WWW.IPPR.ORG
ReturnmigrantsinNigeria
bytheCentreforAfricanPolicy&PeaceStrategy
March2009
©ippr2009
InstituteforPublicPolicyResearch
Challengingideas– Changingpolicy
2
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Contents
Aboutippr ............................................................................................................................................ 3
TheCircularFlowsproject.................................................................................................................... 3
Literaturereview................................................................................................................................... 4
Methodology........................................................................................................................................ 7
Researchfindings ................................................................................................................................. 8
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................... 17
References.......................................................................................................................................... 18
Appendix1:ListofInterviewees........................................................................................................ 21
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Aboutippr
TheInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch(ippr)istheUK’sleadingprogressivethinktank,producing
cutting-edgeresearchandinnovativepolicyideasforajust,democraticandsustainableworld.
Since1988,wehavebeenattheforefrontofprogressivedebateandpolicymakingintheUK.Through
ourindependentresearchandanalysiswedefinenewagendasforchangeandprovidepractical
solutionstochallengesacrossthefullrangeofpublicpolicyissues.
WithofficesinbothLondonandNewcastle,weensureouroutlookisasbroad-basedaspossible,
whileourinternationalandmigrationteamsandclimatechangeprogrammeextendourpartnerships
andinfluencebeyondtheUK,givingusatrulyworld-classreputationforhighqualityresearch.
ippr,30-32SouthamptonStreet,LondonWC2E7RA.Tel:+44(0)2074706100E:[email protected]
www.ippr.org.RegisteredCharityNo.800065
ThispaperwasfirstpublishedinMarch2009.©ippr2009
There-migrationproject
ThiscasestudyofreturnmigrationfromtheUKtoNigeriawasconductedaspartofippr’sremigrationresearch,exploringemigrationamongtheUK’simmigrants.Casestudieswerealso
conductedinPakistan,Ghana,NewZealand,NigeriaandSriLanka.Thesecountrieswereselectedin
ordertoensuretheresearchreflectedacrosssectionofreturnexperiencesandamixofmigration
profiles.
Eachresearchteamcasereviewedexistingrelevantliteratureanddataonreturnmigrationtothe
country,especiallyfromtheUK.Theyconducted20lifehistoryinterviewswithreturnees.Allthe
studiesaimedtorecruitarangeofrespondentsthatbroadlyreflectedtheprofileofreturnedand
onwardmigrantsfromtheUKintermsofage,gender,ethnicity,nationality,employmentstatus,
reasonformigratingtotheUKandreasonformigratingtothecasestudycountry.
Thecasestudiesprovideaqualitativeinsightintomigrants’motivationsandexperiencesofreturn,
anddonotseektoprovideacomprehensiveanalysisofthedynamicsandimpactsofreturntothese
countries.
Theinterviewsexploredthefollowingareas:
• Participants’motivationformovingtotheUK
• Participants’experiencesofliving,workingandstudyingintheUK
• Participants’motivationsforandexperiencesofleavingtheUKandreturningtohomecountry
• Participants’lifeintheirhomecountrysincereturning
• Participants’senseofidentityandlinkstotheUK.
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Literaturereview
Demographics
NigeriaisthemostpopulouscountryinAfrica,withanestimatedpopulationofover140million
people,comprisingover250ethnicnationalities.ItislocatedinWestAfrica,aregionwhichis
characterisedbyahistoryofextensivemigrationthatpre-datesEuropeancolonialrule.Nigeriaisa
memberoftheCommonwealthofNationsandakeymemberoftheEconomicCommunityofWest
AfricanStates(ECOWAS).
WhileaboutathirdofWestAfricanspurportedlyliveoutsidetheirlocationsoforigin,andthe
implementationoftheECOWASProtocolonFreeMovementofPersonshasfurthergivenlatitudeto
thisinterflowofpeopleacrosstheregion,mostmigrantswholeaveWestAfricamainlygotoEuropean
countrieswithwhichtheyhavehistorical(mainlycolonial)linksandshareacommonlanguage
(Hernández-CossandBun2007).Nigeriaisequallyasourceanddestinationcountryformigration
withintheWestAfricanregion(Adepoju2004).
Thereisageneralresearchconsensusonthepaucityofcredibledocumenteddataandempirical
evidence,withvaryingandquitecontradictorystatisticalindicatorsoutlinedacrossdifferentstudies.
ForexampletheUKForeignandCommonwealthOffice’swebsite(FCO)statesthat‘thereisalarge
NigeriancommunityintheUK,estimatedtobebetween800,000and3million’.However,these
figuresmaynotaccountforthepresenceofpeoplelivinginthecountryillegally;thosewhoexiston
thefringesofformaldocumentation;andUK-bornpeopleofNigerianancestry.Hence,theestimates
mightwellbebelowtheactualreality:theUKiswidelyregardedashosttothelargestNigerian
communityinthecountry’sdiaspora,includingmanythirdgenerationmigrants.
NigerianmigrantsarepredominatelyIbo,fromtheSouth-East,andYorubafromtheSouth-West,
alongsidesmallernumbersofEdo,Ogoniandothers(Hernandez-Cossetal2006).
Wavesandpatternsofmigration
Inthepre-colonialandearlycolonialperiodmigrationacrosstheregionwasmotivatedbythe
pressuresofpoverty,andthequestfornewlandforsettlementandarablefarming(Adepoju2004).
Thedynamicsofthesemovementschangedinthelatterpartofcolonialrule.Occurringparalleltothe
rural-ruralandrural-urbanmigrations,aclusterofNigeriansfromtheeliteandskilledsectorsofthe
populationstartedmigratingtotheUKinpursuitoffurthereducationandprofessionaldevelopment.
TheseNigerianswouldlatertakeoverfromthecolonialadministratorsattheoutsetofIndependence
(deHaas2006).ThisconstitutedafirstwaveofmigrationthatcontinuedintotheIndependence
periodandthe1970s,asmorepeoplewentinsearchoftheopportunity,andsubsequently
establishedacommunityofNigeriansintheUK.
TheNigerianCivilWarfrom1967to1970alsopersuadedmanyNigerianstoleavefortheUK,andto
someotherdevelopedcountries.However,thepatternofmigrationflowsfromNigeriarevealagreater
tendencyformovementtotheUK,withwhichithascolonialandotherhistoricallinks,aswellasa
commonlanguageandtime-nurturednetworks(Schoorletal2003).
IndependencebroughtwithitabatchofstudentreturneesfromtheUK,whoarrivedtooccupy
positionsthathadbeenopenedupintheNigerianpublicservicebythedepartureofthe
administratorsofcolonialrule.Therewasalsoacropofentrepreneursandprofessionalswhotook
advantageoftheoilboominthecountryduringthelate1960sand1970s.
TherewasasignificantdownturnintheNigerianeconomyinthe1980sduetoanadoptedStructural
AdjustmentProgrammeandshocksintheoilmarket,lossofjobsandlivelihoods,theadventof
successivemilitaryinterventionsinthecountry,andburgeoningpoliticaltensions.Thesefactors
causedanotherwaveofmigrationasmanypeoplestartedseekingmorefavourableopportunitiesin
theUK(Hernández-CossandBun2007).Duringthisdifficultperiod,Nigeriansalsomigratedtothe
UnitedStates;andanecdotalevidenceindicatesthattheUnitedStateshastheworld’sthirdlargest
NigeriancommunityafterNigeriaandtheUK.Someoftheseimmigrantsarehighly-skilled
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professionalswhohadattaineddegreesfromNigerianuniversitiesinthe1960sand1970s,although
theirdegreeswerenotrecognisedintheUS.Manyofthemtookupmenialjobsandwentbackto
collegetoattainhigherdegreesthatwouldgivethembetteropportunitiesthere(Ette2005)
FactorsinthemigrationofNigerianstotheUK
AninterplayofseveralfactorshastriggeredtheoutflowofNigerianstodevelopedcountries,and
specificallytheUK,inthepastfewdecades.Whileanearliergenerationsoughttheacquisitionof
professionalskillsinthe1960sandearly1970s,atwhichtimethefutureappearedquitebright,the
politicalandeconomicdeteriorationofthelate1970sand1980sledtotheconsistentshrinkingof
opportunitiesforabetterlifeformanycitizensinNigeria.WithaggregatepercapitaGDPfallingby1
percenteveryyearsincethe1980s,makingSub-SaharanAfricathelowestincomeregioninthe
world,thelackofprospectsofeconomicgrowth,closureofdemocraticspaceandrestrictionofsocial
freedomsthroughtheincursionofthemilitaryintogovernment,exertedpressureoncitizenstoseeka
betterlifeandopportunitieselsewhere.Thesehavebeensomeofthestrongest‘push’factors
determiningthedecisionsofNigerianstoemigratetotheUK.
