Material Economy, Spiritual Economy, and Social Critique in "Everyman"
Author(s): Elizabeth Harper and Britt Mize
Source: Comparative Drama, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Fall 2006), pp. 263-311
Published by: Comparative Drama
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41154317
Accessed: 27-11-2015 11:02 UTC
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drama
7 COMPARATIVE
Volume 40 • No. 3 • Fall 2006
MaterialEconomy,SpiritualEconomy,
and Social Critiquein Everyman
Elizabeth Harper and Britt Mize
an important
essayfirstpublishedin 1972,V.A. Kolvepointedout
"theessential
s language,
that"themostdistinctive
part"ofEveryman
verbalmatrixof theplay"deals witheconomicexchangesand theacmustpresent
toGod athisspecialjudgment.1
countbooktheprotagonist
toarguethatthe"source
Kolve'sstudy,
whichdrawson exegetical
tradition
behindthesources"ofEveryman
is theParableoftheTalentsfoundin
Matthew25:14-30,2does wellto stresstheforegrounding
of financial
in Everyman,
but notableaspectsof thatpervasivemotif
terminology
remainunexamined.
Besidesthelanguageof accountancy
and lending
thatitshareswiththeparable,Everyman
alsorepeatedly
invokestheconceptofdonation;and all oftheseideas functionin relationto material
whichalsofeatures
inthetextbutappearsinKolves
wealth,
prominently
like
the
coins
in
interpretation,
patristic
readingsoftheparable,to representhumanqualities,
andresources
ingeneral.3
Moreover,
capabilities,
theviewoí Everyman
in
relation
to
the
Parable
of
the
Talents
developed
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264
Drama
Comparative
joinsmostotherdiscussionsoftheplay,beforeand since,in makingthe
in natureand abstractin
sinfulness
seemunparticularized
protagonists
are
intended
to
presentmatterofuniverrepresentation.
Morality
plays
salimport,
butthisdoesnotmeanthattheirrepresentations
lackallspeciand
in
what
While
the
events
characters
these
works
instantiate
ficity.
theirwriters
taketo be generalprinciples,
theportrayals
thatillustrate
thoseprinciplesalwaysproceedfromand wereunderstoodwithincontextsinvesting
themwithculturalmeaning.Interpretations
ofEveryman
thatconsideronlyitstheologicalideassetasidemanyfeatures
ofthetext
thatcontribute
tothevisionitpromotes
ofthesocialworldandthepeople
it.In thisessaywe willsuggestthattheplayseconomic
who constitute
thereis good
languagehas literalas wellas metaphorical
significance:
reasonto believethatEverymanis less aboutmismanaging
figurative
assetsthanitis aboutlovingthewrongkindofwealth.
This reading,
also in theGospelof
too,has a scriptural
foundation,
Matthew:
vobisthesaurosin terra
nolitethesaurizare
ubi erugoet tineademolitur
ubi fureseffodiunt
et furantur
Thesaurizateautemvobisthesaurosin caelo
ubi ñeque erugoñeque tineademolitur
nec furantur
et ubi furesnon effodiunt
ubi enimestthesaurustuusibiestet cortuum.
(Matt.6:19-21)4
[Laynot up to yourselvestreasureson earth:wheretherust,and moth
and steal.Butlayup to yourconsume,and wherethievesbreakthrough,
selvestreasuresin heaven:whereneitherthe rustnor mothdoth connorsteal.Forwherethy
sume,and wherethievesdo notbreakthrough,
treasureis,thereis thyheartalso.] (Douay-Rheims)
element(theidea that
AlthoughJesus'admonitionhas a metaphorical
thereis anotherkindoftreasuremoreenduringthanmaterialriches),a
underliesthesewordsandtheirdevaluation
practicalorientation
firmly
in social applicationis made
of earthlywealth.This passages interest
that
evenclearerbyitscontextin Matthew6,whichincludesstatements
teachtheobservanceof alms and declarethatone cannotserveboth
orfiguformulation
In notrelying
God andmoney.5
solelyon theoretical
distance
bewhichmayleavea challenging
rativemeaning,
interpretive
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
265
tweentheaffirmation
ofprinciple
anditspractical
theseverses
realization,
fromtheSermonon theMountdiffer
fromthegenreoftheparablewith
itscharacteristically
thegospelaccountssometimes
Indeed,
obliquelogic.
thematize
theopacityofparablesas theirhearersponderthesecompact
narratives
andstruggle
tograsptheirbearingon livedexperience.6
Jesus'
wordshere,bycontrast,
link
attitude
with
action
so
as
to
deexplicitly
mandnot onlyreflection
on thelesson,butitsexecution.
We findthe
samepracticalorientation
and thesamemoralin Everyman,
whichmay
almostbe readas an extendedglosson thisscriptural
text.
is
to
dramatize
purpose
Everyman's
spiritual
periland themeansof
butitsmethodin doingso reflects
salvation,
earthlyconcernsthatare
bothconcreteandparticular.
Itconcentrates
on theaffairs
andactionsof
in
the
whereas
other
often
the
world,
persons
morality
represent
plays
interior
dramaofthesoul as primaryand treatoutwardaspectsoflife
andactionshave
onlyas theyproceedfromit.Whatis more,theseaffairs
a strongly
economicaspect.The worldofEveryman
turnson an axisof
theloveofmoney.Thismisdirected
desiremustbe supplanted
bya differentattitudetowardwealth,one thatsubordinates
materialvalue to
theformerintothe
spiritualvalue and evenfindswaysof converting
Inwhatfollows
latter.
wewillshowthatthesetwoqualitiesofEveryman
itspersistent
economicalertness,
bothinliteralandinmetaphorical
terms,
anditsemphasison behaviorratherthantheprivatelifeofthesoul- are
totheplayswaysofmakingmeaning.
thesetwoqualiMoreover,
integral
tiesworktogether
to connecttheplaywithsocial commentary
more
closelythanhas so farbeenobserved.
is a literary
artifact
ofearlyTudorEngland,written
someEveryman
timeafterabout1485andextantinfourpartialorcompletetextsprinted
betweenc.1515and c.1535.7Accordingly,
our analysiswilltakenotice
of
two
discursive
environments
thatarelikely
throughout
overlapping
to haveinformed
itsreception.
The first,
a constellation
ofliterary
conventionscoincidingtopicallywiththisplay,can illuminate
itsprobable
meaningsforan audienceacquaintedwithlateMiddleEnglishliterary
anddramatic
traditions
stillviableatthetimeoí Everyman's
documented
existence.
The secondcontext,
one in whichithas seldombeen considered,is a groupofmainlyearlysixteenth-century
workswithwhichthe
textsofEveryman
sharegenre,time,place,andmedium.Severalprinted
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266
Drama
Comparative
withEveryman,
mostof themmorality
playshavingrelevantaffinities
withit in London:Hick Scorner,The
plays,circulatedsimultaneously
Worldand the Child,Youth,HenryMedwall'sNature,JohnSkeltorís
and GentleJohnRastellsNatureof theFourElements,
Magnyfycence,
nessandNobility,
possiblybyJohnHeywood.8Ourfocuson Everyman's
contexts
should
notbe seenas an attempt
to suppressitsderivaEnglish
In fact,we willtakecognizance
tionfromtheMiddleDutchElckerlijc.9
unremarked
fromit
ofthissource,becausesomepreviously
departures
on
the
construction
and
of
the
shed
priorities
may
Englishplay.10
light
ButEveryman's
textsnowhereindicateitsoriginin Dutchrhetoricians'
dramasuch thatan earlyEnglishaudiencecan be presumedto have
knownofit;11and evenhad theybeenawareofitsroots,normalreaders
orviewersofEveryman
wouldnothavebelievedtheycouldunderstand
criticalcomparisonwithElckerlijc.
itonlythrough
Theysurelyencountereditas a playin English,situatedde factowithinEnglishsocial,dramilieux.Sensitivity
toEveryman's
matic,andliterary
placeintheEnglish
and earlysixteenth
centuriesrelandscapeofthelatefifteenth
literary
more
vealsthattheplayis engagedwiththediscourseofsocialcomplaint
we
have
observed.
This
historians
than
yet
engagement,
literary
deeply
willargue,is encodedin Everyman's
handlingofhiswealth.
I. MaterialWealth and Avarice
loveofworldly
is avarice,theinordinate
sinin Everyman
The besetting
soundthenoteofhis
goods.12God himselfsaysso: his firststatements
are
displeasurethatall creatures
withoutdredein worldlyprosperyte.
Lyuynge
Of ghostlysyghtthepeoplebe so blynde,
Drownedin synne,theyknowme notfortheyrGod.
In worldelyrychesis all theyrmynde.
(24-27)
a fewlineslaterwhenGod describeshumanThismessageis reinforced
with
kindas "socombred
worldly
ryches/Thatnedeson themI mustdo
takebody
abouthumanity
iustice"(60-61). Whenthesegeneralizations
ofEveryman,
and voicein thecharacter
beginto apsignsimmediately
his
own
chiefmoral
is
indeed
wealth
for
concern
pearthatimmoderate
failing.In responseto God's orders,Death saysthathe willsearchout
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
267
(74) anddoesnotfearGod,buthesingles
everypersonwholives"beestly"
outtheavaricious("he thatlouethrychesse,"
after
76); and immediately
he
whose
is
on
lustes
so,
approachesEveryman,
saying
"mynde
flesshely
and his treasure"
dressedand
(82). Everymanfirstappearsfashionably
mindful
ofearthly
contentments
andpreoccupied
withwealth.
insouciant,
In theplay'sfirstmajordialogue,Everyman's
faithin richesleadsto
his ridiculousattemptto bribeDeath.We willdiscussthisepisodein
somedetaillater.Fornow,whatis mostimportant
is Deathsrevelation
to Everyman
thathiswealthis notfinally
hisat all:
[Dethe:]What,wenestthouthylyueis gyuenthe,
And thyworldely
gooddesalso?
I
had
wende
so,veryle.
Eueryman:
Dethe:Nay,nay,itwas butlendethe;
Foras soone as thouartego,
Anothera whyleshallhaue it,and thango ther-fro,
Euen as thouhastdone.
(161-67)
Deathsmentionof"worldely
gooddes"atthismomentis,strictly
speaking,a non sequitur;he maynaturallyenoughbringup the idea that
lifeis merelyon loan,giventhattheyare discussingitsapEveryman's
in the
proachingend,buthis associationof wealthwithit is arbitrary
immediatecontext.
The pairingsuggests,
thatthisnewsis on
however,
- and to theplay'sdidactic
thesame orderof magnitudeto Everyman
whenDeathexpands
purposes-as thenewsofhismortality.
Significantly,
on his ownanswerto hispreviousquestion,he resolveshis ambiguous
"it"in line 164as wealthonly,notlife,in theexplanation
thatit
singular
willpasson toothersas ifEveryman
had neverevenhadit.Deathknows
thatthisinformation
hitsEveryman
whereithurtsmost.
andwithKindred
Everyman's
subsequentdialogueswithFellowship
and Cousin offeronlyhintsof excessiverelianceon richeswithinthe
as whenitisinsinuated
thatFellowship
is a boughtfriend.13
itself,
playtext
Butto anyaudiencefamiliar
withthewidelydistributed
tale
exemplary
oftheUnfaithful
Friendsorwiththearsmoriendi
bothofwhose
tradition,
closeaffiliations
withEveryman
havebeen obviousto modernreaders,
ofavaricewouldhoveraroundthesescenes.In bothedited
implications
versionsof the GestaRomanorum,
at thebeginningof theUnfaithful
Friendsanaloguetheprincipalcharacter
setsouttobuyfriends
in order
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268
Drama
Comparative
to providehimselfwithhelpin anyfuturetimeofneed.14Moregenerabandonmentby Fellowally,all theEnglishanaloguesto Everyman's
and
moralized
Cousin
are
to
thefutility
oftrust
Kindred,
ship,
exemplify
In all ofthem,the
in earthlyrichesas wellas in humancompanions.15
- a friendwhom,we are toldin mostverfirstofthefriendsto renege
- is allegolovesas muchas or morethanhimself
sions,theprotagonist
rizedas worldlywealth.And whilesomeoftheseparalleltalesidentify
inothershe turns
withChrist,
whofinally
thefriend
provestobe faithful
the
outto represent
almsgiving, standardremgood works,particularly
The distressEveryman
foravaricein moralliterature.16
edyprescribed
feelsatthedesertionofFellowship,
Kindred,and Cousinitselfconfirms
Heretheverypopulararsmoriendi
theimputation
tohimofworldliness.
and earlysixteenth
centuriesbecomesinforliterature
of thefifteenth
mative.17
These workscounsel contemptusmundi,the avoidanceor
whethermaterialor human,and
renunciation
oftemporalattractions
assertthatin theseriesoftemptations
precedingdeath,theloveoffamidenticalto thelove of possessionsin the
ilyand friendsis essentially
readersmight
natureofthedangeritposestothesoul.Whilepresent-day
and greedforrichesunderthe
not readilygrouphumanattachments
sameheading,thewritersof artesmoriendidid:bothsignaledspirituallyperilousdevotionto thethingsoftheworld.18
in dramatizing
Of centralimportance
principalfailing,
Everyman's
notablefactinthisscene
withGoods.The first
ofcourse,ishisencounter
ofwealthat Everyman's
is simplythequantity
disposal.Goods'descripfora stage
tionofhispositionand posture(an implicitsetofdirections
that
a
bulkyarrangement seemingly
property)emphasizes sprawling,
answersanydoubtas to whetherEverymancouldbackup his offerto
payDeaththesumofa thousandpounds:
I lyeherein corners,trussedand pyledso hye,
And in ehestesI am lockedso fast,
Also sackedin bagges.Thou maystse withthyneye
I can notstyre;in packes,loweI lye.
