBinh,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ15,ȱSeptember,ȱ1966,ȱp.8.ȱLahlum,ȱ
pp.153ȱandȱ159.ȱ‘TerroristȱMineȱSinksȱDredgeȱatȱMyȱTho,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱI,ȱNo.ȱ24,ȱJanuary,ȱ
1967.ȱ
54ȱEvaluationȱofȱContractor’sȱPerformance,ȱ1ȱAprilȱ1966ȱ–ȱ30ȱSeptemberȱ1966,ȱVIȬcȬ2,ȱTheȱRMKȬBRJȱ
Papers.ȱ
55ȱEvaluationȱofȱContractor’sȱPerformance,ȱIIIȬbȬ2ȱ–ȱIIIȬbȬ3.ȱ
56ȱEvaluationȱofȱContractor’sȱPerformance,ȱVIȬcȬ3ȱ–ȱVIȬcȬ4.ȱȱ
57ȱ‘ContractȱTopsȱ$1ȱBillionȱMark,’ȱTheȱVietȬNamȱBuilders,ȱVol.ȱII,ȱNo.ȱ6,ȱJulyȱ15,ȱ1967.ȱ
58ȱLahlum,ȱp.165.ȱ
59ȱibid.,ȱp.167.ȱ
60ȱAllenȱJ.ȱMatusow,ȱTheȱUnravelingȱofȱAmerica:ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱLiberalismȱinȱtheȱ1960s,ȱNewȱYork,ȱHarperȱ
andȱRow,ȱ1984,ȱchapterȱ6.ȱ
61ȱAtȱleastȱinȱmonetaryȱterms,ȱtheseȱprojectsȱrepresentedȱlessȱthanȱhalfȱtheȱvalueȱofȱallȱworkȱputȱinȱ
placeȱduringȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱcontract.ȱThereȱwereȱliterallyȱhundredsȱofȱlargeȱconstructionȱprojectsȱ
underwayȱsimultaneouslyȱallȱoverȱsouthernȱVietnam.ȱSee,ȱforȱexample,ȱLetterȱfromȱBrownȱandȱRootȱtoȱ
MK,ȱRaymond,ȱJ.A.ȱJones,ȱ1ȱMarchȱ1966;ȱLetterȱtoȱMK,ȱRaymond,ȱBrownȱandȱRoot,ȱJ.ȱA.ȱJonesȱfromȱR.ȱK.ȱ
Woodhead,ȱProjectȱManager,ȱ22ȱSeptemberȱ1966;ȱLetterȱtoȱRaymond,ȱMK,ȱBrownȱandȱRoot,ȱJ.ȱA.ȱJones,ȱ
Subject:ȱContractȱNByȬ44105,ȱMarchȱ28,ȱ1967;ȱLetterȱtoȱRaymond,ȱMK,ȱBrownȱRoot,ȱJ.ȱA.ȱJones,ȱSubject:ȱ
ContractȱNByȬ44105,ȱ30ȱMarchȱȱ1967,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱ
62ȱTheȱcontractȱextendedȱtoȱ1972,ȱthoughȱtheȱmostȱintenseȱperiodȱofȱconstructionȱwasȱachievedȱ
duringȱ1966Ȭ1968.ȱCombinedȱCompletionȱReport,ȱBasicȱReport,ȱscheduleȱXIII,ȱ1Ȭ3,ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱ
‘RMKȬBRJ,ȱTheȱVietnamȱBuilders,ȱ‘TheȱConstructionȱMiracleȱofȱtheȱDecade,’’ȱRMKȬBRJȱPapers.ȱ
63ȱAȱnotableȱexceptionȱisȱCarrollȱDunn’sȱBaseȱDevelopmentȱinȱSouthȱVietnam,ȱ1965Ȭ1970,ȱcitedȱabove.ȱ
Thisȱvolume,ȱhowever,ȱfocusesȱonȱmilitaryȱconstructionȱandȱsignificantlyȱdownplaysȱtheȱimportanceȱ
andȱscopeȱofȱtheȱRMKȬBRJ.ȱ
64ȱ‘RefugeeȱProblemsȱinȱSouthȱVietnamȱandȱLaos,’ȱSubcommitteeȱtoȱInvestigateȱProblemsȱConnectedȱ
withȱRefugeesȱandȱEscapees,ȱUSȱSenate,ȱ89thȱCongress,ȱ1stȱsession,ȱJuly,ȱ1965,ȱpp.14Ȭ15ȱandȱ87.ȱ‘Refugeeȱ
ProblemsȱinȱSouthȱVietnamȱandȱLaos,’ȱAugust,ȱ1965,ȱp.143.ȱ‘CivilianȱCasualtyȱandȱRefugeeȱProblemsȱinȱ
SouthȱVietnam,’ȱ90thȱCongress,ȱ2ndȱSession,ȱ9ȱMay,ȱ1968,ȱpp.2ȱandȱ4.ȱRichardȱEder,ȱ‘USȱRefugeeȱPlanȱforȱ
VietnamȱSet,’ȱNewȱYorkȱTimes,ȱ31ȱAugust,ȱ1965.ȱHedrickȱSmith,ȱ‘MoreȱHealthȱAidȱforȱSaigonȱUrged,’ȱ
NewȱYorkȱTimes,ȱ22ȱSeptember,ȱ1967.ȱ
65ȱInflation,ȱIncomeȱandȱIncentivesȱinȱVietnam,ȱNovember,ȱ1967,ȱNationalȱSecurityȱFile,ȱCountryȱFile,ȱ
Vietnam,ȱBoxȱ58,ȱLyndonȱB.ȱJohnsonȱLibrary.ȱAnȱInvestigationȱofȱtheȱUSȱEconomicȱandȱMilitaryȱ
AssistanceȱProgrammesȱinȱVietnam,ȱ1966.ȱUSEASV,ȱv.ȱI,ȱpp.224Ȭ6.ȱWilliamȱAllison,ȱ‘WarȱforȱSale:ȱTheȱ
BlackȱMarket,ȱCurrencyȱManipulationȱandȱCorruptionȱinȱtheȱAmericanȱWarȱinȱVietnam,’ȱWarȱandȱ
Society,ȱv.ȱ21,ȱno.ȱ2ȱ(October,ȱ2003),ȱp.146.ȱ
66ȱForȱtheȱimpactȱofȱtheȱTetȱOffensive,ȱseeȱMarcȱJ.ȱGilbertȱandȱWilliamȱHead,ȱeds.,ȱTheȱTetȱOffensive,ȱ
Connecticut,ȱPraegerȱPublishers,ȱ1996;ȱandȱRonaldȱSpector,ȱAfterȱTet:ȱTheȱBloodiestȱYearȱinȱVietnam,ȱNewȱ
York,ȱTheȱFreeȱPress,ȱ1993.ȱSeeȱalso,ȱJeffreyȱKimball,ȱNixon’sȱVietnamȱWar,ȱLawrence,ȱKS,ȱUniversityȱ
PressȱofȱKansas,ȱ1998,ȱp.90;ȱandȱLarryȱBerman,ȱNoȱPeace,ȱNoȱHonor:ȱNixon,ȱKissinger,ȱandȱBetrayalȱinȱ
Vietnam,ȱTheȱFreeȱPress,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ2001.ȱ
67ȱ‘VietnamȱWorkȱConcludes,’ȱTheȱEmȬKayan,ȱJuneȱ1972.ȱ
Carter/The Vietnam Builders
63