Otherfactorsmotivatingmigrationincludedropsinincome,currencydevaluationandrisingcostsof
living;unemployment(largelyamonggraduates)andtheincreaseinthedependencyburdenof
householdwage-earners;therigidemploymentsystemsoftheGovernment;andprofessionalisolation
(Fadayomi1996).
Asthe1980sworeon,NigerianswenttotheUKasstudents,toseekprofessionaldevelopment,and
asskilledmigrantlabour.Post-colonialmigrationbecameincreasinglydiversified,withanewsetof
economicmigrantssearchingforalternativeopportunitiesjoiningthemigratinghordes.Thisgroup
appliedforrefugeestatus,makingNigeriansthefifthlargestgroupofasylum-seekersinEurope
(Carling2005).
IntheUnitedStatesmanyNigerianswhooriginallyintendedtoreturnhomeaftertheirdegrees
decidedtostayduetoharsheconomicconditionsandrepressionintheirhomecountry.Manyofthem
continuedtoacquiremoredegreesintheUS.Beingenrolledinacourseisatactictokeeptheirstatus
legal.Returninghomeisalastresortastheseimmigrantsfeeltheywillbemorevaluabletotheir
familiesathomeiftheystayabroad.ThisalsoencouragestheillusionthatlifeintheUSiseasybut
thisisfarfromthetruthformostNigeriansthere.However,despiteinitialdifficulties,manyNigerians
intheUSnowsucceedinthemedicalprofessions,workforFortune500companies,arelecturersand
havecollegedegreesfromIvyLeagueinstitutions.
Themotivesformigrationvarywithgender,asmenlargelyappeartoformthebulkof
labour/economicmigrants,andwomenseemedtomigrateforreasonsoffamilyreunionandfamily
formation(marriagemigrations)intheUK(EuropeanCommunities2000).
Someofthe‘pull’factorsthathavemotivatedimmigrationfromNigeriaincludetheprospectof
higherincomeandgreaterjobmobility/professionalcareerdevelopment(Fadayomi1996),particularly
throughtheUKGovernment’sHighlySkilledMigrantProgramme(HSMP).Thevalueplacedonthe
qualityofdegreesattainedincountriessuchastheUK,bymultinationalcorporationswithneedsfor
highlyskilledhumanresourceshasequallybeenapullfactorforNigerianswhomaywanttoreturn
home.Considerationsofthepotentialsforacquiringhigh-levelskillsintheUK,andthemassive
recruitmentdrivesofseveralUKagenciesanduniversitiesfortheadmissionoffee-payingNigerian
students,havefurtherfacilitatedthepullofNigerians,andspawnedawholeindustryofimmigration
servicesandconsultancies.TheUK’sNationalHealthServicealsohasastrongneedformedicaland
nursingpersonnelfromSub-SaharanAfricancountries;Nigeriaprovidesasignificantsupplyofthese
workers(deHaan2006).
ImpactsofNigeria-UKmigration
ThemajorityofNigeriansintheUKarehighlyeducated,andworkinfinancialservices,ICT,the
medicalandlegalprofessions,education,civilsociety,andasentrepreneurs(Hernández-CossandBun
2007).Yet,thereisasignificantpopulationofmigrantswhoareeitherunskilled/semi-skilledworkers
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or(highly)skilledworkersfunctioninginpositionsthatareirrelevanttotheirqualificationsandearn
themlowerwagesthantheirskillscouldcommand,whichleads‘brainmigration’tobecome‘brain
waste’(Salt1997WorldMigrationReport2003).
TheutilisationofNigerianmigrantlabour,however,doesmainlybringbenefits,toboththeUKas
countryofdestination,contributingtoeconomicgrowthanddevelopment,andtotheimmigrantsand
theirfamilies.Withincreasingshortagesinskilledlabourincertainsectorsoftheeconomy,andthe
needforthereplacementofworkerswhoareenteringretirement,itisprojectedthatmoremigrant
workers(about1.2million)wouldberequiredintheeconomicandsocialservicessectorsoftheUK
(WorldMigrationReport2003),asizeableproportionofwhichcouldpracticablybemadeof
Nigerians.
Ontheotherhand,theemigrationofhighlyskillednationalsfromNigeriadrainsitofvaluablehuman
resources,andleadstoasignificantlossofskillsavailablefordevelopment,particularlyinthecritical
sectorsofhealth,educationandtechnology.Thissituation,referredtoas‘braindrain’,resultsinthe
recruitmentofexpatriatesbysomeAfricancountriestofilltheskillsvacuumandanestimated
expenditureofUS$4billionisspentannuallyontherecruitmentofabout100,000skilledworkers
acrossAfrica(SelassieandWeiss2002).Theseworkersareonlytherefortheshorttermanddonot
contributetosustainabledevelopment(WorldMigrationReport2003).
Yet,migrationcanbeatoolfordevelopmentthroughthetransferofhumancapitalandskillsacquired
abroad–inaprocessofbraincirculation–backtothecountryoforigin(EuropeanCommunities
2000).In2003,forexample,theNigerianFederalGovernmentbeganfacilitatingaprojectto
encourageNigerianmedicalpractitionersintheUKandtheUStoinvestathome.Thedoctorsin
questionhadplanstoreturnandbuild‘comprehensivehospitals’,inLagos,Kano,AbujaandPortHarcourttobeginwith.Thecoordinatinggroup,AmericanHospitalCorporation,wastocontribute
US$60million.Theprojectwastostartin2006butwiththeendoftheObasanjoadministrationin
2007andanewlyelectedPresidentinplace,thecurrentstatusoftheprojectisunknown.The
numberofNigeriandoctorsworkinginEuropeandtheUSin2003wasbetween3500and5000
(Onuorah2003).
MigrationhasalsoenhancedtradebetweentheUKandNigeria,andtheremittancesbeingsenthome
byworkershavebeenidentifiedasstronglyaidingdevelopmentinitiatives.
Therefore,theliteraturereviewreflectsthetwinsidesofNigeriatoUKmigration,boththepositive
andthenegative.
Itisnowbecomingclear,mostlythroughmediareports,thatthereisanewwaveofreturnmigration
toNigeria.TheMoveBackClub(MBC)hasbeenatthevanguardofattractingmanyNigerian
professionalsinthediasporabacktotheircountryofbirth,accordingtoThisDay newspaper,MBC
wasestablishedfouryearsagoin2004toaidNigerianswhowanttoreturnhome,byproviding
networkingforumsandinformationonjobopportunitiesforreturnees.Mostofthehighlyskilled
NigerianswhoreturnhavevastinternationalexperienceandhaveworkedforFortune500
internationalbusinesses.Theyusuallytakeupwell-paidtechnicalpositionsintheNigerian
telecommunications,bankingandfinancialsectors(ThisDay newspaper,2008).
Thisnewphenomenonmayheraldareverseofthe‘braindrain’andtheinfluxofnewskillsand
resourcesinjectedintotheNigerianeconomyandsociety.However,itremainstobeseenwhetherthis
trendwillincreaseorwane.