(394-97)
Goods has the finalplace in theplay'sfirstsuccessionof disappointand
ofFellowship,
thedesertion
Kindred,
mentsforEveryman,
following
he has mostsethishearton.Everyman
Cousin,becauseitis the"friend"
to
Goods thanto theothers:
attachment
expressesstronger
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269
ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
All mylyfeI haue loued ryches.(388)
... allmylyfeI hauehadioye& pleasureinthe.(408)
Alas,I haue theloued,and had gretepleasure
on good and treasure.(427-28)
All mylyfe-dayes
loue;
A, Good,thouhasthad longemyhertely
I gauethethatwhichesholdebe theLordesaboue.(457-58)
Asthelastextract
shows,hehasevensetrichesintheplaceofGod,as sure
a signofavariceas one couldaskfor.19
Everymanbeginsin thebeliefthathis love forGoods is reciprocated,and his attitudetowardwealthis summedup by his perverse
creedthat"moneymakethall ryghtthatis wronge"(413). It is in accordancewiththisconvictionthatEverymanasks Goods to help his
hisaccountbookbeforeGod.His faithinwealth
causewhenhe presents
has notbeen sufficiently
shakenbyDeathsearliercorrection,
and now,
mustsetEveryman
whenGoodshimself
the
straight, unqualified
wrongheadednessofhisloveofrichesbecomesinescapable.
PerhapsEveryman
was misledinto placingexcessivetrustin Fellowship,Kindred,and
Cousin bypromisesof theirallegiance,thekindsof promiseswe see
themmake in ludicrousprofusionbeforetheyunderstandwherehe
mustgo.Butin contrastto thesefigures,
withtheirextravagant
talkof
Goods has made no professions
of friendship,
and such cauloyalty,
andqualifiedaffirmations
tiousdistinctions
as he does makeseemmore
consistent
withthecarefulwordsofa contract:
"Syr,& yein theworlde
haue soroweor aduersyte,
/ That can I helpeyou to remedyshortly"
(401-2);
wenestthouthatI am thyne?
I sayeno.
Naye,Eueryman,
As fora whyleI was lentethe;
A seasonthouhasthad me in prosperyte.
WenestthouthatI wyllfolowethe?
Nay,frothisworldenot,veryle.
(437-45)
Whereasthehumancompanionsmakeexcuses,Goods insiststhathe
has doneall he is obligedto do,andhe willnotpretendtohaveanything
buta businessrelationship
withEveryman.
The friends
werefickle,
but
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270
ComparativeDrama
Goods has simplyactedaccordingtohisnature,
whichEveryman
might
havediscernedhad he beenwiser:
O falseGood,cursedthoube,
Everyman:
Thou traytour
to God,thathastdeceyuedme
And caughtme in thysnare!
Goodes:Mary,thoubroughtthyselfein care,
WherofI am gladde.
I mustnedeslaugh;I can notbe sadde.
(451-56)
The finallinesquotedreplacetheearliercharacters'
bonhohypocritical
miewithanunimpeachably
honestsneer.
AsthesceneendsandEveryman
lamentshis predicament,
he statesonce againthathe has lovedGoods
themost,butsees thathe has foundtheleastcomfort
therein his momentofneed (472-73).
and this
intotrouble,
Clearlyitis avaricethathas gottenEveryman
factcombineswithotherdetailsin thetextto tellus morethanhas usuWhilehisrecovery
fromsin
allybeenrecognizedabouttheprotagonist.
tracesa pathavailtogracethrough
thestandardpenitential
procedures
able to all of humankind,
he himselfis notwhollygeneric.20
He has a
confidence
powerful
particular
placeintheearthly
economy:Everyman's
toearlyaudiencesas a prosingoodswouldhavemadehimrecognizable
and commercial
class,a classparticuperousmemberofthemercantile
toavarice.21
Ofcourse,
tolatemedievalstereotypes)
larlygiven(according
of
even
or
can
be
too
fond
possessions,
meager merelydesired
anyone
ones,and notonlyentrepreneurs
mightbe rich.ButEverymanis rich,
and the playoffersno reasonto supposehe has inheritedold family
wealth.Givenhis firmfaiththatmoneymakesrightwhatis wrong,it
inmoney,
butthatitholds
seemsverylikelynotonlythathe is interested
The imagerywithwhichGoods is
a centralplace in his consciousness.
- in theformof cash,heaped and stacked,baggedand
firstpresented
- is theimagery
ofwealthinwhosegainandmanlockedinstrongboxes
not
wealth
of achievedprosperity,
has
been
taken:
care
much
agement
hereditary
place.
One of the more recentanalystsof the play has suggestedthat
theidle dandyor
kindof characteraltogether:
Everymanis a different
a
a
who
is
countryheir,a
conventionallyrakehell, profligate
gallaunt,22
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
271
withcourtly
oralloftheabove.The claimthat
class-climber
pretensions,
is
based
fits
this
type
mainlyon thefactthathe is dressed
Everyman
atthestartoftheplay.Butasidefromthemention
orfashionably,
"gaily,"
actionsand attiofhisdress,theassociationsareall wrong;Everyman's
tudesare typicaloftheprofit-seeker,
notthegallant.He is definedby
his wealthand his relianceon it,whereaswealthper se is incidental
to
of
the
is
standard
for
the
equipment
dandy.23
portrayals
Elegantclothing
but
it
is
no
less
consonant
with
identification
gallant,
certainly,
Everyman's
as avaricious(in themorallandscape)or as a successfulman of commerce(in thesocioeconomicone). LongbeforeEverymanwalkedthe
earth,Chaucer'spilgrimMerchantdressednattilybutbehavedwitha
soberfocuson thegetting
and keepingofwealth.24
Similaris Margery
a
son,
Kempe's
wyth worschepful
"dwellyng
burgeysin Lynne,vsyng
whose
wer
al
marchawndyse,"
"clothys
daggyd"and whom she urges
he xuldefieJ>eperellysofJ>is
world& notsettynhysstodyne hys
"J>at
so
mech
as
he
and Gentleness
andNobility,
a
dede";25
J^erup-on
besynes
withSkot'seditionsofEveryman,
features
a Merchant
playcontemporary
who enjoys"fynecloth& costlyaray"(326) butopenstheplaybyemacquisitionofwealth:he has"vsyd& thevereyfet
phasizinghis skillful
found"of commerce"and therebygottonmanya thousandpownd /
wherfore
now be cause of mygreteryches"(6-8). Whilestylishdress
oftenfunctions
as a convenient
thedefining
symbolofpride(normally
sinofthegallant)inthedramaofthelateMiddleAges,26
in conjunction
withothercuesitcan equallytraditionally
be connectedwitheitherlust
oravarice,and dramaticcontexts
inwhichithas a clearassociationwith
thelatterhelpto determine
theglancingreferences
to elegantdressin
as a further
markerofhis wealthand his enjoyment
of it.27
Everyman
TheisolatedfactofEveryman's
fineappearanceneednotlinkhimclosely
withthevainglorious,
recklessgallantanymorethanthecombination
of
finedressandwealthmustlinkhimwiththeoverweening
ofthe
tyrants
latemedievalstage,whosesumptuousclothingand richesaretreatedas
a symbolofthetemporalpowerin whichtheychiefly
delight.28
- conceiving
orientation
to wealth
ofitnotprimarily
as
Everyman's
a tokenofpower,a concomitant
ofsocialstation,
or a disposablemeans
torowdypleasure,
butas a carefully
tendedstoreofpoundsandpenceis farmorelikelyto be associatedwith"getting,"
or commercialenter-
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272
Drama
Comparative
In
winner.29
prise.The spendthrift
gallantis thewasterto Everyman's
SkeltonsMagnyfycence,
towardbecominga
FancyeggsMagnificence
him
that
spendthrift
by telling
pennypinching
(Fancy'scaricatureof
a
is
fine
for
merchant
but
for
Measure)
unseemly a lord(382-89). The
merchantin Chaucer'sShipmarisTale does as we mayeasilyimagine
Everyman
doingwhen
up intohis countour-hous
goothhe
To rekenewithhymself,
wel maybe,
Of thilkeyeerhowthatitwithhymstood,
Andhow thathe despendedhaddehis good,
And ifthathe encressedwereor noon.
His bookesand his baggesmanyoon
He leithbifornhymon his countyng-bord.
Tales7.11 -83)
(Canterbury
andchronologiDance ofDeath,a textphilosophically
In JohnLydgate's
a
citizenlearns
than
The
closer
to
Tale, wealthy
Shipmaris
Everyman
cally
Deathaddresses
thatitishisturntojointhemorbidprocession.
Lydgate's
theBurgessas follows,usingone of thesame tacksthatDeath uses in
on hismaterialistic
sensibilities:
to makean impression
Everyman
SireBurgeys/whatdo 3e lengertarie
Foral 3owreaver/& 3owregreterichesse
For3owretresoure/píente& largesse
Fromotherhitcame/& shalvn-tostraungeres
He is a fole/thatynsochebesynesse
hisgarneres.
Wotenotforhorn/he stuffeth
(297-98,301-4)30
as he acquiresa
townsmananswersmuchas Everyman
might,
Lydgate's
moreenlightened
perspective:
Certesto me /hitis gretedisplesauns
To leue al this/& mai hitnotassure
Howsesrentes/tresoure& substauns
Detheal fordothe
/sucheis hisnature
There-fore
/wiseis no creature
Thatsette[h]is herte/on gode thatmotedisseuere.
(305-10)
to
movesfromattachment
UnderthehandofDeath,theBurgessswiftly
that
in
some
it
insure
he
could
wealth,absurdlywishing
(assure)
way
that
would guaranteeitsvalue beyondthe grave,to acknowledgment
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
273
richesare notwhereone should"settehis herte."
A misplacedheartis
problemtoo,and he is in thesame social classas Lydgates
Everyman's
citizen
andChaucers merchants:
thatwhichis characterized
prosperous
as proneto narrowconcernfor"[account]bookesand . . . baggesmany
oon,"for"tresoure& substauns."
s adaptationfromElckerlijcalso providessome reason
Everyman
to understandEverymanas a man of commerce.The Englishwriter
workedfroma playwithclearlymercantileconcerns.In renderingit
intoEnglish,
he orsheretainedmanyindications
ofthisorientation;
and
if Everymanweakenssome of them,31
it enhancesothers.Most strikintroduces
the
account
bookorbook ofreckoning
as a
Everyman
ingly,
discreteobject,a comprehensive
ledgerwhichhe alreadyhas, while
refers
less
to
Elckerlijc
precisely papersand documentstheprotagonist
mustgather.32
whereas
seemspuzzledatfirst
aboutwhat
Also,
Elckerlijc
is beingdemandedofhimbyDie Doot (Death),Everyman
is worried
butnotconfused-bytheprospectofpresenting
his accountbook:he
knowsexactlywhatan auditis,and thathe is unprepared
forit.33These
do
not
create
differences
between
the
two
adjustments
major
plays,but
do
afford
a
of
the
s
of
they
glimpse
Englishadapter conception themain
character.
Wehaveseen,then,thatEveryman
laysa gooddeal ofstresson avafirst
as
a
and
then
as a personalone,and givesus a
rice,
generalproblem
toitwithin
protagonist
sociallypositionedtobe particularly
susceptible
audienceexpectations.
This is evidentwithinthetextof theplay;it is
moreconspicuousif anypriorknowledgeof relatedtraditions
in Enis
to
and
its
to
the
can
be
conbear;
glish brought
importance
adapter
firmedby comparisonto Elckerlijc.This is not to say thatEveryman
a worldsubjectonlyto a singlesin.Thereareseveralreferences
portrays
to othersinsin theplay,suchas Deaths statement
thatEveryman,
besidesbeingpreoccupiedwith"treasure,"
also has his mindon "flesshely
lustes"(82),34orthelinein theDoctors speechthatwarnsagainstpride
thatavariceis thematterofgreatest
concernin
(904).35In recognizing
thisplay,it is not necessaryto denythatEverymantoucheson other
moralfailings.
Thereis no reasonfortheplaywright
(or us) to assume
thatthegreedy
not
have
other
faults
as
and
well, indeed,latemedimight
eval treatments
ofvirtuesand vicesfrequently
promotewhatmightbe
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274
ComparativeDrama
calleda dominotheory
ofdeadlysins:eventhoughtheymaybe rigorously
classifiedfordidacticand confessionalpurposes,anyone ofthemis a
breachin the rampartof the soul and increasesvulnerability
to the
others.36
in lightof thesepointsthatthe
But it is all the morenoteworthy
in
is
not
of
sinfulness
more
scope
Everyman
broadlyinclusivethanitis.