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Methodology
Interviewselectionprocessanddemographicsofparticipants
Twentyintervieweeswereselectedfromseveralorganisationaldatabasesandthroughnetworksof
Nigerianex-UKresidents.ACAPPSResearchAssociatewastaskedwithcompilingalistof20people
basedonthefollowingdemographics:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Age
Gender
Ethnicity
Occupation
Levelofeducation
LengthoftimeintheUK
AgeofdeparturefortheUK
Durationofreturntohomecountry
Nationality
TheresultantgrouprepresenteddifferentethnicgroupsandregionsofNigeria,differentwalksoflife
andvariedinagefrom25to58.Somecandidateswhohaddualnationalityandsomewhohadlived
inathirdcountryafterleavingtheUKwereinterviewedinordertocomparetheviews/experiencesof
thosewithdualnationalitywiththoseofsingle-Nigeriannationalityandtoprovideacomparison
betweenmigrationtotheUKandothercountries.Forfurtherdetailsontheintervieweespleasesee
appendix1.
Theintervieweeswereinitiallycontactedbyphoneandinterviewswereconductedface-to-faceby
CAPPSresearchersinLagos.LagosisNigeria’scommercialcapitalandwithoutquestionthemost
cosmopolitancityinthecountry,ameltingpotofcultureswherepeoplefromalloverthecountry
converge.ManyNigeriansliketheonesinthiscasestudychoosetoliveinLagoswhentheyreturnto
theirhomecountrybecauseofitsbusinesspotentialandurbaneappeal.
Interviewstructure
Agenericdiscussionguidewasusedasastructurefortheinterviews.Intervieweeswereaskedto
recounttheirexperiencesunderthefollowingareas:
1.
Migrationhistory
2.
MovingtotheUK
3.
LivingintheUK
4.
SocialnetworksintheUK
5.
StudyingorworkingintheUK
6.
Leavingforathirdcountry
7.
ReturningtoNigeria
8.
Socio-economicconditionsinhomecountry
9.
Socialnetworksinthehomecountry
10.
Identity,linksandtiestotheUK
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Researchfindings
ViewsoftheUKbeforemigrating
SeveralrespondentsfeltquitefamiliarwiththeUKpriortotravellingthereduetotheremnantsof
BritishcolonialismthatarestillapparentincontemporaryNigerianculture,society,infrastructureand
administrativesystems.TheProtestantChurch,theeducationalcurriculumandtelevisionprogramming
–whichweremostlybasedonBritain’s–introducedBritishliteratureandculturetomanyofthe
respondentsearlyinlife,buildingtheirexpectationsoflifeintheUK.Inadditiontheygleaned
informationfrominteractionswithUKexpatriatesinNigeria,themedia,literatureandfromshort
holidaysinBritain.However,thisknowledgeprovedatbestsuperficial.
‘WhenIthoughtoftheUKIthoughtoftheRoyalFamily.Ithoughteverybodywasrich
andwenttofancyschoolsandthattheywereposh.’ (Mimi,25yearsold,female,film
producer)
‘TobereallyhonestIdidn’thavemuchofanimpression.Theyjustspokewitha
differentaccent.’ (Yemisi,27yearsold,male,graphicdesigner)
Quitealargenumberofthepeopleinterviewed,particularlytheyoungerones,hadvisitedtheUK
withtheirparentsonholidaysbeforetheymovedtheretoliveorstudy.Accordingtooneinterviewee,
goingtotheUKwaslikearewardforhis‘workinghardatschoolduringtheyear’(Edward,32years
old,engineer/architect).AnotherintervieweeexplainedthatshetravelledtotheUKduringthe
summertobuyclothesasthisis‘whatpeopledidinthosedays’(Bisola,57yearsold,dentist),while
anothersaid,thattoher,theUKwasthelandof‘milkandhoney’whereshecouldhavethelifestyle
shesawonTV(Faye,32,commercialmanager).
Views,however,seemedtochangebasedonpeople’sneeds,maturityandexperience.Many
intervieweeswhenintheirearlyteenshadseentheUKasa‘fairlytaleworld’whichofferedsweets,
cinemasandclothes,butbythetimetheywereintheirtwenties,theirinteresthadchangedtothe
advantagesoftheeducationalfacilities,infrastructure,nightlife,entertainmentandthecosmopolitan
exposureitoffered.OlderrespondentsintheirfiftiesandaboveseemedtoliketheUKforthe‘peace
ofmind’thatitofferedthem,theamenities,infrastructureandtheeaseoflocaltransport.The
shoppingwasviewedanadvantagebyallagegroups.
Itwasevidentfromourinterviewsthatmanywell-to-doNigerianfamilieshaveanestablishedpattern
ofregularvisittotheUKduringthesummerholidaysandclosefamilytiesinthecountry.Thisisa
patternthatseemstohavebeenestablishedoveralongperiodoftime.
Inconclusion,mostintervieweessawtheUKinapositivelight,mostlyasaplacethatofferedthem
opportunitiestopursuediverseinterestsandmeetindividualneeds.Beyondwhattheyhadlearntvia
secondarysources,theywerenotveryknowledgeableaboutlifeinthecountrypriortogoingtothe
UK.However,thecoloniallinkbetweenNigeriaandtheUKhelpedtoshapetheirviews,perspectives
andexpectations.
ReasonsformovingtotheUK
Basedonthe20interviewsconducted,thepursuitofeducation,bettereconomicprospectsand
infrastructureweretheprimarydriversofmigrationfromNigeriatotheUK,especiallyinthe
immediatepre-andpost-Independenceera,butalsoduringthelate1980sand’90sonwards.When
intervieweessaidtheycametotheUKinsearchofabettereducation,theywerereferringtoboth
academiceducationandworktraining,andinsomecasesexposuretothewayoflifeinadeveloped
country.
MorethanhalfofthecandidatesinterviewedattaineduniversitydegreesfromUKinstitutions.The
deteriorationoftheNigerianeducationalsystem,thelackofadequatefacilitiesanddilapidationof
infrastructurewerekeytriggersforthemassmigrationofNigerianyouthtotheUKfromthemid-’90s
todate.OneintervieweeexplainedthathelefttheUniversityofLagosfortheUKbecausethe
universitywasshutdownforsixmonthsbetween1990and1991duetoteacherstrikes.Another
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explainedthathisparentswereafraidtoputhiminaNigerianuniversitybecauseofviolentstudent
‘cults’(gangsandfraternities)thatwerewidespreadinNigerianuniversitiesinthe1990s.
ManyofthosewhohadPermanentResidencestatusorcitizenshipintheUKoftenchosetoreturnto
Nigeriaatsomepoint,whilesomewhostayedbehindpermanentlydidnotinitiallyplantodoso.
TheintervieweesleftNigeriafortheUKatdifferingstagesintheirlives.Somedidsointheirpreteenageyears,someleftasteenagersforA-levelsorundergraduatestudy,whileotherswentforpostgraduatestudyorvocationaldevelopmentintheirtwentiesorthirties.Asmallfractionofthe
intervieweesshuttledbackandforthbetweenNigeriaandtheUKduringtheirprimaryschoolyears
becausetheirparentswereineithereducationoremploymentintheUK.
ItalsoemergedthatthechoiceoftheUKasdestinationwaslargelybasedonthecoloniallinkwhich
hadseenNigeriaadoptBritishadministrativeandeducationalsystems,aswellasapatternofregular
travelbetweenthetwocountries.TheUKtrainingofthepost-IndependenceNigerianworkforcein
law,medicine,publicadministration,engineering,militaryandothervocationsinthe’60sand’70s
createdagroupofBritisheducatedandBritishtrainedNigerianswhostudiedandlivedintheUKfor
varyingperiodsoftime.SomereturnedtoNigeriaandsomesettledintheUK,oratleastplanted
rootsandnetworksthere,makingtheUK‘ahomeawayfromhome’,asoneintervieweeputit.
Welloverhalfofthepeopleweinterviewedhadparents,children,siblingsorextendedfamily
memberswhohadstudiedorlivedintheUKatsomepoint.Ifonefamilymemberorfamilyfriendhad
studied,livedorhadlinksintheUK,thatpersonwouldofteninfluenceand/orfacilitatethetravelof
anotherfamilymemberorfriendtoexploretheirgoalsineducation,residence,lifestyleorwork
experienceintheUK.SeveraloftheyoungerintervieweesstatedthatthedecisiontomovetotheUK
wasmostlymadeorinfluencedbytheirfamilies.Oneintervieweerecallsthatitwasagiventhathe
wouldstudyintheUK.Anotherexplainedthatherelderbrother‘wasalreadyintheUKsoitmade
sense’forhertofollowinhisfootsteps.OnestatedthatherfatherhadbeenatschoolinEnglandand
hadestablishedsocialnetworksandfinanciallinksthere,thusitwasthenaturaldestinationofchoice
ashecouldusethesenetworksandlinkstoheradvantage.
Easeofvisaandimmigrationprocesses
Mostofourintervieweessaidtheyexperiencedfewproblemsinobtainingavisaiftheirdocuments
wereinorder.Thoughtheprocesscouldbelaborious,anyproblemsthatdidemergewerenot
insurmountable.However,anindividualwithdualcitizenshipsaidittookayeartogetherpassport
andshewasrequestedtopresentevidencetoproveshewasbornintheUK,whichshefound
distressing.
Therewasageneralviewthatinthe’70s,’80sandevenearly’90s,itwaseasytoobtainaUKvisa,
butitbecamemoredifficultfromthemid-’90swhenthemilitarystrangleholdinNigeriacreated
economicandsocialhardshipsthatcausedmanytofleethecountryinsearchofbetterprospectsand
visa-relatedfraudescalated.DuringtheeraofmilitarydictatorshipinNigeria,mostcountriesincluding
theUKandtheUStightenedimmigrationcontrolsastheywhereoverwhelmedbythedelugeofvisa
applications.
‘Idorememberthatgettingavisaincreasinglybecameanissueforthepeoplewho
cameafterme.’ (Fred,35yearsold,male,productiondesigner)
AboutaquarterofthepeopleinterviewedhaddualNigerianandBritishcitizenship,mostlybecause
theywerebornintheUKorbecausetheyhadlivedinthecountryformorethan10yearsand
naturalised.Alltheintervieweesinthiscategorystatedthattheyhadfewproblemsinbeinggranted
BritishcitizenshipandobtainingBritishpassportsoncetheyhadfulfilledtherequirementsandhad
therightsetofdocuments.However,aninterestingtrendthatemergedwasthatmostinterviewees
statedthattheyobtainedUKcitizenshipnotoutofasenseofsharedidentity,culturalaffinityor
nationalallegiancebutmostlyforeaseofglobaltravel.TheUKpassportgrantedthemvisa-freeaccess
toEuropeanandothercountries,whichasNigerianpassport-holderswouldnotbethecase.When
askediftheyfeltBritish,onlyoneintervieweeansweredpositivelywhilemostwereemphaticinsaying
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‘no’.TheyoftenclaimedtheirNigeriannationalityastheirmainidentity,irrespectiveofhowlongthey
livedintheUK.
‘TheBritishPassport:moreafunctionaltraveldocument,lessanindicatorofshared
identity,culturalaffinityornationalallegiance’(inferredbythemajorityofthe
intervieweeswhohaddualnationality)
‘Imovedbacktobeclosetomyfamilyonbothmymotherandfather’sside…Nigeria
ismyhome…therearelotsofopportunitieshere…’(Mimi,25yearsold,filmproducer,
dualcitizen)
‘AllalongitwasclearinmymindthatIwasBritishandNigerian.Ididnotseeaconflict
betweenthetwo.’(Tony,57yearsold,humanresources,dualcitizen)
ViewsondifferentaspectsofBritishlife
TheBritisheducationsystem
Overall,mostintervieweesseemedtogenerallyenjoytheirstudyintheUK.Thoughmanycomplained
aboutneverfeelingapartofUKsociety,mostofthempraisedtheeducationalsystem,facilitiesand
infrastructure.One28-year-oldfemaleinterviewee,Teni,explainedthataBritisheducation‘putsyou
inapositionwhereyoucanstandonyourfeet’.A31-year-oldman,Emeka,describedtheeducation
hereceivedas‘secondtonone’.Hewasparticularlyimpressedwithhisprimaryandsecondaryschool
experience.OthersspokeaboutthefreedomofexpressionandthoughtthatwereencouragedinUK
tertiaryinstitutionswhichtheyfeltcontrastedwiththemorepedanticeducationalstricturesinthe
Nigeriansystem.
However,onefemaleinterviewee,whoattendedacomprehensiveschoolintheUKinherearlieryears
butcompletedhersecondaryschooleducationinNigeria,arguedthatthestandardofeducationat
primaryandsecondarylevelinhernativecountrywasmuchhigherthanintheUK.Sheimpliedthat
privateschoolsinNigeriaaremuchbetterthanthegrammarandcomprehensiveschoolsintheUK.
Generally,fewoftheintervieweescomplainedabouttheschoolenvironmentandmostrecountedfond
memoriesoftheiruniversitydays.Oneinterviewee,a27-year-oldgraphicdesignerwhodidhisAlevelsinCambridge,definedthatcityasa‘properuniversitytown’.Heappreciateditssenseofhistory
andacknowledgedthefactthatitexposedhimtoanothersideoflifethathewouldnothave
experiencedhadhestayedinNigeria.
Ingeneral,mostoftheintervieweesappreciatedthesenseofcultureandhistoryprovidedbytheUK
anditspeople.Beyondafewreferencestoracistcomments,moststudentsseemedtohavefeltafull
partofboththeacademicandsocialsceneintheirschools.
Livingconditionsandfinances
MostoftheintervieweeslivedcomfortablyintheUK,astheywereeitherbasedinschoolhallsof
residenceorlivingwithfamilyorfriends.WhilemostwereconcentratedinLondon,otherslivedin
citiesincludingReading,Leeds,ManchesterandCambridge.School/collegelocationandpresenceof
afamilysupportstructureofteninformedtheirchoiceofresidence.
ItwascommonfortheintervieweestoliveinboardinghousesuntiltheirA-levels,theninhallsof
residenceinthefirstandsecondyearsofuniversity,afterwhichtheywouldmoveoutofstudent
accommodationtorentapartmentsorsharehouseswithfriendsfromcollege,orstaywithfamily.
AlmostallthepeopleinterviewedforthiscasestudyhadrelativeslivingintheUKatthetimeand
theserelativesservedasasupportgroupforthemintheUK.Interestingly,manyoftheinterviewees
alsostatedthat,asstudents,theymostlyreceivedfundsfromtheirparentsandotherfamilymembers
inNigeria,ratherthanthembeingtheonestosendbackremittances.Thisdependedonthefinancial
statusofthefamilyinquestion,however.
Socialdisconnectionandidentitycrisis
Aninterestingdiscourseemergedonthenegativerelationshipbetweengoingtoschoolandlivingin
theUKatayoungage,andmaintainingsocialnetworksinNigeriaandidentityformation.Whilemost
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oftheintervieweesvaluedtheeducationtheyreceived,asmallfractionthoughtinthelongrunitwas
adisadvantagetosendchildrentotheUKatanearlyage.Fred,whowassenttotheUKattheageof
8andreturnedtohishomecountryatage32,said‘Iwouldnoteducatemykidsawayfrommeuntil
theywereoldenoughformetoknowthattheyknewtheiridentityandtheyweresureofwhothey
were.’Bisola,adentistwhospentherearlylifeintheUKandhadsentallherthreechildrento
universitythere,admittedthatshefeltsociallydisadvantagedinNigeriabecauseofherlongstayin
theUK.Sheexplainedthatshedidnot‘knowthatmanypeople’inLagos.Shedidnotwantthesame
experienceforherchildrensoshehadthemattendprimaryandsecondaryschoolinNigeriabefore
theyweresenttotheUKtouniversity.