While Everyman'sfair-weather
associates Fellowship,Kindred,and
abouta widerangeofvices,withintheaction
Cousinseementhusiastic
tono moralerrorbutexcessiveworldly
oftheplayhehimself
is attracted
attachment.
Comparisonwithearlierand contemporary
morality
plays
theotherstendstrongly
confirms
uniquenessinthisrespect;
Everyman's
or at leastto allowits
eitherto pursuea plenaryaccountof sinfulness
him.The
in theprotagonist
and thosewhoinfluence
diverseexpression
fit
this
of
the
Macro
threefifteenth-century
manuscript
pattern:
plays
schemaoftheThree
Wisdomis organizedaccordingto thetraditional
and TheCastle
Mankinddramatizes
Temptations;
generaldissoluteness;37
oftheworldand (like
ofPerseverance,
whichcenterson thetemptation
nevertheless
sin
of
on
the
avarice,
bringsinto
corresponding
Everyman)
full
roster
of
the
seven
mortal
taxonomic
the
zeal,
view,with
prominent
The sameis trueofthemorality
remedies.
sinsandtheirrespective
plays
in printconcurrently
withEveryman:The Worldand the Child and
Medwall'sNaturebothresolutely
surveyall sevendeadlysins;less sysare
tematicthanthese,buteach servingup a cornucopiaofimmorality,
HickScorner,Youth,
and SkeltonsMagnyfycence.
andotherplaysofitskindhighbetweenEveryman
Thisdistinction
withrespectto
ofmorality
which
it
conceives
with
the
lights consistency
in
has
riches.All in all,theungodlinessdepicted Everyman persistently
materialistic
and evencommercialleanings,and thefactthatavariceis
sinfulness
thecoreofEveryman's
strongly
suggeststhatthewritersaw
concernsas thecharinmaterial
interest
gaintotheexclusionofspiritual
viceofhisor hertime.Thereis a dimensionofsocialcritique
acteristic
We willreturnto
has usuallyfailedto appreciate.
herethatscholarship
to comitwillbe necessary
thisaspectoftheplayin due course,butfirst
maother
the
for
our
the
interpretation
bydiscussing
plete background
in
reference
of
economic
Everyman.
jor class
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
275
II. Spiritual
Wealthand theSoteriological
Economy
than
Thereis muchmoreto sayabouteconomiclanguagein Everyman
to improper
attitudes
towardwealth,
whether
as a
thatitdrawsattention
fault
or
as
a
moral
The
drama
on
pandemic
problem.
personal
goes to
who diesin a
showtheresolution
ofthistroubleforEveryman
himself,
stateof graceand is receivedintoheaven;and thewaythisresolution
totheplayswebofeconomiclanguageand conoccursalso contributes
two
cepts.Everyman
presentstwodiscreteplanesofeconomicactivity,
in
different
of
values
that
find
terms
expression
predominantly
systems
ofthepossessionor movementof wealth.The firstis theliteral,mundaneframeofreference,
thatofearthly
on whichwehavefocused
riches,
thus
far.
our discussion
The second,to whichwe now turn,is a metaa
and valueswhose
phoricaleconomy: systemofspiritualrelationships
often
makes
use
of
the
of
wealth
as an instrucrepresentation
language
tiveanalogy,
a wayofaccommodating
andmetaphysical
ideas
theological
to a morefamiliar
conceptualparadigm.38
Themostcentraleconomiclanguageintheplayis thedescription
of
as
a
of
accounts.
No
other
Everyman's
judgment reckoning
metaphoris
usedto describehisanticipated
in
Gods
appearance
presence.It is simfromthebeginning
oftheplaytotheend,anditis referplya reckoning,
encedas suchapproximately
times.39
Thisidea is biblicalin origin
forty
and extremely
commonthroughout
theMiddleAges,butas we havealthe
dramatist
seen,
ready
Everyman
bringsnewlifeto thefamiliarold
of
the
its
figure speechby giving play mostmemorableand concrete
image,theaccountbook,and puttingitin thehandsofa businessman,
someonewhoknowsaboutkeepingaccounts.Whiletheimminent
audit
oftheaccountbook is themostconspicuousmanifestation
ofthespiritualeconomyinEveryman,
itis nottheonlyone.Itparticipates
however,
in a network
ofeconomicmetaphors
thatalso includesthelanguageof
of
and oflending.
purchase, gift-giving,
takesfulladvantageof thetraditional
of
Everyman
representation
Christscrucifixion
as a purchaseofhumankind.
Thismotifis introduced
inGods monologue-infact,hardon theheelsofthelines(24-28,
early,
thatfirstidentify
avariceas theprevailing
sin:
quotedpreviously)
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276
Drama
Comparative
MylawethatI shewed,whanI forthemdyed,
clene/and shedyngeofmyblode rede.
Theyforgete
I hangedbytwenetwotheues,itcan notbe denyed;
To getethemlyfeI suffred
to be deed.
(29-32)
withtheimmediately
Thejuxtaposition
precedingcomplaintabouthuman preoccupationwith"worldelyryches"(27) is pointed,thoughit
mightbe missedin casualmodernreadingdue tothesemanticdevelopin MiddleandEarlyModmentbywhichget,oftenmeaning"purchase"
oftheunderlying
ernEnglish,has generalizedto"acquire."
Recognition
idea is not difficultin context,however,giventhe conventionality
tradition
ofreference
toChristsbloodas a kindof
Christian
throughout
This idea is evokedelsecurrencyspentto thebenefitof humankind.
wherein theplaytoo,as whenEveryman
praysthatGod willprotecthis
as wouldsoulatthemomentofdeathfromdiabolicaladversaries,
figured
- "as thoume boughtest,
so me defende"(882)40- and it ocbe thieves
cursseveraltimesin clustersof economicand legallanguagesuch as
God became incarnate
befitdescriptionof a contractor transaction.
man
Whiche
Adamforfayted
wolde
he
/
rédeme,
byhis
euery
"bycause
in Christ's
(584-85); Everymanhopesto be "partynere"
dysobedyence"
and
he
will
need
of
his
the
meanes
(602-3);
help"to
passyon"
glory"by
The
word
of
all
the
Redemer
makerekenynge
/Before
(511-12).
thynge"
a buyingredeemis,of course,an economicterm,literally
signifying
circulathe
time
of
had
not
faded
at
this
sense
and
back,
Everyman's
yet
of the analogybetweenChristsblood
tion.41Once the pervasiveness
inEveryman
to Christthe
and moneyis borneinmind,otherreferences
withthe plays patternsof
Redeemerbecomemoreclearlyintegrated
economiclanguage,as whenEverymaninvokeshim,"O ghostlytreaandredemer"
sure,O raunsomer
(589),orFiveWitsexplainsthat"mannes
that
God
is something
"gauevs outofhishertewithgrete
redempcyon"
pyne"(718-20).
economic
The lastquotationshadesintoanotherfieldofnonliteral
of
souls
in Everyman,
reference
byChrist,
focusingnoton thepurchase
value.Thisis what
ofmetaphysical
buton God s donationofsomething
The buyingofhumanmakeshumanvolitionand activity
meaningful.
of
forlostsouls in a transaction
kindinvolvedthegivingof"treasure"
as a whole
theobjects;butthattransaction
whichthosesoulsweremerely
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
277
benefitto
(thefactof thepurchase)is a gift,in thatit is of gratuitous
wasnotrequiredofChrist,
andmustbe voluntarily
humankind,
accepted
take
effect.
Thus
the
which
lies enindividuals
to
model,
purchase
by
can
be
suboutside
the
of
human
involvement,
sphere latter-day
tirely
In
sumedintothegiftmodelwhenviewedfroma temporalperspective.
thelanguageof theplay,God gives,or mayextendas a gift,salvation
(716-20,
(718-20,justquoted),mercy(58), grace(607),thesacraments
topartakeofthem(608,withref751-54),andthetimeand opportunity
to penance).The natureofsuchgiftsas freely
erencespecifically
givenis
ina passagetobe discussedmorefully
thegenstressed
below,contrasting
with
the
of
who
from
of
Christ
simonists
profit
erosity
greed
materially
thatwhichis supposedtobe freely
availabletoall (751-58).But
brokering
a giftfreely
must
also
be
received
a giftis a symgiven
willingly;
accepting
bolicactthatimpliestheacceptanceas wellofsomesenseofloyalty,
duty,
orspecialrelationship
tothegiver.
Thisaspectofthesystem
isrepresented
inEveryman,
too:inGods openingspeech,itis clearthatmercyisoffered,
itwillbe acceptedis nota foregone
butwhether
conclusion(58-59).
in Everyman.
God is thusbotha buyerand a benefactor
He is also a
their
or
life
creditor,
(57,161-64,
temporarily
lendingpeople
verybeing
and itis herethat
341).In thiscase,thehumanobligationis stewardship,
The loan of
applicationoftheParableoftheTalentsis mostcompelling.
lifecan be repaid,in a sense,bydevotingthatlifeto God, recognizing
thathe is entitled
to it,and finally
itto himin theformofthe
returning
eternalsoulwhichhasbeenpreserved
in safekeeping.
The assetsthatgo
ofthehumanbeingsuchas Beauty,
alongwiththelifehegives attributes
and
FiveWits- mustbe used so as to
Discretion,
Strength,
Knowledge,
rendera profit
on hisinvestment.
In anyevent,a debtis owedto God.In
thathe has madea loan,eachpersonowesa returnon hisbounty,
as the
reformed
in
and
that
God
has
made
a
(865);
Everymanacknowledges
thatofgratitude
donation,a relationalobligationis incurredin return,
and fidelity,
whichshouldbe manifested
in appropriate
attitudes(the
orientation
ofthewilltowardGod) and actions(good deeds).
Thisiswhy,
whenGod complainsthatallcreatures
withare"lyuynge
out dredein worldlyprosperyte"
(24), he equatesthiswiththeirbeing
but"unnatural,"
towardHim(23).People
"vnkynde,"not
only"ungracious"
have ignoredtheirappointedrelationship
to God in thehierarchical
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278
ComparativeDrama
theirmaker,
andjudge,as
order,failingto fearor remember
benefactor,
we can see byrevisiting
an important
passagefromGods introductory
monologue:
Of ghostlysyghtthepeoplebe so blynde,
Drownedin synne,theyknowme notfortheyrGod.
In worldelyrychesis all theyrmynde;
thesharperod.
Theyferenotmyryghtwysnes,
I
I
lawe
that
whan
for
themdyed,
shewed,
My
clene
and
/
Theyforgete
shedyngeofmyblode rede.
(25-30)
Attentive
onlyto materialgain,humanbeingsareunableevento recognize thespiritualeconomyor to acknowledgetheirobligationto God
withinit.In thepersonofChrist,God has showntheultimatein lordly
on thecrosstoprevent
forfeiture
ofhumanity's
claimto a
care,suffering
him
andforsaken
placeintheheavenly
yettheyhaveforgotten
kingdom;
and obedienceto hisauthority.
ratherthanresponding
withgratitude
havebeenbenevolent,
andhisdecisiontohave
Still,Gods intentions
hasbeen
a reckoning
ofdeedsis a responsetothefactthathisgenerosity
answeredwithnegligence:
I hopedwellthateueryman
In myglorysholdemakehis mansyon
ButnowI se,lyketraytours
deiecte,
Theythankeme notforthepleasurethatI to themment,
NoryetfortheyrbeyngthatI themhaue lent.
(52-53,55-57)
here and "lawe"previously
The appearanceof the words"traytours"
the
both
(29)corresponding
passagesofElckerlijcunprompted
by
underscores
thefactthatthisgift,likeanygiftfromlordto vassal,is a
rewouldbe notonlytheappropriate
one. Gratitude
quasicontractual
are
human
beings actually
sponse,butthejustone;bybeingungrateful,
linesto
in
on
the
God
to
their
lord.42
subsequent
goes
beingdisloyal
withhumankindspreoccupationwith
connectthistreasonexplicitly
materialwealth:
ofmercy,
I profered
thepeoplegretemultytude
And fewetherebe thataskethithertly.
Theybe so combredwithworldlyriches
Thatnedeson themI mustdo iustyce.
(58-61)
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
279
fromtakHavingsettheirheartson possessions,
peopleareobstructed
of giftand grateful
ingpartfullyin thetransactions
loyaltythatGod
invites.
Theirparticipation
in thesystemhas becomeso attenuated
that
besidesfailingto respondto previously
718acceptedgifts(salvation,
20; thesacraments,
751-54) withsteadfast
allegiance,
theynowfaileven
to accept,actively
and"hertly,"
thecontinuedoffer
ofmercy.
The executionofjustice,as statedin Gods monologue,is a directconsequenceof
thishumanfailureto participate
dulyin thecycleofgivingand receivwithin
which
remains
available.Everyman
takesaction
ing,
mercy
freely
to acceptor claimthatgiftwhenhe beginshis penancein hopes that
God will"gyueme grace"(607),whichwillmakeEveryman's
deedsefficaciousin termsoftheaccountbookthatrecordsthem.