Thesentimentthatthosewhogoabroadtostudyhaveanadvantageoverthosewhodonotwas
refutedbyanother,Tony,57,whoshuttledbetweenthetwocountriesbeforehewas7yearsold.He
admittedthathissocialnetworkinNigeriawasonlysmallandit‘tooksometime’forhimtobuildit
upwhenhereturnedtoNigeriaasanadult.Heexplainsthat‘networkingisaveryimportantpartof
humanbusiness’inNigeria.
Familyandfriends
AlltheintervieweesreflectedonthestrongNigeriancommunityintheUK;often,theirsocialactivities
tendedtobeprimarilywithinthesecircles.Mostintervieweeshadeithernuclearorextendedfamily
memberswholivedintheUKand/orfriendsfromtheirhomecountrywhowerealsostudyingin
Britain,makinguptheircoresocialcircle.
WhilemostintervieweesoftenreplicatedoratleastbasedtheirsocialactivitiesintheUKaroundsocial
networkstheycarriedoverfromNigeria,manywereproudtomentionthattheyhadamultinational
groupoffriends.Somementionedthattheywentoutoftheirwaytomakefriendsfromdifferent
countriesbecausetheyrealisedthatbeingexposedtodifferentpeoplesandcultureswasanasset.As
oneintervieweesaid,‘WhygosomewhereelseandhangoutwithNigerians?’Thosewhodidnot
activelymakefriendsfromotherculturesorregionsstatedthattheyregrettedthis.Interestingly,most
intervieweesspokemostlyofmakingfriendsfromEuropeancountries,otherpartsofAfrica,South
AsiaandtheMiddleEast,butveryfewmentionedmakingBritishfriends.
Socialintegration
MostintervieweesstatedtheyneverreallyfeltBritishanddidnotfeelasenseofbelongingor
acceptancewithintheBritishcommunity.However,noneoftheintervieweessaidthattheymadea
deliberateattempttointegrate,either,andtheirinvolvementincommunityaffairswasoftenlimitedto
Churchorstudentactivities.Noparticularreferencewasmadetodistrustforneighboursbutveryfew
participantssaidtheywouldleavetheirkeyswiththem,forexample.Inmostcases,theystatedthat
theywerenotfamiliarwiththeirneighboursbeyondcordialitiesandsomedidnotknowtheir
neighboursatall.
Racismanddiscrimination
Theissueofracialdiscriminationhardlycameupduringtheinterviews.Candidatesdidnotvolunteer
informationaboutincidentsofraced-basedhostilityordiscriminationuntiltheyweredirectlyasked.
Eventhoughmostintervieweescouldrecountafewexamplesofracialhostilityduringtheirstayinthe
UK,theyadmittedthattheywerefewandfarbetween,anditneverreallydeterredthemfromliving
intheUK.Thestoriesofracismthatweredescribedusuallyinvolvedname-calling,racialstereotyping,
racialprofilingandoccasionally,physicalabuse.Somemaleintervieweesreferredtotheexperienceof
beingpulledoverbypoliceoftenwhendriving;anothermentionedanattackbyyoungwhitemales
afteranightout,anda32-year-oldfemaleintervieweementionedthatduringherstudentdaysan
olderwhitemalewouldregularlytellherto‘gobacktoAfrica’whenevershewalkedpasthim.
NoneoftheintervieweesfeltthattheUKwasaracistsocietybutonestatedthathefeltthatthere
wasoftenanassumptionof‘intellectualsuperiority’bytheBritishwhendealingwithblackpeople
fromAfrica.Anotherdescribed‘subtle’racism,inwhichblackpeople’scapabilitieswere
underestimatedandtheyweregivenlessresponsibility.Thisinterviewee,now57,workedforamultinationalorganisationinLondoninthelate1970s.Awoman(58)wholivedinLondoninthe1950s
12
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and’60srecountedthatwhenshearrivedintheUKattheageof2,sherememberedfeeling
protectedbyherteachersatschoolandeven‘abitspoilt’.Everyonehadtobenicetoherorthey
wouldbeseverelypunished.BythetimeshelefttheUKin1964,thereweremoreforeignersmoving
intoLondon.Shestatedthattowardsthetimeofherdeparture,shecouldseethatracismwas
beginningto‘setin’.
Wherethereweredirectincidentsofracism,mostintervieweesstatedthattheyignoreditandfocused
onwhytheywereintheUK.Asoneintervieweeputit,‘therearealwaysenoughgoodpeopleto
makeupforthefewidiots’(Fred,35yearsold,productiondesigner).Anotherinterviewee,wholived
inLondonthroughouthisstayintheUK,saidheregardedLondonasa‘neutralplace’because
everyoneisfromsomewhereelse.Hesaidhewouldonlyworryaboutracisminotherpartsofthe
countrywherethereislessdiversity(Emeka,31yearsold,shipping/finance).
NoneoftheinterviweesconsideredracismtobeamainreasonforleavingtheUK,orindeedacentral
featureoftheUKlivingexperience.However,theyreflectedthatrace-baseddiscriminationwasmore
accentuatedintheworkplacethaninstudentenvironments–asweexpanduponbelow.
WorkingintheUK
Elusiveworkpermitsandglassceilings
Theworkenvironmentofferedaparticularsetofchallengesintermsofopportunitiesandracial
discrimination.Severalintervieweesfeltthatalthoughtheyweretreatedwellintheworkplace,
progressionwasmuchmoredifficultandpeopleassumedtheycouldnotholdpositionsof
responsibility.‘Theglassceilingwasseeminglyimpenetrable’,oneintervieweesaid.Anotherstated,‘it
becameclearthattherewerelimitationstowhatIcouldachieveandhowhighIcouldgo’(Faye,32
yearsold,commercialmanager).
Severalofthemaleintervieweesstatedthattheseweredecidingfactorsintheirchoicetoreturnto
Nigeriaastheycouldnotgetgoodjobsthatmatchedtheirqualificationsandopportunitiesforgrowth
werelimited.Interestingly,severalofthefemaleintervieweesstatedthattheymovedbackbecause
theirpartnerswereunabletofindstablecareerprospectsintheUK.
MostoftheintervieweesendedupleavingtheUKnotlongaftertheygraduatedfromuniversity,or
workedforlessthanfiveyearsbeforereturning.AlmostallreturnedtoNigeria,whileaverysmall
fractionwenttoathirdcountry.Onemaleintervieweeinsistedthatitisbesttobeinone’shome
country‘andbeallthatyoucanbe’(Tony,57yearsold,humanresources).Hemakesthepointthatit
wouldhavebeenalotharderforhimtosetupabusinessonhisownintheUKthaninNigeria.
Anotherinterviewee,whowasfrustratedandunabletogetaprofessionaljobpartlybecauseofhis
nationality,hadnoregrets.HedescribedNigeriaas‘stillveryvirginal…therearealotofthingsthat
havenotbeendoneyet’(Edward,32yearsold,engineer/architect).
Interestingly,whiletherewerecomplaintsaboutthedifficultyofwell-qualifiedNigerianpassportholderstoobtainworkpermits,Britishpassport-holdersofNigerianheritagethatwereinterviewed
(whooftengotbetterjobs)alsotendedtomovebacktoNigeriaafterafewyears.Theinterviewees
thatmatchthisprofileworkedforlargecompaniessuchasNatWest,ShellandBT.Onedualcitizen
wholivedintheUKfromherteensandworkedforcompaniesincludingGoldmanSachs,Deutsche
BankandAbbeyNational,chosetoreturntoNigeriainherlatetwenties;shesaid:‘Ihavealifehere
[inNigeria],Iamnotjustliving,Iampartofsomething.HereIbelong,Iexist’(Faye,32,commercial
manager).