The factthatEveryman
portrays
good worksas havingvaluein the
accountbook and in thesoteriological
auditis notin itselfremarkable
fromthestandpoint
ofdogma.43
Itis,however,
a departure
fromElckerlijc,
wherethecorresponding
Duecht
is
not
outwardbut
character,
(Virtue),
a motivating
an action
inward,
primarily
qualityratherthanessentially
of themoralperson.44
This changeharmonizeswithEveryman's
tento
the
outward
and
thebehavioral,
whichcan be seen
dency emphasize
too in the conspicuously
sacramentalism
of theEnglish
participatory
is
not
he
does
with
play:Everyman
justcontrite; really
penance,complete
The contrast
betweenEveryman's
focuson thepietyofthe
flagellation.45
socialpersonandtheinteriorized
outward,
pietyofsomeothercontemdevotional
discourse
is
forinstance,
Consider,
porary
profound.
Wynkyn
deWordes1501pamphletthatwrenches
extracts
from
widelyseparated
TheBook ofMargeryKempe-a mysticwhosedevotionwas nothingif
notdemonstrativeintosomething
a treatiseon thesuffiresembling
of
intentions
and
or
desires;46
ciency pious
morality
playslikeTheCastle
ofPerseverance
and Wisdom,
whichstrongly
thetheater
ofpsyprivilege
and
resolution,
chologyoverthatofactionintheworld.Devoutthought,
intention
havelittleplace in Everyman
as
underlie
except theydirectly
action.This playfirmly
embedsthepersonalrecovery
to gracein the
structure
ofthechurch,
the
public,sacramental
asserting regulatory
power
ofthecommunity
ofChristianfaithand itsinstitutional
order.
manifestation
ofhumansinfulness
inEveryman
Justas theprimary
is avarice,so also is salvationimaginedprimarily
in economicterms.
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280
Drama
Comparative
kindoftheologicallanguage:mostelementsof
Thisis a verytraditional
thisspiritualeconomyderivefromscriptural
metaphorsbased on the
in patristic
and medievalcomnotionofwealthand havea longhistory
of
ideas
in
But
this
complex
Everymanalongsidethe
mentary. placing
theconceptual
emphasison materialrichesis crucialto understanding
In
this
the
universeconstructed
by
play. Everyman spiritualeconomy
thatof
operatesin concertwiththeotherplaneofeconomicreference,
ofmeaning.
materialwealth,to createtheplays largerstructures
literal,
Wherethetwoeconomiesmeet,of course,is in theindividualperson,
in both.The soul has a
selfpositionedto participate
theexperiencing
where
it
must
address
itsattention
toGod
in
the
place
spiritual
economy,
so as notto neglectitsdebtsand duties,and thesocial man or woman
has directedhisaffechas a placein theworldand itsaffairs.
Everyman
In a playthatso ininto
the
world.
outward
tionsand attention
entirely
it
returnsto theconceptof wealthbothliteraland figurative,
sistently
a
state
of
to
shouldcomeas no surprisethatEveryman's
recovery
grace
whathe wantstodo withhismoney.
canbe followed
largely
bywatching
ofhiswealtharenotjustoutward
Hisvariousattempted
sympapplications
tomsofa "real"dramathatis takingplacewithinhissoul.In Everyman,
to createa conduitbetheyare wheretheactionis. Theyare attempts
andspiritual
tweentheearthly
economies,suchthatmoneycan advance
hiscausein thelatter.
one properand threeperversewaysin whicha
Everyman
portrays
auon thesoteriological
make
richeshavean effect
personmighttryto
linksbetweenearthly
of inappropriate
dit.The threerepresentations
offer
are
wealthandtheheavenly
economy Everyman's ofa bribetoDeath,
and the overtly
his desireto bringGoods withhim to his reckoning,
inwhichKnowledgeinveighs
sociocritical
against
passageon priesthood
the
into
wealth
of
The
economy
integration earthly
simony. appropriate
which
almsandrestitution,
testament
isEveryman's
ofsalvation
directing
and confeshiscontrition
actionsbybringing
completeshispenitential
ofthesescenes
Anexamination
endofsatisfaction.
siontotheirprescribed
revealtheplay'sengageinvolvements
willshowthattheirintertextual
with
of social complaint.
mentwiththeliterature
Everymanintersects
has
been
than
more
often
discourses
sociocritical
medieval
noticed,
late
and theprotagonist's
ideologies
positionin relationto theirnormative
shiftsin accordancewiththestatusofhissoul.
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
281
III. Everymanand His World
Letus beginwiththeonepassageinEveryman
thathasbeenrecognized
as havingsatirical
andwhichhasalsocausedperhapsmorevexacontent,
tionto criticsthananyother.In holisticinterpretations
oftheplay,the
so-called"digression"
on priesthood,
lines706-68,has usuallybeen eitherignoredor treateddismissively,
as a curiousbreakin bothaction
andthematic
construction.47
Occasionallyithasbeenseenas important
toEveryman's
as byLawrenceV.Ryan,or as a reflection
ofthe
structure,
texts religiously
conservative
and
perhapssome anxietyabout
agenda
reformist
as David Bevington
andC. J.Wortham
haveargued.48
currents,
But the explicitly
criticalspeechby Knowledge(750-63) has almost
alwaysbeen regardedas anomalous:isolatedin itshere-and-now
topifor
those
scholars
who
do
historical
in
or,
cality,
perceive
specificity
of
and
stillnota major
Everyman's
handling priesthood sacramentalism,
oftheplayscommentary
on thesesubjects.49
component
YetthePriesthoodpassage,and thespeechofKnowledgewithinit,
occupya placeintheplaythatwouldseemtohavea claimforsignificance,
ofhissoulintothegrace
rightin themiddleofEveryman's
reintegration
of God and thecommunity
ofthechurch,
whilehe has leftthestageto
'
"thesacramentformyredempcyon
receive,againin economicterms,
50
- theonlymomentfromthetimeof
moment
(773). At thatweighty
firstappearanceto thetimeof his souls assumptioninto
Everyman's
heavenwhenhe is absentfromtheplayspace- thereis nothingbutthe
andFiveWitsfortheaudiencetohear.Their
dialoguebetweenKnowledge
conversation
aboutpriesthoodtakesEveryman's
place as thecenterof
attention.
Thisalonemightsignalthescene'simportance,
and comparativeevidencecan lendsupportto suchan impression.
In severalofthe
otherEnglishmorality
the
exits
one time,fairly
too,
plays,
protagonist
late in theplay,creatingthe opportunity
fora speechor dialogueto
occurin his absence.51
It is neversmalltalk.Each time,thecharacters
before
the
audience
areauthoritative
ones
remaining
duringthatinterval
whoseviewswilllie nearto theplay'sdidacticheart.
Close analoguesto thisstructural
feature
as itappearsin Everyman
occur in Wisdomand Naturewhen the centralcharactersleave,as
ina sacrament
does,toparticipate
(in thoseplaysitis ConfesEveryman
whoremainsvisibleineachplayproceeds
sion).Theauthoritative
figure
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282
Drama
Comparative
to addressthe audiencedirectlyin a sermonlikespeech.In Wisdom,
whileAnimaand herthreefaculties(Mind,Will,and Understanding)
areat confession,
Wisdomdeliversa lessonon thenineworksofcharity
In
Reasonap(997-1064). Nature,duringMans absenceforconfession
thatbecauseof themMan
provesofhis actions,stateshis expectation
willindeedbe restoredto grace,and extolsthemercyand patienceof
God,who willsometimesallow a sinfulpersonto live a longtimein
the erringsoul in the end (2.1371-94).While in
hopes of recovering
and
leavesto do something
Wisdom, Nature,theprotagonist
Everyman,
in some otherplayshe leaves at the
thatcontributes
to his recovery,
nadirofhis sinfulness
to revelin immoralbehaviorwhiletheonstage
in a directaudienceaddress.The
providecommentary
authority
figures
Worldand theChildhas an absent-protagonist
scenewhenManhood
exitsto followFollyto thetavern.Duringhis absence,firstConscience
and then Perseveranceaddress the audience directlywithdidactic
speeches(717-62), the firsttreatingManhood'sactionsas a negative
of the audienceand statingthe imporexemplumfortheinstruction
and thesecondintroducing
who
tanceof Perseverance,
Perseverance,
That
is
the
to
that
he
/
explains
entering play"mankynde endoctryne
scene
(755-56).The absent-protagonist
theysholdetono vycesenclyne"
in directaddresstotheaudiin Youthbeginsas a monologuebyCharity
whenthelatterenters.
CharintodialoguewithHumility
enceandshifts
thus
treatthe
action
and
moral
of
the
far,
play
itybeginsbysummingup
as
does
as
an
Conscience
the
matter
exemplum(Cir),just
ing foregoing
he and Charityturn
in The Worldand theChild.AfterHumility
enters,
theirplanfor
tothebusinessoftherestoftheplay,stating
theirattention
to
Youth
(Cir"v).
righteousness
converting
This patternis amplyenoughattestedto look like a recognizable
thespeechof
dramaticdevicein Englishmorality
plays.In Everyman,
in Wisdom,
as
those
of
Wisdom
and
tone
Knowledgehasthesameplace
in The Worldand the
Reasonin Nature,Conscienceand Perseverance
It
differs
in
that
in
Youth.
and
Child,
Knowledgedoes havean
Charity
addresseepresentwithinthedramaticfiction(FiveWits),butthespeech
didacticin mannerthanthe others,and
is no less straightforwardly
The
addressedto theaudience."52
that
it
is
observes
"obviously
Cawley
itssourcein Elckerlijcand thuscannotbe repassagecloselyreflects
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
283
naturalization
oftheplaytoEnglishconventions,
gardedas a purposeful
butanyinterpretive
expectations
shapedbyotherEnglishmorality
plays
wouldencouragereceptionofthepriesthooddiscussionas a structural
elementsimilarto otherabsent-protagonist
scenes.If we come to the
of
Priesthoodpassage late in our processof forminginterpretations
and
then
it
as
troublesome
or
we
fall
victim
Everyman
regard
digressive,
toa problemofourowndevising.
Readingitinsteadas realinformation
thatcan indicatesomething
abouttheplayspriorities
bringsnearerto
in
thesurfaceotherways whichEveryman
can be seento engagemeanwith
social
rather
than
abuses,
merelyturningaside fora moingfully
mentfromitstruepurposeto makea single,untethered
remarkof a
nature.
sociocritical
The Priesthoodepisodebeginswitha long,admiringdescription
of
Five
on
as a
Wits,includingemphasis thesacraments
powerby
priestly
donationto humankind
Christs
Passion:
through
Foroftheblessydsacramentes
pureand benygne
He bereththekeyesand therofhaththecure
Formannesredempcyon-itis euersureWhicheGod forour soulesmedycyne
Gaue vs outofhishertewithgretepyne.
(716-20)
AfterKnowledgeand FiveWitsinstruct
Everymanto visita priest(to
receivetheEucharist
andExtreme
Unction)andfurther
explainthepower
withdraws
fromtheforegrounded
grantedto priestsbyGod,Everyman
action.53
It is at thistimethatKnowledgemakesthespeechwhichthe
criticaltradition
has foundso incongruous
withtherestoftheplay:
Ifpreestesbe good,itis so,suerly
ButwhanIesu hangedon thecrossewithgretesmarte,
Therehe gaue outofhisblessydherte
The samesacramentin gretetourment;
He soldethemnotto vs,thatLordeomnypotent.
Therfore
SayntPetertheapostelldothesaye
ThatIesuscursehathall they
WhicheGod theyrSauyourdo byor sell,
Or theyforonymoneydo takeor tell.
Synfull
preestesgyueththesynnersexamplebad:
I haue harde;
Theyrchyldren
sytteth
byothermennesfyres,
And somehauntethwomenscompany
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284
ComparativeDrama
Withvnclenelyfe,as lustesoflechery.
Thesebe withsynnemadeblynde.
(750-63)54
s criticism
ofbad priests,
Knowledge
includinga fewlinesagainsttheir
sexualmisbehavior
butmainlyconcerning
returns
to themotif
simony,
ofChrists donationto humankindthatwas introduced
Five
Witsin
by
his previousspeech.WhereasChristhas suffered
in orderto givehis
in
the
Eucharist
as
a
the
of
salvation,
people
corrupt
priests
gift
economy
treatthesacraments
as iftheybelongto theworldly
ofprofitenterprise
of
making.Knowledgeslanguageherealso connectsthecondemnation
condemnation
of
human
this
to
God
s
earlier
simony
greed,bringing
withthestated
critiqueofclericalabuseintostraightforward
agreement
centralproblemoftheplay.