ThereisevidencetoshowthattheintervieweeswhohaddualcitizenshipandhadbeenintheUK
educationalsystemforatleast10yearsweremorelikelytogetwell-paid,responsiblejobsintheCity
ofLondonthanthosewhodidnotfulfilthesecriteria.Manyoftheintervieweeswhohadplannedto
liveintheUKandworkforsomeyearswhentheyfirstarrivedchangedtheirmindslaterastheycame
upagainstchallengesandrealisedthattherewereeasierandsometimesmorelucrativeopportunities
intheirhomecountry.Fornon-British-passport-holders,thedifficultiesingettingaworkpermitanda
satisfactoryjobintheUKbecamekeydeterrentstostaying.Mostpeopleconsideredworkinginthe
UKasgoodexperiencebutnotanadvantageinthelongterm.
13
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LeavingtheUKforNigeriaorathirdcountry
FactorsencouragingreturntoNigeria
Movingbacktotheirhomecountrywasalwaysapossibilityformostoftheinterviewees.Onlyone
candidateadmittedthatwhilehewasstillastudentheconsideredsettlingdownintheUK
permanently,butlaterchangedhismindtowardstheendofhisdegree.Familyobligationandculture
ofteninfluenceddecisionsandmanyoftheintervieweesimpliedthattheirparentsexpectedthemto
returnhomeaftertheycompletedtheirstudies.Oneintervieweerecalledthathisfatherflewtothe
UKtopersonallyaskhimtoreturnhomebecausehewasthefirstchildandtheonlysonofhis
parents,somethingthatishighlysignificantinAfricanculture.HewasplanningtorelocatetotheUS
atthetimebutsubmittedtohisfather’swishesandreturnedhome.
Otherpullfactorsforreturninghomeincludedthereadyavailabilityoffamilysupportstructuresand
domesticassistance.GrowthoftheNigerianeconomyandtheproliferationofmultinationalcompanies
payinginternationalsalariesalsomeantthatqualifiedreturneescouldearnwell(sometimesinforeign
currency),havemoredisposableincomeandhaveabetterstandardofliving.Alltheintervieweesalso
feltthattheirprofessionalvaluewouldbehigheraswiththeirforeigndegrees,andinsomecases,
internationalwork-experience,theywouldbehighlysoughtafterbycompaniesinNigeria.
Ontheirreturn,mosttendedtolivewithfamilymembersfreeofchargeandwouldthengettheirown
apartmentswhentheysecuredjobsthatpayedenough.Accordingtothesereturnees,theirreimmersingintoNigerianlifeandculturereducedthefinancialandadministrativepressurestheyhad
experienedintheUK.Theydidnothavetoworryimmediatelyaboutrentandbills.Asoneinterviewee
lamented,‘intheUKyouhavetopayforeverything!’(Teni,28yearsold,female,entrepreneur).These
socialbenefitsinNigeriareducedtheneedforfinancialcapital,sothatmanyofthereturneescould
settlein,settledownandfindtheirfeetatminimalcost.
ThesociallifeinNigeriawasalsosaidtobeakeyattractionforreturning.Returneesmentionedthe
pleasureofbeingwithfriendsandfamilyandhowfrequentsocialeventsandgatheringsoftenmade
lifeinNigeriamoreenjoyableandfulfillingthantheirlifeintheUK.Onetalkedabouttheimportance
of‘humancontact’andhowtheconstantexchangeofsocialpleasantriesmadeonefeelvalued.
Opportunitiesforself-developmentandholdingameaningfulstatusorpositioninsocietyalso
increasedtheirsenseofworthandvalue.Asonemaleintervieweeputit,‘hereImeetandrub
shoulderswithpeopleinhighplaceswhoIwouldotherwisenothavemetintheUK.Here,Iam
somebody’(Dennis,earlythirties,lawyer).
Whilemanyfemalereturneesalsomovedforcareerprospectsortopursuedreamsofrunningtheir
ownbusinesses,whichwouldhavebeendifficultintheUK,moststatedthattheymovedbacktobe
withtheirpartners,friendsandfamilymembers.Menweremoreusuallymotivatedbytheeconomic
advantagesofmovingbackandtheneedformakingthemselvessociallyrelevant.
PushfactorsforleavingtheUK
Limitedopportunitiesforcareerprogression,thehighcostofliving,thedifficultiesofattainingwork
permits(fornon-Britishpassportholders),increasinglystiffcompetitionwithEUcitizensinthelabour
market,andthelackofasenseofbelonginginBritishsocietywereallpushfactorsforleavingtheUK.
Manyintervieweesalsomentionedthattheirsocialliveswerelimitedandtheywere‘boredintheUK’.
SeveralsaidthatpeopleinNigeriatendedtohavefullerliveswithminimalpressures,whiletheUK
providedtheopposite.Formothers,childcarewasasignificantfactor:intheUKchildmindersare
expensive,whereasinNigeriaitispossibletoafford24-hourlive-innannies,whilegrandmothers,
cousinsandextendedfamilyarealsoreadyandwillingtotakecareofchildrenatnocost.
Therewasnearconsensusontheweather.Almostalltheintervieweescomplained,sometimes
strongly,abouttheBritishweather.Onesaid‘I’vealwayshatedit;Igetsomanyallergiesoutthere’,
addingthatitisalwayssunnyinLagosandshecangotothebeachanytimeshewants;anothersaid
‘italwaysdepressesme,Ineverwanttogoout’.Anotherstatedthatonedidnothavetodressupin
‘layersandlayersofclothing’beforegoingoutinNigeriaandthatthiscreatedasenseoffreedom.
14
ippr|ReturnmigrantsinNigeria
Relationshipsalsoplayedakeyroleforwomen,whowouldeitherreturntoNigeriatostaywiththeir
partnerswhohadoptedtogohome,orinsomecaseswouldreturninordertogetawayfromtheir
partnerintheUKiftherelationshiphadturnedsour.Anna,32,said‘homeisalwaysagoodplaceto
nurseabrokenheart’.
Asmentionedabove,andparticularlyformaleintervieweesintheirlatetwentiesandthirties,itwas
feltthattheopportunitytorealisetheirpotentialintheUKwaslimitedgiventheexistenceof‘glass
ceilings’.Theyalsocomplainedabouttheinabilitytosavemoneybecausetheiroutgoingsalways
surpassedtheirincomeduetothehighcostoflivingintheUK.Assuch,theyhadlessdisposable
incomewhichalsolimitedboththeirsociallifeandtheirabilitytocreatefinancialstability,factorsthat
eventuallypersuadedthemtoleaveforhome.
Thethirdcountryoption
Everyonethatwasinterviewedhadsomedesireatonepointoranothertomovetoathirdcountry.
MosttoyedwithlivinginotherpartsofEurope,Canadaandsome,even,Japan,buttheUSwasthe
mostpopularcountryofchoice.ButalthoughmostoftheintervieweesdidinfactvisittheUS,hardly
anymovedtheretoliveeveniftheysaiditwasanoption.
TwooftheintervieweeswhohadlefttheUKtoliveintheUSforstudydidnotenjoytheexperience.