WhileKnowledgemostdirectly
condemnsthesellersofsacraments,
entrusted
to themby
who betraythespecialpowerand responsibility
one
sell
unless
someone
is
this
no
can
God,
buying: speechrecognizes
someblameforthose
thata simonistcannotactinisolationandreserves
at
this
in Everyman's
who
late
him,
(unlike
position
stagein theplay)
Weshouldnoticethesocialawareness
sucha purchase.
mightundertake
of simonyas a transaction
between
in
treatment
implicit Knowledges
twopartiesratherthanan individualactinsulatedfromthecommunity.
The social worldinscribedin Everymanis one in whichthethreatof
corruption
inspiredby greedloomslarge.This threathauntsmuchof
theactionofthefirstpartoftheplay,as we willshow,itspresenceindicatedbycuesthatareeasilymissednowbutwouldhavebeenquitepercultureat theend
ceptibleto an audienceofinsidersto Englishliterary
oftheMiddleAges.
himselfis implicatedin
In theearlierscenesoftheplay,Everyman
whoseshadowfallsacrosstheEucharistin
thekindofsocialcorruption
howabuses.Moderninterpretations,
speechaboutpriestly
Knowledge's
of in
conceived
ever,have tendedto see Everyman's
(whether
failings
have
thus
taken
and
as
or
private
general particularterms) essentially
littlenoticeoftheplayshintsthathishandsaredirtyalongwithhissoul.
tobribeDeath,an incident
The troublebeginswithEveryman's
attempt
within
the
playand resonancewith
significance
havingunappreciated
discoursesbeyondit.An important
aspectofthisepisodebecomesvis-
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
285
ibleonlywhenwe considertheimplications
ofDeathsrepresentation
at
thebeginningof Everymanas God' summoner,
a superhuman
version
officials
whosedutyitwas to bringan accusedpartyinto
oftheearthly
Thisportrayal
isperfectly
court(secularorecclesiastical).55
appropriate:
after
his
called
to
before
boththe
is,
all,
God,
Everyman
being
judgment
and
the
ultimate
over
the
Church.
highestking
authority
Theideaofa courtappearanceisthoroughly
entwined
withtheplays
dominantmotifofa financialauditor settling
ofaccountsand has considerableimportance
ofitsown.A judicialconceptionofthesouls encounterwithGod afterdeathis so fundamental
to Christianthought
thatit scarcelyneedsemphasizing
in thelanguageof theplayto have
beenpresentin themindsofaudiences.Nevertheless,
therearea number of passagesin Everymanthatencouragea legalconceptionof the
is operatingand of whatit is he
systemwithinwhichtheprotagonist
mustdo.His approaches
toFellowship,
andCousinareattempts
Kindred,
to gaintheiradvocacyor counselin his appearancebeforehiskingfor
as is also thecase in severaloftheanaloguesto thispartof
judgment,56
theplay.57
in Everymanand in
Legalterminology
cropsup repeatedly
somepassagesis fullyintegrated
withtheidea ofthereckoning
he must
has
shown
that
the
time of
Moreover,
give.58
MargaretBridges
by
the
of
that
Everyman's
writing, particularterminology accounting the
playuseshad becomeentwinedwiththelanguageofdivinejudgment;
theentiremotifofthereckoning
mustmakebeforeGod itself
Everyman
a
of
the
scenario.59
implies legalconception
Thereis plentyofgeneralsupportinEveryman
andin affiliated
traof
Death
as
a
sumditions,
then,forthemoreparticular
representation
itselfreceivesemphasis.
moner,and thismoreparticular
representation
The Messengerintroduces
this"moraliplay"byinforming
theaudience
that"The SomonyngeofEuerymancalled it is" (3-4); and thistitleis
reinforced
ofDeathsmessageas theexecutionofa
byseveralportrayals
some
of
which
entailchangestoElckerlijc,
whereDie
summons,60
kings
Doot s roleas thebearerof a summonsto courtis occasionallymixed
withothercharacterizations.61
As withtheaccountbook,theEnglish
writersmodifications
do notseriouslyaltertheconceptsinvolved,
but
are
informative
as
to
his
or
her
of
aboutthiselement
they
way thinking
oftheplay.Noris itnecessaryforan audienceto haveconstruedDeath
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286
Drama
Comparative
as a summoner
basedsolelyon evidenceinternal
toEveryman.
Thecomparisonof deathto a summonerbringingthe individualbeforeGod
- itis foundin
forjudgmentwas an established
convention
longbefore
sermonsas wellas inthefifteenth-century
Dance of
fourteenth-century
Deathtradition-andremained
availableatleastuntilShakespeares
time.62
We evenhaveevidenceof one earlyreaders receptionof Everymanto
supporttheviewthatthelegalactofsummoning
playeda partin interthe
of
the
of
the
Skot,
John
pretation
printer
play:
onlytwosurviving
marked
it
as
central
to
the
completecopies,
play'scontentin his title
inline4 in
theplay'sself-designation
and affirmed
page inscription63
his recurrent
title.64
Because
Skot
was
not
onlyreadingbut
signature
ofcourse,anywayhisinterpretation
foundexalso printing
Everyman,
in
a
audiin
the
text
turn
influence
wider
his
of
pression
handling
might
thisrunningtitle,emphaence.ReadersofSkots editionsencountered
eightor ninetimesin twentysizingtheactofa quasilegalsummoning,
in thesamelargeblackletter
as themaintextand
ninepagesofplaytext,
flushup againstit.65
So, whatdoes it mean thatDeath is a summoner?It means that
responseto Deathis hisresponseto an actionmodeledon a
Everyman's
substantive
answertoDeath'smessageishis
Andhisfirst
legalsummons.
offer
ofa bribe:
In thypoweritlyethme to saue;
Yetofmygood wylI gyuethe,yfthouwylbe kyndeYe,a thousandepoundeshaltethouhauethismatertyllan otherdaye.
And dyfferre
(120-23)
avariwerestereotypically
in lateMiddleEnglishliterature
Summoners
Talesareprobably
ciousandbribable.66
Chaucer'stwoin TheCanterbury
- thepilgrim
if
indiscretions
whooverlooks
Summoner
themostfamous
Tale
who
does
the
in
The
Friars
and theone
he is properly
rewarded,
- butLanglandwas equallycertheinnocent67
sameas wellas extorting
to abuse.68
tainthatthedutiesand powersoftheofficelentthemselves
dishonestsummoners
suchcritiquesofgreedy,
century,
Bythefifteenth
of
Death does notdoubt
in
Dance
his
had becomepredictable.
Lydgate
to
hisaudience'sreadinessto attribute
generally
corruption summoners
oflegalprocessesforpersonalgainwill
and assumesthatmanipulation
is well
allowsthattheBailiff
Deathironically
be seenas typical.
Lydgate's
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
287
versedin truthand right"accordingto the customof his position,"69
and theBailiffconfirms
his illicitinfluencein judicialproceduresin a
statement
thatmakesplaintheimplications
ofEveryman's
conspiratorialacknowledgment
tohissummoner,
Death,that"inthypoweritlyeth
meto saue"(120):
withJuges/whatme listeto spede
Some-tyme
Lai ynmymy3te/be favoureor formede.
(Dance ofDeath 276-77)
ClosertoEveryman's
time,andwithinthecorpusofMiddleEnglish
ofa corruptsummoner
on theprowlforbribes
drama,wefinda portrait
inN-Townpageant14 ( The TrialofMaryandJoseph).LikeLydgate,
the
writer
seemsconfident
thattheaudiencewillunderstand
thestereotype
thedeannamedSymSomnorebehavesina mannerthatclearly
instantly:
was to be regardedas typicalofhisoffice.
As theplaybegins,Symruns
downa longlistofnameswhoserealpointis itsinclusiveness;
he calls
(14.1-33).Makinga claim
anyand all citizensto courtindiscriminately
to
those
in
both
The
Dance
of
Death
and
thata suffiparallel
Everyman
motivated
summoner
can
about
a
favorable
conclusion
toa
ciently
bring
case,he warnstheaudience,"loke3e ryngewelein 3ourepurs,/Forellys
3ourecawsemayspede'>e wurs"(14.25-26),and he latersummarizes
hisownactivities
and methodsthus:
IfJ)atI rolle30Wup in myrace,
ForfereI xal do 3ourearsqwake!
But3itsummedeand 3e me take,
I wylwithdrawe
mygretroughtoth.
Gold or sylvyr
I wylnotforsake,
Butdo evynas all somnorysdoth.
(14.156-61)
Of particular
noteis thecategoricallaststatement.
It,alongwithother
features
oftheselines,contrasts
withexactness
DeathsreplytoEveryman:
Dethe:Eueryman,
itmaynotbe byno waye.
I setnotbygolde,syluer,
norrychesse,
For,and I woldereceyuegyftes
grete,
All theworldeI myght
gete;
Butmycustomeis clenecontrary.
(Everyman124-29)
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288
ComparativeDrama
in theN-TownTrialprobablysignalan attempt
SymSomnoresremarks
fromthecrowdofspectators,70
and
bytheplayersto takeup an offering
ifso,thentheystrongly
the
in
audiences
expectedcomplicity the
suggest
and
humor
of
such
a devicewoulddepend
the
effectiveness
stereotype:
on a sharedsenseofthisbehavioras characteristically
"summoner-like,"
eveniffarcically
The
N-Town
was made after
manuscript
hyperbolic.
1468 and perhapsas late as the startof the sixteenth
and its
century,
with
the
time
of
of
continued
textual
modification
period
overlaps
in
and
circulation
print.71
composition
Everyman's
inwhich
suchas these,72
Satiricalcontexts
then,areoneenvironment
encounter
with
Death
near
the
we shouldunderstand
beginEveryman's
to bribehissummonerfitsa tradiattempt
ningoftheplay.Everyman's
andDeathsreplytohim
tionaldiscourseaboutthegreedofsummoners,
that
fitsintothesamediscourse,butas an inversionofit,emphasizing
is no respecter
thisisno ordinary
summoner.
Now,theideathatmortality
in
remarks
about
ofpersonsistraditional,
anditwassometimes
expressed
this
to thinkofbribingdeath;73
how futileit wouldbe,hypothetically,
WhatmakesEveryman's
treatment
notionis notoriginalto Everyman.
is whathappenswhena universalprotagonist
ofthissceneinteresting
tobuyoffDeath.Wehavenowmovedfroma
actuallymakesan attempt
to an
raised
theoretical
dismissed,
possibility,
onlyto be authoritatively
inwhicha freemoralagent(and whatis more,one supposed
interaction
to do something
immoral.
humanbeingsatlarge)attempts
to represent
of
an
environment
behavior
is
general
guidedby implied
Everyman's
invokedbysatiresagainst
Itis thesameenvironment
corruption.
worldly
attention
to official
butinsteadofdirecting
abuses,theplay
summoners,
as
in
the
to
own
to
corruption
points Everyman's willingness participate
ratherthanwiththenormative
he alignshimselfwithcrookedofficials
after
thatrebukesthem.Himselfa striver
voicesofthesatirictradition
of
in
the
materialgain and a believer
omnipotence money,Everyman
willspeakthesamelanguageof
officer
assumesthathe andhisarresting
is honest,
Ofcourse,theydo not.Thissummoner
self-interest
andprofit.
thesummonsis real,and theJudgeis waiting.
toescapehissummonswitha bribeis an imporattempt
Everyman's
withGoods.Ata momentofsometentantbackdropto hisinteraction
sion in thefirstpartof theplay- the momentat whichhe willlearn
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
289
and finallythatwhathe has valuedmostwillnothelphimdirectly
unreformed
characteris summarizedbyhis assertionthat
Everyman's
all
thatis wronge"
nowto this
maketh
(413). Letus return
"money
ryght
and consideritin itsfullercontext:
statement
I am sentfor. . .
[Eueryman:]
To gyuea strayte
countegenerali
BeforethehyestIupyterofall.
And all mylyfeI haue had ioye& pleasurein the,
I praythe,go withme;
Therfore,
thoumaystbeforeGod Almyghty
For,parauenture,
Myrekenynge
helpeto cleneand puryfye,
Foritis saydeueramonge
That"moneymakethall ryghtthatis wronge."
Goodes:Nay,Eueryman,
I syngean othersonge.
(405-14)
The problem,
as we know,is thatEveryman
has to presenthis account
book forreview.
Whydoes he ask Goods to go withhim?It seemsunthat
likely
Everymansimplyconfusesmaterialwealthwiththekindof
value thathis spiritualaccountbook records,becausehe alreadypossessesGoods,whichmeansthatanyimpactGoods is goingto makeon
theaccountitself
hewillalreadyhavemade.AndindeedGoodshasmade
an impact,
since,as he goeson toexplaininthesubsequent
lines,hisown
influence
the
of
has
made
the
(as
love)
object Everyman's
ledger"blotted
and blynde"(419). More important
is theparallelismbetweenthisreand
the
earlier
ones:
has regardedGoods as a friendin
quest
Everyman
thepast,likeFellowship,
and
Kindred, Cousin,and nowhe wantsGoods
to go withhimto givehimsupportin his appearancebeforethejudge.
Butgetting
it froma
advocacyin courtfromwealthis notlikegetting
friendor a kinsman:thisrequestinvitessuspicionthatEveryman
hopes
to use Goods in courtand converthismoneyto legalpower.