TheybothpreferredtheBritishlifestyle.Edward,32,describedAmericansas‘coolbutcold’.Hefound
itdifficulttomakefriendswiththestudentsathisuniversityinBostonbecausetheyweredistantand
cliquish.Hesaystheexperiencemadehimgrowupandsurvivewithoutasupportgroupwhichhehad
intheUK.Theotherinterviewee,Mimi,25,complainedabout‘blackonblackracism’,atermsheused
todescribetheanimositybetweenAfricanAmericansandAfricansinWashingtonDC.Shefeltthatthe
UK,especiallyLondon,wasmoreinclusivewhereaseveryonehadtoidentifywithaspecificgroupor
ethnicitytosurviveintheUS.AnotherintervieweedescribedtheUSasbeing‘tooloudandtoofast’
(Yemisi,27yearsold,male,graphicdesigner).AllthesepeopleeventuallyreturnedtoNigeria.
ThegeneraltrendthatemergedconfirmsthatNigeriansareoftenmoreaccustomedtotheUKculture
andcanbeoverwhelmedbythecontrastwhentheygettotheUSandfinditalmostimpossibleto
adjust.TheyoftenreturneithertotheUKortoNigeria.
Interviewees’perceptionsofsocio-economicissuesandconditionsin
Nigeria
Allthecandidatesthatwereinterviewedforthiscasestudycomefromcomfortably-offfamiliesin
Nigeria.Mostofthemrepresentasecondorthirdgenerationintheirownfamiliesofpeoplewho
studiedintheUKandalmostallhavelinksandnetworkswithinthecountry.Theoptionofreturning
toNigeriaisquiteattractivegiventhefamilystructuresandfinancialsupportavailabletothemthere.
Weakinfrastructure,crimeandunpredictability
Mostintervieweescomplainedabouttheweakinfrastructure,whichmakesdailylogistics,planning
andconductingbusinessdifficultinNigeria.Thekeyareaswhichmanyfoundfrustratingincludelack
ofconstantelectricitysupply,lackofwatersupply,erratictelephonenetworksandoccasionalwavesof
crime.Mosthomesusedieselorpetrolpoweredgeneratorsfortheirelectricitysupply,andseveral
intervieweeslamentedtheamountofmoneythiscostsandalsothedifficultyinobtainingdiesel,
whichhasbecomescarce.Bad-qualityroads,trafficjamsinLagos,noiseandairpollutionwereother
keychallengestotheircomfortandqualityoflifeinNigeria.However,withtheadvantageofforeign
degrees,well-payingjobsandfamilysupport,itiseasierforthemthanothersinNigeriatosurvivein
suchconditions.Oneinterviewee,agraphicdesigner,explainedthatalthoughhehasbeenconfronted
withmanychallengesinrunninghismedia/contentdevelopmentbusinessundertheconditions
mentionedabovesincehereturnedin2004,‘itispossibletodealwiththefrustrations’(Yemisi,27
yearsold).
Richculture,vibrantsociallife,disposableincomeandsocialcapital
Whiletheissuesandchallengesdescribedaboveareexperiencestheywouldneverhavehadinthe
UK,theintervieweesstillstatethattheywouldratherliveinNigeriaandsuffertheseinconveniences
15
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andgototheUKforholidays.ThekeyreasonsforthisarethatinNigeriatheyretainthebenefitsof
closenesstofamily,thedynamicsofcommunal/associationallife,thedepthandregularityofsocial
relationsandactivities,cheaperlabouranddomesticsupportservices,feweradministrativeburdens,
fewerbillsandmoredisposableincomewhichhelpstoattainalifestylewhichwouldbeimpossiblefor
themintheUK.
SeveralintervieweesalsoinferredthatwhilemoneyisimportantinNigeria,thesocialcapitalthere
becomesabasisofeconomicactivityaswellasaninformalsocialbarteringsystem.Humanrelations
havetheirownvalue,andsocialcapitalisthecurrency.Theyfeltthatitwaseasiertogetthingsdone
suchasstarttheirownbusinesses,raisefinancialcapital,andfindhelpandsupportwiththepresence
ofthissocialcapital,withouthavingtohavesomuchmonetarybacking.
TheopportunitiesinNigeriaforsocialrecognition,careerprogressionandsecurityofidentitywere
alsosaidtobeconfidence-boosting,whereasintheUKtheyfelttheyalwayshadtoeitherprovetheir
valueor,aslawyerDennisputit,‘provetheirEnglishness’beforebeingacceptedeitherinthe
workplace’sinnercircleorinthecommunity.InNigeria,theyfelttheycouldbethemselvesandstill
makeprogress.
SocialnetworksinNigeria
Durationanddisconnection
ThesocialnetworksofNigerianreturneesvary.Someoftheintervieweesintheirlatefiftiesfeelthat
theirsocialnetworkislimitedbecauseoftheyearstheyspentintheUK.Theyhadahardertime
adjustingandmakingfriendswhentheyreturnedhomethantheyoungergenerations.Mostofthe
intervieweesintheirtwentiesandthirtieshavesettleddownquiteeasilywithnoproblemintegrating.
ManyofthemhavekeptthefriendstheyhadinschoolbeforetheyleftfortheUKandhavemade
newonesatworksincetheyreturnedhome.TheyalsohavefriendsinNigeriawithwhomtheystudied
intheUK.Faye,32,said‘IhavethesamesetoffriendsIhadbeforeIleftNigeria,manyofwhich
movedtotheUKandarenowbackinNigeria.Wehavecomefullcircle.’
IdentityandlinkstoBritain
Interwovenidentities,distinctloyalties
Mostinterviewees,includingthosewithdualcitizenship,oftenclaimedtheirNigerianidentityasbeing
foremost.ThoughtheyreflectedBritishinfluencesintheirspokenaccents,taste,values,comportment
andviewsaboutsomeissues,manystillcountedandportrayedthemselvesasNigerianfirst.
Interestingly,manyoftheintervieweestendedtoswitchbetweenBritishandNigerianaccentswhen
speaking.Somewereconservativeandguardedwhileotherswhereebullientandoutspokenintheir
interviews.
Whilemanywouldclaimonenationalityastheirmainidentity,theinterviewersnotedthat,toadegree
theiridentitiesoftenseemedinterwoven,asmanyoftheintervieweesoutwardlytendedtoswitch
aspectsoftheiridentitytosuitthemood,topicorenvironmenttheywerein:severalofthe
intervieweestendedtointerchangeablydisplayoutwardtraitsofbothNigerianandBritishidentitiesas
situationsandcircumstancedemanded.Fred,35,explainedthatheneverfullyembracedNigerianor
Britishculture,butcreatedhisownwayoflifebycombiningboth.
Intermsof‘feelingBritish’,forthosewhowerebornintheUKorcametothecountryataveryyoung
agetheUKwasalltheyknewintheirpre-formativeyearsandthustheygrewupwithastrongsense
ofBritishnessintheiridentity.Oneinterviewee,Emeka,31,wenttoboardingschoolattheageof7
andsaidthat‘sometimeshefeltBritish’especiallywhenitcametosupportingsportsteams.Butfor
themostpart,theintervieweesclaimedastrongNigerianidentity.
Itissafetoconcludethatmostoftheintervieweesdohaveastrongaffinityforandconnectionwith
theUK.Manyremainfondofthecountry,arenostalgicaboutthelivestheylivedthere,the
experiencestheyhadandtheopportunitiesandadvantagesitaffordedthem.However,formost
people,evenfordualcitizens,alltheabovesentimentsdonotseemtohaveculminatedintoaformof
nationalallegiance,patriotismorasenseofbeingorfeelingBritish.
16
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Financialandsociallinks
AlmostalloftheintervieweesstillkeepfinancialandsociallinksintheUK.Afewhaveinvestments
there,whilemanystillhaveandoperatetheirbankaccountsandcreditcardsaswellaskeepintouch
withfriendsandfamilywholiveintheUK.MostoftheintervieweesseetheUKasagoodplaceto
learnandbeexposedtotheworld’sculturesandsosomeareeducatingtheirownchildrenthereor
intendtodoso.SeveralstilltraveltotheUKforholidaysorotherpurposesasregularlyaseverythree
tosixmonths.Someintervieweesstatedthattheyalwayschosetopassthroughorspendafewdays
intheUKontheirwaytoothercountries.Asoneputit(Tony,57),theUKishis‘jump-offpointto
therestoftheworld’.A29-year-oldstatedthatsometimessheboardsaplanetotheUKforthe
weekend‘inordertohavehersanityreturn’.Forthemajorityoftheinterviewees,theUKseemstobe
likeaholidayhome,aplacetoescapetobutnottoresideinlongterm.
ReturningtotheUK
Alltheintervieweeswithdualcitizenshipstatedthattheywouldneverconsidermovingbacktothe
UKpermanentlytoliveunlesstheywereforcedtobycircumstancesorhadalucrativeoffertheycould
notrefuse.ThesameappliestomostofthosewhohadonlyNigerianpassports.Averysmallnumber
indicatedawillingnesstoreturn,mostlyduetothechallengesoflivinginanunder-developedcountry
ratherthanbecausetheyfeltastrongaffinityfordailylifeandlivingintheUK.Almostallthe
interviewees,however,statedthattheylikedgoingtotheUK,especiallyLondon,forholidays,
shoppingandrelaxing.Somesaidthiswithasenseofnostalgia,butothersweremorepragmaticthan
emotiveintheirviews.
Mimi,25,said:‘IwouldconsidermovingbacktotheUKformykids’,wantingthemtobeeducatedin
theUKfromanearlyagelikeshewas.
Re-engagingex-UKresidents
WhilesomeintervieweeswereuncertainabouthowtheUKcouldengageNigerianreturneesto
positivelycontributetoUK-NigeriarelationsortheUK’sdevelopment,manyfeltthatthereturnees
wereahighlyuntappedresourcethatcouldbenefitbothNigeriaandtheUK.TheyfeltthatNigerian
ex-UKresidentscouldhelptoprovideabetterunderstandingofissues,dynamicsandchallengesof
migrationbothtotheUKgovernmentandtoNigerianpeople.Onementionedthattheycouldhelpto
brokerbusinessventuresbetweenbothcountries;anothersaidtheycouldhelptocurbfraudand
crime;whileanothermentionedtheycouldactasculturalambassadorsthatwouldfacilitatebetter
understandingbetweenthepeoplesofbothnations.
Oneintervieweesuggestedthatregularsocialandbrainstormingeventscouldbeheldduringwhich
issuescouldbediscussedbetweentheUKHighCommissioninNigeriaandex-UKresidents,asa
forumfortablingissuesofcommoninterestandworkingoutsolutions.Consultationscouldbeheld
withex-residentsattimeswhenrelevantpolicydecisionsneededtobemade.Anothersuggestedthat
ex-residentsoftheUKcouldachievealotbyjoiningforceswiththeBritishCounciltoprovide
scholarshipstounderprivilegedbutgiftedNigerianstudentsandalsobyprovidingorientationtraining
forpeoplegoingtoliveorstudyintheUKasthiswouldhelpthemunderstandthelaws,normsand
valuesoftheUKbetterandhelpthemtosettleineasier(Teni,28yearsold,female,entrepreneur).
17
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Conclusion
MigrationfromNigeriatotheUKiswellestablished,spanningmorethanfivedecadesso.Itislikelyto
continueasmorepeopleseekopportunitiesforbettereducation,exposuretoadifferentcultureand
lifeexperience.AccesstobetterfacilitiesandinfrastructureaswelleconomicprospectsintheUK
remainstrongattractionsformanyNigerians,butatthesametimethestrongercommunityrelations,
socialinteraction,socialcapitalandemploymentopportunitiesinNigeriaremainstrongpullsfor
Nigerianstoreturntotheirhomecountry.TheseareaugmentedbyNigeria’sneweraofdemocracy,
openingeconomyandthevalueplacedonNigerianswithforeigndegreesbyemployers,whichlead
someNigerianstoreturntheresoonaftertheycompletetheireducationintheUK.Furthermore,they
findtheNigerianenvironmentmoreconduciveandenablingintermsofprofessionalcareerprospects
andwork-lifebalance.
ThisononehandisapositivetrendforNigeria’sowndevelopment,butontheotherindicatesaloss
ofvaluableskillswhichtheUKcouldhaveharnessedforitsownpurposes.Furthermore,the‘glass
ceiling’thatseveralintervieweesalludedtodiscouragessomeskilledNigeriansfrombuildingcareers
intheUK,anotherpotentialmissedopportunityforthehostcountry.Thus,Britaincouldusefully
reviewhowitmightbenefitfromthevaluablehumanresourcecapitalamongskilledNigerians.
ThemobilityofNigeriansbetweentheUKandtheirhomecountryalsooffersanopportunityforthe
cross-fertilisationofskillsandideaswhichcouldbeofbotheconomicandsocialbenefittoboth
countries,andmeansofbuildingonthiscouldbeexplored.HarnessingandengagingNigerianswho
livedintheUKandhavereturnedtoNigeriatosettlecouldbeanadvantagefortheUKifitsHigh
Commissionweretomaintainadatabaseanddevelopamechanismforcontinuedinteractionand
exchange.Returneescouldactasabridgebetweenbothcountriestofacilitatecooperationinboth
socio-culturalandeconomicmatters.
AsstatedbythedualcitizensinterviewedwhoclaimtheirNigerianidentityforemost,theBritish
passportforthemservesmostlyasafunctionaltoolforeaseoftravel,asopposedtoasymbolof
nationalallegiance.Thisreflectsadissonancebetweennotionsofcitizenshipandidentityandleaves
spaceforfurtherresearchastowhythisgroupofBritishpassportcarriersmaynotfeelanyallegiance
tothecountrynorclaimtheirUKcitizenshipasapartoftheiridentity.
Finally,theinterviewsreflectthatnotallNigerianswhovisittheUKforshortorlong-termpurposes
intendtostayaspermanentresidents.Assuch,immigrationpoliciesthatenableeaseofcirculationin
movementofpeopleandskillsbetweenbothcountriesmaybeofbenefittoboththeUKandNigeria.
18
ippr|ReturnmigrantsinNigeria
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Appendix1:Listofinterviewees
Name
Age
Gender
Ethnicity
Occupation(s)intheUK
Period(s)livedintheUK
Didi
29
Female
Yoruba/Jamaican
Britishcivilservice
dualcitizen(borninUK) (officeadministration)
1979-1992
1997-2006
Tony
56
Male
Yorubadualcitizen
(borninUK)
EngineeratNatWestBank
andShellOilCompany
1952-1954,1956-1959,
1971-1975,1982-1985
Joan
83
Female
Yoruba
Nurse,civilservantsecretary 1953-1964
Mimi
25
Female
Hausa/Frenchdual
citizen(borninUK)
Student
1991-2001
Fred
35
Male
Yorubadualcitizen
(naturalisedintheUK)
Advertisingandmarketing
(businessmanagement)
1980-2005
Sarah
58
Female
Yoruba
Student
1953-1964
Bisola
57
Female
Yoruba
Student
1968-1975
Osa
30
Female
Edo
Student
2002-2005
Emeka
31
Male
Igbodualcitizen
(naturalisedintheUK)
Businesscomputing
systems,DeutscheBank
1986-2006
Edward
32
Male
Yoruba
Student
1992-1999
Teni
28
Female
Edo
Student
1989-1992,1998-2006
Yemisi
27
Male
Cross-River
Student
1998-2004
Faye
32
Female
Yoruba
CommercialManager
1990-2006
Dennis
30-35
Male
Yoruba
Lawyer
Anna
30-35
Female
Yoruba
Media
Ebilah
30-35
Female
Ibo
Oilandgas
Johnson
30-35
Female
Yoruba
Oilandgas
Olagbaju
30-35
Female
Yoruba
Lawyer
Offiong
25-35
Female
Calabar
Publichealth
Iro
25-35
Female
Benin
Lawyer