Goods deflatesEveryman's
hisfaithin thepower
guidingprinciple,
of moneyto changehis situationprofoundly,
in a singleline ("nay,
I
an
other
has
to it
Eueryman,synge
songe").Everyman calledattention
as a proverb("itis saydeueramonge"),expecting
to concludehisappeal
withan irrefutable
nuggetofcommonwisdom,butGoods dismissesit
as an emptyjingle.Goods'refusalto affirm
thelegitimacy
ofthemaxim
is decisive,
that
he
himself
is
its
But
the
case
is
more
given
topic.
complicatedthanitwouldbe ifEveryman
weremerely
a widelyheld
parroting
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290
Drama
Comparative
opinionthathappensto be wrong:moreis at stakeherethantherejectionofan old saw.As a matter
offact,Everyman
s mottois a fakeproverb,
or atleasta terribly
misconstrued
to itas a
one,and hiscallingattention
would
call
attention
also
to
thisironyforan audience
popularsaying
familiar
withitsusualapplications.
Herewe see theEnglishadapteradjustinghis or her sourcein a waythatseemsdesignedto createnew
intertextual
meanings.Like Everyman,ElckerlijcbelievesthatTgoet
can
(Goods)
helphimbeforeGod,butthecorresponding
exchangein
usestheimageryofcleansinga stainand has Tgoetanswerby
Elckerlijc
in thismatter.74
discardsthemetasimplydenyinghisutility
Everyman
used
in
the
idea
of
in the
phor
Elckerlijc,
repackages
moneysefficacy
languageoffolkwisdom,labelsitas such,and has Goods contestitspeon thoseterms.
cifically
thepowerofmoneyas theabilitytoreverse
Apothegms
formulating
rightand wrongoccurin a numberofplacesin MiddleEnglish,butfar
fromcelebrating
or impartially
ofmoney,they
observingtheinfluence
is succinctly
phrasedin a rhyme
deploreit.75The sentiment
invariably
fromJohnGrimestone's
sourcebookforpreachers:
maketwrongrith.
daynith.
makettrendto.
maketwelewo.76
- itbreaksthem.Everyman
acts
moneydoes notfixthings
Proverbially,
whatis in needofrectimeans"moneyrectifies
as thoughhisstatement
senseis"moneycauseswhatis (in fact)
whereasitstraditional
fication,"
Transforming
wrongintorightis like
wrongto be acceptedas right."
a
matter
of opinion,butby
it
is
not
into
truly
day
night:
transforming
onecanconvincetheworldtogoalong
enoughpalmswithsilver,
crossing
witha falsehood.
cites
oruncomprehendingly
Theproverb
thatEveryman
misleadingly
a satiriwith"themiraclesofmoney,"
has a closeconceptualaffiliation
of Gods own
forinstruments
cal motifin whichmoneyis substituted
on earthly
powerand foundto be evenmorepotentin itsrealeffects
thistradition,
affairs.
G. R. Owst,in illustrating
presentsan illuminating
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
291
SummaPraedicantium
thatcomparessilpassagefromJohnBromyards
verto theCrossofChrist.Bromyard
explainswithpoisonousironythat
whiletheHolyCrosssometimes
helps,money
all casesinthecourtsofthefalse,however
rectifies
"tortuous"
and"curved"
itmakesthe
theymaybe.Andifitbe had in plentyand in due reverence,
lame walkand thecaptivesgo free.Deaf judges and lordsand thosein
power,who- howeverunjustbe yourcase- offera deafear,it makesto
hear.Thus"thedeafhear."Dumb advocates,also,itmakesto speak.Thus
"thedumbspeakand theblindsee."77
We shouldnoticethatBromyard
is criticizing
thepowerof moneyin
It is striking and of greatconsequencein
legalsettingsin particular.
- howoftenthemoreproverbial
this
in
scene
understanding
Everyman
denunciations
ofmoneys power(likeGrimestones
poemquotedabove),
whichconstruct
thatpoweras theabilitytoinvertrightandwrong,
likewiselinkitspecifically
to corruption
injudicialcontexts.
Examplescan
be foundin theliterature
ofinstruction
orwisdom,suchas MyneAwen
Dere Sone:
Andf)oube maisterorjustice
Forto gifdomein greteassyce,
To takegiftesI theforbede,
Foroftewilla man formede
Tornerighteto wrängeand wrängeto ryghte.
(727-31)78
The proverboccursalso in poemsof social satire,in passageslikethis
one fromSirPennyII:
In kingescourtes itno bote,
ogainessirpenifortomote,
so mekilles he ofmyght;
he es so witty,
and so sträng,
'>atbe itneuerso mekillwrang,
he willmakitright.
(19-24)79
And a similarstatement
is foundat leastonce in dramacirculating
in
Londonatthesametimeas Everyman,
whentheviceCounterfeit
Countenanceboastsin Magnyfycence
of his abilityto distortjudgmentand
reversevalues:"Counterfet
matersin thelawe of thelande,- /Wyth
goldeand grotestheygresemyhande,/ In stedeof ryghtthatwronge
maystände"(431-33).80
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Drama
Comparative
292
WhenEveryman
thatis wronge,"
saysthat"moneymakethall ryght
then,he is indeedtappingintoa familiarpre-existing
discourse,as he
claimsto be doing.Buthe is on thewrongside of thelore.Proverbial
formulations
takemuchof theirrhetorical
forcefromtheirresonance
environment
of thisatomof
withsharedtradition,
and thetraditional
the
of
truth
is
complaintagainst power money,especiallyover
popular
to bribeDeath,
courtsofjudgment.Justas he does whenhe attempts
to
that
which
the
adopts positionopposite
generatesthesaEveryman
thescene,identifying
himself
as partofthe
thatinforms
tiricconvention
In his apin
form
of
folk
wisdom.
articulates
the
the
problem proverb
he
and
his
inversion
of
its
of
the
ideology, takeshis
propriation
saying
indignant
placeamongtheabusersofwealthratherthantherighteously
who deploythosewordsagainstthem.He probablyspeaksin a disingenuouseuphemismwhenhe saysthatGoods can helphim"cleneand
his account:thechangeEverymanis hopingGoods can effect
puryfye"
ofthejudge
butintheperception
willtakeplacenotintheaccountitself,
whomustexamineit.
thespecialcue oftheproverbial
Evenwithout
phraseolrecognizing
ogy,readersand viewersof the play would have had reasonto find
The
desiretobringGoods to a courtappearancedisquieting.
Everyman's
likethesatireagainst
ofrightandwrong,
axiomaboutmoneysinversion
widediscussedabove,is merelya subspeciesof a broader,
summoners
literature
sociocritical
and
legalproceedagainstcorrupt
spread, enduring
oftherich.The
treatment
bribesandthepreferential
ingsthatabominates
andsecular
ofbothecclesiastical
ofmoneyoverjusticewithofficers
triumph
forward.
courtsis denouncedagainandagainfromthethirteenth
century
A 1456lyric,TheBissonLeads theBlind,complainsthat
The constery
yscombrydwithcoueytyse,
ffortrouthyssonkynvndur{>egrounde;
norden no fauourJ>er
Withoffycyal
ys,
Butifsersymonyshewe'>emsyluerrovnde.
(33-36)81
thosewho neededthecourtsto respondto
Accordingto thistradition,
of
someinjusticecouldfinditimpossibleeventobe heard.The narrator
from
the
rounds
makes
London
thefifteenth-century
Lickpenny
poem
inhiscase and
courttocourtinLondon,butfailstoprovokeanyinterest
not
that"forlackofmony,I myght
concludesattheend ofeach attempt
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
293
speede";82
Lydgateharshlyconnectsmoneywithsuccessin legalaffairs
in So as theCrabbeGothForward;83
and anotherwriterobservesthat
noneofthefrantic
one
can
see
atWestminster
is intheserviceof
activity
thosewho"whantemoneyto piedethelawe."84
However,thoseable to
to
as
intends
to
court,
do, willfindthattheir
Everyman
bringmoney
are
causes
a
persuasive: poem showingthetraditions
legal
irresistably
wellintothesixteenth
declaresthat
continuity
century
Sirpennyis a manofflaw
Wit3e weillbaythwysand war
Andmonyrasowniscan furtheschaw
QuhoneJ)athe standisat'>e bar
Is nanesa wyisscan himdefar
Quhonehe proponisfurtheane pley
Nor 3itsa hardymanJ>at
dar
Sirpennyetyneor disobey
(SirPenny25-32)85
Ofthemanyotherexamplesthatillustrate
thissatiricaltraditions
popuwe will cite onlya fewthatbringus close to
larityand durability,86
in genreand religiouspurpose.LydgatesDance ofDeathreEveryman
turnsseveraltimesto thestereotype
ofthegreedycourtofficer:
besides
Deathsexchange
withtheBailiff,
mentioned
usesthis
previously,
Lydgate
motifin his vignettes
of theAdvocateand the Juror.87
The fifteenthtothistradition.
century
Englishstage,too,contributes
SymSomnorein
theN-TownTrialofMaryand Josephhas alreadybeen discussedand
need onlybe mentionedagain here.A sustaineddramaticcritiqueof
incourtsoflaw,anditslinkwithavarice,is foundin Wisdom,
corruption
inwhichthefaculty
ofUnderstanding,
oncehe succumbstotemptation,
is represented
as a guileful
lawyer.
explainshismethods:
Understanding
I vsejorowry,
Enbracequestysofperjury,
Choppeand chongewythsymonye,
And takelargeyeftys.
Be '>e cause neuerso try,
I preueytfais,I swere,I lye,
Wytha questofmynaffye.
(637-43)
"Wo wyllhaue law musthaue monye,"
he statesfrankly
(666).88Later,
when Mind,Will,and Understandingpreside over choreographed
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294
ComparativeDrama
renameshimtheirfollowers,
Understanding
representing
"disguisings"
anddirectsa processionofjurorswhomakerulingsaccordselfPerjury
and serve"Covetyse"(717-44). The traditionremained
to
bribes
ing
drama.PitycomplainsinHick
inearlysixteenth-century
current
morality
is calledlaweso god me spede/Worsewas hyt
Scornerthat"Extorsyon
in
The
Worldand theChild,Follyexplainsthathe
and
ne[u]er"(Biiir),
Westminster
becausehe is an avariciouslawyer:
frequents
drawe?
Manhode:Herke,felowe,
whydoostthouto Westmynster
Folye:ForI am a seruauntofthelawe.
Couetousis myneownefelowe;
We twaynepleteforthekynge,
Andpoorementhatcome fromvplande,
We wylltaketheyrmaterin hande;
Be itryghtor be itwronge,
withvs shallwende.
Theyrthryfte
(574-81)89
ofmoneyin courtsoflawhad a high
oftheundueinfluence
Allegations
then,in lateMiddleEnglishand earlyTudorlitdegreeofpredictability,
earlierscenewithDeath has
and Everyman's
drama,
erature,
including
of
the
alreadybrought possibility briberyintothe ambitof audience
BoththatsceneandthisonewithGoods showthatEveryman
awareness.
livesin a societyregularly
enoughswayedbyavaricethathe expectshis
His willwealthtoprovidehimwiththemeansto escapeaccountability.
to
as
a
contributor
marks
from
that
to
benefit
too,
him,
system
ingness
thecorruption.
and
Of course,Everymanis usingthewrongframesof reference,
to involvemoneyin thismetaphysical
bothof his attempts
processof
he
could
that
is
confident
Goods
defeated.
help
judgmentaresummarily
"& ye in theworldehaue soroweor aduersyte"
(401,emphasisadded),
but he knowsthatif he wereto tryto intervenein God's judgment,
would"faremochetheworse"becauseofit (417). Everyman
Everyman
is awarethattheJudgeand thejudgmentbeforehimarenotoftheworld
is
thatanycourtanywhere
(404-7),buthe seemstofinditinconceivable
to
trulybeyondtheinfluenceof Goods.90So incredibleis thisnotion
thathe treatsGoods'explanationofwhyhisledgeris a mess
Everyman
as finally
besidethepoint,therebeingno possibility
(he seemsto think)
He callsGoods
thathewillactuallybe subjecttojudgmenton themerits.
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
295
againto accompanyhimto court,as ifhe is changingthesubjectfrom
theunpleasant
factsofthecase,whichhe hasbynowreducedto a hypotheticaleventuality:
[Goodes:] . . . bycauseon me thoudydsetthymynde,
I haue madeblottedand blynde,
Thyrekenynge
Thatthyneaccountethoucan notmaketruly
Andthathastthoufortheloue ofme!
Eueryman:That woldegreueme fullsore,
WhanI sholdecometo thatferefull
answere.
Vp,letvs go thyder
to-gyder.
(418-24,emphasisadded)
forEveryman,
Goods cannotgo along,beLuckily(or providentially)
causeonlythenis he forcedto turnto Good Deeds forhelp,and Good
Deeds directshimto Knowledgewhoin turnleadshimto Confession.
The finalstepis Everyman's
declarationofhisplansforrestitution
in his will (696-705). The earlierof Skotstwoprints
and almsgiving
givesspecialemphasisto thewordalmesin line 699,91and indeedits
citationthereis the culminationof a seriesof references
in theplay.
has been hailedas a remedyforEveryman's
Almsgiving
problemfrom
thestart,
twoearlierpassageshavingmarkeditas a sureaid tohiscause:
withmydarte,
[Dethe:]He thatlouethrychesseI wyllstryke
His syghtto blynde,and froheuento departeExceptethatalmesbe his good frende
In hellforto dwell,worldewithoutende.
(76-79)
[Goodes:] . . . yfthouhad me loued moderately
durynge,
As to thepooregyueparteofme,
Than sholdestthounotin thisdolourbe,
Nor in thisgretesoroweand care.
(431-34)
Death and Goods,not incidentally,
are thetwo characters
in thisplay
whospeakto Everyman
aboutricheswithauthority,
hismiscorrecting
takenperceptions
and offering
himno falsecomfort.
are
They also the
twocharacters
whomEveryman
has triedto involvein illicitdealings.
Seenin thecontextoftheseearlierscenes,itbecomesclearthatwhenhe
forhiswealthtobe distributed
inrestitution
andalms,Everyman
provides
resolveshistwoprevious,
immoralattempts
to establishlinks
effectively
betweentheearthly
and thedivineeconomybyfindingan appropriate
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296
Drama
Comparative
In
materialcapitalintoitsspiritualcounterpart.
meansoftransforming
with
hisalmsgiving,
themoralchoicesEveryman
makesfinally
converge
the
discourse
theideologically
normative
within
satiric
positionpresented
theplay.
aboutwealththatinforms
literature
It is hardlynecessaryto statetheubiquityof instructive
a
of
butof
as
a
act
or
work
charity;
advocatingalmsgiving penitential
preciserelevanceto Everymanis thesociocriticalstrainof thatliteraIn Wynnere
ture,whichdecriesthefailureofalmsgiving
bythewealthy.
his
wealth
ratherthan
Winner
is
criticized
for
and Wastoure,
stockpiling
fromthe
sharingitwiththepoor,in a passagethatechoesthescripture
Sermonon theMountwithwhichwe beganthisessayand anticipates
initsreference
togivinghalfofoneswealthinalms.92
Similar
Everyman
both
Hoccleve
the
fifteenth
common
are
century;
critiques
throughout
their
and Lydgate,
forexample,pointoutthefailureoftherichto fulfill
moralobligationto thepoor.93Two oftheprintedplayscontemporary
makethesamepoint.But
withSkofseditionsoí Everyman
emphatically
thesourceof
hasbecomelessapttodisregard
bythistime,thecomplaint
commentshad done,and morediwealth,as Hocclevesand Lydgate's
menofcommerce:thosewho striveforriches.In Rastell's
rectlytargets
Natureof theFour Elements,the introductory
monologuespokenby
thepursuitofwealth(ratherthanmerely
theMessengersets,specifically,
ofit) againstgodlyconcernforones neighbor:
thewithholding
Butwhatdyuylish
myndeshaue theywhichmusing
Andlabouryngall their'yffesdo no notherthyng
Butbringerychesto theirownepossessyon
distruccion
theirneyghbours
Nothyngregardinge
A greatwyttedman maysone be enrychyd
forrychesonly
Thatlaborythand studyeth
Buthowshallhis conscyensthanbe discharged
thatthatmanpresysely
Forall clerkesafferme
forhis ownewelthpryncypally
whichestudyeth
rewarde
Of god shalldeseruebutlytyll
Excepthe thecommynwelthsomwhatregarde.
(Aiiir"v)
aboutmerthevirtuousPlowman'sremarks
andNobility,
In Gentleness
modelsofbehaviorwithrespectto comtwoalternative
chantsidentify
mercialwealth,one positiveand theothernegative:
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
297
also
Manybe good and worshipful
Andmanycharitable
dedistheydo
8camendthehyeways
Byldchurchys
Make almyshowsys
8chelpmanydecays
Butsomebe couetous& fullfalsely
Gettheyrgoodisbydysseyt
8cvsury
Andwhentheyhaue a .M.li.in theyrcofers
suffer
Theywyllrathyr
theyrneyghbers
To sterueforhunger8ccold 8cto dye
Or theywyllgyfeto helpthema peny
(671-80)
In bothoftheseplays,as in Everyman,
theirapplicationto
onlythrough
theneedsofthecommunity
can richesbe reconciledwithChristian
virtue.Almsgiving
is notonlya spiritual
buta socialresponsibility,
and for
mostof his lifeEverymanhas been shirking
it,once againidentifying
himself
withbehaviorsthatattract
intheconvenrighteous
opprobrium
tionaldiscourseofcomplaintaboutabusesofwealth.
An especiallysalientpassagein Naturecloselyparallelsthecentral
andsimilarly
assertsa correlation
problemanditssolutioninEveryman
betweenthehandlingofmaterialrichesand one'sprospectsinthespiritualreckoning.
In admonishing
Man againsthis avaricioustendencies,
MedwallscharacterLiberality
echoesthelanguageand conceptsgovso
much
of
and does so in a contextof
structure,
erning
Everyman's
directinstruction
as to theusesofwealth:
Thou mustthyworldlygoodysso employ
In charytable
dedyswythdue compassyon,
Thatthoumaystbyeeverlastynge
joy
Forthegood intentofthatdystrybucyon.
Fortrustytwell,thoumustgevea rekenyng
Of all thegoodysthatcom to thynuse.
The hyghjuge thatknowethall thyng,
He wyllbe thynaudytourin thyscase,
Frowhomthoucanstnothydethyface.
Thereshaltthouopenlyshewand confesse
How thatgoodyscam to thypossessyon,
Whatmyndeand pleasurethouhadystin ryches,
Andwhythouhadysttherinsucheaffeccyon,
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298
Drama
Comparative
Whataimesdede or othergood dystrybucyon,
Or howthouhastthesegoodyswastedor abused.
(2.1293-96,1300-12)
ofEverymanand Natureon the
Giventheconspicuousagreement
before
connectionbetweenrichesand the individualsouls reckoning
can
also
shed
in
Medwall
s
with
Mans
God,
play
light
Liberality
exchange
in histestament:
withalmsgiving
on Everyman's
couplingofrestitution
takenaway
Ifthouhastwrongfully
[Lyberalyte:]
delay
Anymannysgood,go wythout
And therofto thypowermakedue restytucyon,
Forerstshaltthouhaveofthysynno remyssyon.
Man:Why,troweyethatI shallnotbe excused
Byalmesdede ofthatoffense?
abused!
thouartgretely
No,no,hardely,
Lyberalyte:
to makerecompence.
Thynknottherby
(Nature2.1268-75)
Indeed,Everymanhimselfstatesthatsome of his moneyis ill-gotten
thereitought
thathalfhiswealthis"tobe retourned
whenhe designates
latemedievalsocial satirerouto be" (702). This is hardlysurprising;
as
false
and
treated
dealing inseparablefromvigorouscomcrafty
tinely
in theCroxtonPlayof
the
merchant
Thus
mercialenterprise.
Jonathas
to"walkebycontréand cost,/
theSacrament
vows,afterhisconversion,
for
to
restore"
Owrwyckyd
(964-65),eventhoughtherehasbeen
lyuyng
tohiswealthas dishonestly
no priorreference
gained;andas a latemedievallyricexplains,
neuerto cease
moneyto Incresse,marchandys
wythmanya sotellwyle;
Men saythewoldeforsyluerand golde
Therownefadersbegyle.
(MoneyMoney33-36)94
obtained
wealthhas been deceitfully
The implicationthatEveryman's
conventional
his
that
defines
details
intothenetworkof
fitsperfectly
character
type.
at
and restitution,
forbothalmsgiving
In providing
then,Everyman
of
sodiscourse
the
lastseparateshimselffromthepositiontargeted
by
rootedin avarice
abuses
from
social
himself
cial complaint,
extricating
forthepublicgood,
and takinga place amongthosewho act morally,
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299
ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
to Everyman's
methodsfromthebewiththeirwealth.It is appropriate
of materialwealthshouldneitherevaporate
ginningthatitstreatment
norboildowntoan interiorized
intoa cloudoftheology
pursuitofspirihischange
and
has
to
his
behavior
tualvirtue.
perform
rectify
Everyman
he
in attitudeaboutworldlygoods,notjustfeelit.Withhis restitution,
the
into
a
his
makessatisfaction,
treasure,
spiritual
transforming money
he coniewell"ofpenance(557-58); andwithhisalmsgiving,
"precyous
vertsGoods intoGood Deeds,whichhavebeenmadeefficacious
byhis
Both
his
sacramental
the
of
participation.
claiming gift gracethrough
actionstogether
moneyintosomething
havingworth
changeEveryman's
As
we
now
of
salvation.
inthemetaphoric
expect,this
economy
mightby
in
ofspiritual
to grace,thisrecuperation
restoration
capital,is presented
itsoutwardaspect:eventhoughwe havebeen toldthatcontrition
buys
(645-46),all oftheemphasisin theplayfallsnoton contriforgiveness
buton itsactive,communitytionas privateremorsefeltbyEveryman,
of the churchand
manifestations
the
sacraments
sustaining
through
socialcharity.
initsrepresentation
ofbothworldly
ismuchmoreconcrete
Everyman
andspiritual
concernsthanmostaccountsofitallow.Thetwoarelinked
throughtheconceptof wealth,suchthattheliteraleconomy
together
themetaphoric,
one to createthedramaof
complements
soteriological
reformand salvation.The play'sconcentration
on avarice
Everyman's
allowsitto interact
with
the
literature
of
complaintagainst
innovatively
so thatit showstheentanglement
of theprivateindicorruptofficials
vidualin thosesystemsof abuse.The conventions
and corresponding
of
that
sociocritical
discourse
expectations
positionEverymanfirstin
withitsreceivedideology,
and then,as he repentsand reforms,
conflict
in compliancewithit.Everyman
thusconstructs
a practicalsocialmesit
the
of
the
class
sage: challenges stereotypical
tendency
profit-seeking
to reduceall valuesto economicconsiderations
and dramatizesa suc- andoutwardly
- transition
cessful
imitable
frommaterialism
toa value
the
of
the
systemacknowledging primacy
spiritual.
ofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill
University
TexasA&M University
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300
Drama
Comparative
NOTES
1V.A. Kolve,
in TheMedievalDrama: Papersof
"Everymanand theParableoftheTalents,"
the ThirdAnnual Conferenceof theCenterforMedievaland EarlyRenaissanceStudies,State
ofNew Yorkat Binghamton,
3-4 May 1969yed. SandroSticca(Albany:StateUniverUniversity
sityofNewYorkPress,1972),69-98; 72,71.
2Ibid.,72.
ofKolve,JohnW.Velzalso advocatedreadingEveryman
Workingindependently
in lightoftheParableoftheTalentsand recognizedtheimportanceoftheplay'seconomiclanin FourTudorPlays:A VirtueofNecesguage;see his brieferdiscussionin "EpisodicStructure
sity,"
ComparativeDrama 6 (1972-73): 88-90.
3Thus,forinstance,whenhe writesthat
"goods ... mustbecomegood deeds"(a formulationwithwhichwe agree,as willbecome clear),Kolve hastensto remindreadersthatGoods
"herestand[s]in forall of the talents"{"Everymanand the Parable,"85), whichhe has earlier
ofthesecondhalfoftheplay,"Beauté,Strength,
identified
as thecharacters
V.Wyttes,
Dyscrecion,
(75).
Knowledge,and even Confessyon"
4The
VulgateBibleis citedfromB. Fischeretal.,eds.,Bibliasacraiuxtavulgatamversionem,
4thed.,rev.R. Weber(Stuttgart:
DeutscheBibelgesellschaft,
1994).
5Matt.6:2-4, 24.
6See Matt.13,Mark4, and Luke8:1-18; and also Matt.21-22,whereJesusrunsrhetorical
circlesaroundthechiefpriests,Pharisees,and Sadducees,largelybecause theycannotcatchon
to theapplicationofhis parables.On theinherentelusivenessofparables,see FrankKermode,
of Narrative(Cambridge:HarvardUniversity
The Genesis of Secrecy:On theInterpretation
Press,1979),2-3, 23-47.
7 The
approximatedate of Everyman'ssource,Elckerlijc,is 1485.The factthatEveryman
survivesin fourdistincteditionsovera periodof about twentyyearsimpliessome popularity,
unless
and indeedW.W. Gregsuggeststhat"thechanceswould be againstsuch a distribution
of theEnglishPrintedDrama to the
therehad been at leastten"earlyeditions(A Bibliography
4 vols. [London:University
Press,Oxford,1939-59], 1:82). The two earlier,both
Restoration,
now fragmentary,
wereprintedby Thomas Pynson,and the two later,bothcomplete,by John
Skot.Each of the foursurvivesin a unique copy.Moderneditionsare based on the earlierof
Skot'stwo,now at the HuntingtonLibraryin San Marino,California.We citeEverymanfrom
A. C. Cawley,ed.,Everyman(Manchester:ManchesterUniversity
Press,1961),exceptas otherwisenoted;a fewremarkswillbe based on examinationoftheHuntingtonoriginal.
8HickScorner
deWordec.1515- 16
waswritten
between1513and 1516andprinted
byWynkyn
"HickScorner"The Revels
"TheInterludeof Youth,"
Lancashire,
ed., Two TudorInterludes:
(Ian
Press,1980], 1-13); The Worldand the Child was
Plays [Manchester:ManchesterUniversity
writtenperhapsc.1508 and printedbyWynkynde Wordein an extanteditionof 1522 besides
beingdocumentedin an earliereditionof 1520 (Ian Lancashire,"The Auspicesof The World
between
12 [1976]:esp.97-99); Youthwas written
and theChild"Renaissanceand Reformation
de Wordec.1532-33 (Lancashire,Two TudorInterludes,
1513and 1514and printedbyWynkyn
17-24); Naturewas writtenin the 1490sand printedc.1530byWilliamRasteil(Alan H. Nelson,
was written
ed., ThePlaysofHenryMedwall[Cambridge:D. S. Brewer,1980],3); Magnyfycence
between1515 and 1523,perhapsbetween1520 and 1522,and printedc.1530 probablyby John
The RevelsPlays[Manchester:ManchesterUniversity
Rastell(Paula Neuss,ed.,Magnyfycence,
Press,1980], 10, 15-17); The Natureof theFour Elementswas writtenafter1517 and printed
between1525and c.1530byJohnRastell(Greg,Bibliography,
1:85); and Gentlenessand Nobilby JohnRastell(Glynne
itymayhave been writtenc.1527 and was printedshortlythereafter
Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,vol.3, Playsand TheirMakersto 1576 [London:Routledgeand
1:86).A fewothersurvivingplayswerewritten
Kegan Paul, 1981],327; cf.Greg,Bibliography,
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
301
andprintedduringthesameperiod(see Greg,ibid.,1:81-94)buthavelessrelevanceto Everyman
forthepresentpurposes.
editions:theYorkcycle
EnglishplaysotherthanEverymanwillbe citedfromthefollowing
fromRichardBeadle,ed., The YorkPlays(London: EdwardArnold,1982); theTowneleyplays
fromMartinStevensand A. C. Cawley,eds., The TowneleyPlays,2 vols.,EETS s.s. 13-14 (Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press,1994);theN-TownplaysfromStephenSpector,ed., TheN-Town
Press,1991);
Play:CottonMS VespasianD.8,2 vols.,EETS s.s. 11-12 (Oxford:OxfordUniversity
the ChestercyclefromR. M. Lumianskyand David Mills,eds., The ChesterMysteryCycle,2
vols.,EETS s.s. 3 and 9 (London: OxfordUniversity
Press,1974-86); the CoventryShearmen
and TaylorsPageantfromPamelaM. Kingand CliffordDavidson,eds., The CoventryCorpus
ChristiPlays,EarlyDrama,Art,and Music MonographSeries27 (Kalamazoo: MedievalInstitutePublications,
and
2000); theDigbyMaryMagdalenfromDonald C. Baker,JohnL. Murphy,
Louis B. Hall Jr.,eds., The Late Medieval ReligiousPlays of Bodleian MSS Digby 133 and E
Museo 160,EETS o.s.283 (Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press,1982);theCroxtonPlayof theSacramentfromNormanDavis,ed.,Non-CyclePlaysand Fragments,
EETS s.s. 1 (London:Oxford
Press,1970); The Castleof Perseverance,
Wisdom,and MankindfromMarkEccles,
University
ed., TheMacro Plays,EETS o.s. 262 (London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1969); Medwall'sNature
and Fulgensand LucresfromNelson,ThePlaysofHenryMedwall;Skelton's
from
Magnyfycence
A Moral Play,ed. RobertLee Ramsay,EETS e.s. 98 (London: OxfordUniversity
Magnyfycence:
Press,1908;reprint,
1958); Gentlenessand NobilityfromA. C. Partridgeand F. P.Wilson,eds.,
Gentleness
and Nobility,
MaloneSocietyReprints85 (London:MaloneSociety,1950); The World
and theChildfromClifford
Davidson and PeterHappé,eds., The Worldeand theChylde,Early
Drama,Art,and MusicMonographSeries26 (Kalamazoo:MedievalInstitute
Publications,
1999);
and Hick Scorner,Youth(in theWaleyedition),and TheNatureof theFourElementsfromthe
facsimiles
in theseriesOld EnglishDrama:Students'FacsimileEdition[gen.ed. JohnS. Farmer],
nos. 40 (Hickscorner,
issued n.d.,fromfacsimilemade in 1908), 128 (Youth,issued n.d.,from
facsimilemade in 1909),and 31 (The Natureof theFourElements,issued n.d.,fromfacsimile
made in 1908).
9A motivation
thatJacqueline
Vanhouttehas suggestedunderliesstudiesofEverymanthat
treatitas an Englishwork("WhenElckerlijcBecomesEveryman:
Dutchto English,
Translating
Performance
to Print,"
Studiesin theHumanities22 [1995]: 100-1). Butthepriority
ofElckerlijc
is no longerdisputedas a datumof literaryhistory-Everyman
s derivationfromit has been
considereda foregone
conclusionbyinformed
commentators
sincethemid-1970s- and itmakes
senseto read a workin lightof otherworks(in thiscase,Englishones) thatwouldhave influencedaudienceinterpretation.
10It is crucialto see
Everymanas an adaptation,albeita close one,and notalwaysan exact
translation.
Thosewhohaveanalyzedtheplaysin tandemand acceptedthepriority
ofElckerlijc
havetypically
assumedthattheEverymanwriterattempted
oftheDutchplay
near-reproduction
and botchedthejob. This criticalbias has caused mostcommentators
to perceiveonlycrude
omissionor de-emphasisin Everymanofideas and structures
presentin thesource.Particularly
illustrative
of thistendencyis JanPritchard,
"On Translating
Then and Now,"Dutch
Elckerlijc,
that"Elckerlijcis notexactlyEveryman"
Crossing22 (1984): 38-48; Pritchard
pointsoutrightly
(47), butproceedsto makea numberof incautiousclaimsaboutthelatterthatfailto consider
evidence.Whileseveralpointsin theEnglishtextdo appearto revealits
negativeor mitigating
writer's
commandofMiddle Dutch,thisfactdoes notobviateattentionto theeffects
imperfect
ofpossiblydeliberatealteration.
Instancesin whichtheEnglishwriterhas actedconstructively,
addingnewelementsto or further
emphasizingexistingelementsoftheearlierplay,havebeen
virtuallyoverlookedby scholars.The rareexceptionsincludeJohnConley,"The Doctrineof
Friendshipin Everyman"Speculum44 (1969): 374-82,and C. J.Wortham,
"Everymanand the
Reformation,"
Parergon29 (1981): 23-31.
11David Mills
goes so faras to suggestthatitsDutchoriginwas activelysuppressedbyits
firstprintersforpoliticalreasons("Anglo-DutchTheatres:Problemsand Possibilities,"
MedievalEnglishTheatre18 [1996]: 87-88).
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302
Drama
Comparative
12A
orcan
greatmanystudiesofEverymanmissthisfact,butseveraleitherstateitoutright
PMLA 78 (1963):
be seen to assume it: ThomasVan Laan,"Everyman:A Structural
Analysis,"
468; Dennis V. Moran,"The Life of Everyman,"Neophilologus 56 (1972): 324-30; Donald
F.Duclow,"Everyman
CeremoniesofDying,"Fifteenthand theArsMoriendi:Fifteenth-Century
42; David Mills,"The Theatresof Everyman"in
CenturyStudies6 (1983): 93-1 13; Pritchard,
FromPage to Performance:
Essaysin EarlyEnglishDrama,ed. JohnA. Alford(East Lansing:
Chered
Press,1995), 136-37; and Denise Ryan,"'If Ye Had Parfytely
MichiganStateUniversity
Me': The Nurturingof Good Deeds in Everyman"Notes and Queries240 (1995): 165-68.Al"lie
JohnC. Coldeweypointsoutthateconomicmatters
thoughhe does notmentionEveryman,
at theheart"of thesubjectmatterof manyMiddle Englishplays("Some EconomicAspectsof
theLate MedievalDrama,"in ContextsforEarlyEnglishDrama,ed. MarianneG. Briscoeand
Press,1989],80), and the generalization
JohnC. Coldewey[Bloomington:Indiana University
certainlyapplieshere.
13
Everymanstateshis intentionto rewardFellowshipforhis help (234-35). Fellowship's
emphaticgestureof dismissingtheoffer(236-38) seemsobsequious and insincerein viewof
his exclamationonlya momentlaterthatnot even fora materialreward(a new gown) would
he followthroughon whathe has previouslyacknowledgedto be his sworncompanionship
(292-93, 248, 254-58). Betweenthe lines of the whole exchange-whichEverymansums up
be fullvnkynde"
menfrendesmayfynde,
withtheproverb,
"In prosperyte
/Whichein aduersyte
and that
(309-10) - is theimplicationthathe has been knownto rewardfriendship
materially
suchrewardsdo normallycarrysome weightwithFellowship.
14J.H.
Herrtage,ed., The EarlyEnglishVersionsof the GestaRomanorum,EETS e.s. 33
Press,1879;reprint,
1932),127-28.
(London:OxfordUniversity
15In additionto thetwoversionsfromthe Gesta Romanorum,see 11.2035-133 of John
C. Hirsh,ed., Barlamand Iosaphat:A Middle EnglishLifeof Buddha,EETS o.s. 290 (London:
OxfordUniversityPress,1986); The Golden Legend,or Lives of the Saints,as Englishedby
WilliamCaxton,7 vols. (London: J.M. Dent and Co., 1900),7:94-95; sermon15 in Woodburn
O. Ross,ed.,Middle EnglishSermonsEditedfromBritishMuseumMS. Royal18 B.xxiii,EETS
o.s. 209 (London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1960),86/6-88/27;tale 58 in MaryMacLeod Banks,
Narrationum"
Translation
ofthe"Alphabetum
ed.,AnAlphabetofTales:An English15th-Century
of Etiennede Besançon,2 vols.,EETS o.s. 126-27 (London: Kegan Paul,Trench,Trübnerand
Co., 1904-5), 1:42-43; and 11.1013-340 of The Thrie Tailesof the ThriePriestsof Peblis,in
David Laing,ed.,EarlyPopularPoetryofScotlandand theNorthern
Border,rev.W.CarewHazlitt,
2 vols.(London,1895),1:158-68.
16The faithful
friendis good worksin Barlamand Iosaphat,Caxton'sGoldenLegend,and
The ThrieTailesof theThriePriestsofPeblis.
17The artesmoriendihave
environlongbeenseen as partofthephilosophicaland literary
in critical
and commentary
mentin whichwe mustviewEveryman.Besidestheintroductions
editionsof the play,see Helen S. Thomas,"Some Analoguesof Everyman"MississippiQuarterly16 (1963): 97-103; Duclow; and Phoebe S. Spinrad,"TheLast Temptationof Everyman,"
PhilologicalQuarterly64 (1985): 185-94.
18See the
anonymousBook of theCraftofDying,chap.2, pt.5 (in FrancesM. M. Comper,
ed., "TheBook of theCraftofDying"and OtherEarlyEnglishTractsConcerningDeath [London: Longmans,Green,and Co., 1917], 19-20); Caxton'sArtand Craftto Know Wellto Die,
chap.2,pt.5 (in Comper,64-65); and analysisbyDuclow,esp.96-97 and 104-5.Cf.also Spinrad,
esp. 190,thoughshe less persuasivelyfindsin Everymanthe operationof all fivetemptations
namedin artesmoriendi.
19Theselinesunderminethe
and Vanhouttethata changeofwording
opinionofPritchard
has subin God'searlierspeechin EverymanweakensElckerlijcsallegationthattheprotagonist
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
303
in line458 thatEveryman
stituted
wealthforGod (Pritchard,
42;Vanhoutte,
105).The statement
which
has putwealthin theplace ofGod is notpresentat thecorresponding
pointin Elckerlijc,
theeffects
oftheearlierchange.
wouldseemto counterbalance
20Nor is
oftenare notdevoidofparEverymanuniquein thisway;moralityprotagonists
Mankindin theplayof thatname is an agricultural
ticularization.
laborer,and therepresentativehumanin severalotherplaysoccupiesor risesto a place of aristocratic
privilege.A similar
ofmorality
is madebyCharlotteK. Spivak,
observationabouttheparticularization
protagonists
claims
"Selfas Subjectin theMoralityDrama,"CahiersÉlisabéthains59 (2001): 3-5. Vanhoutte's
thatEverymanis madegenericthroughalterationsto Elckerlijcareexaggerated(102-5; see relevantremarksin Pritchard).
21Pritchard
has pointedoutthisslantto Elckerlijcbutbelievesitis weakenedin Everyman
theseassociations.
(41). We willarguebelowthatEverymanat leastretainsand mayevenfortify
22Mills,"Theatresof
Everyman"137-38. Mills is anticipatedin thisclaimbyVan Laan,
469. WilliamTydemanrefersin passingto Everymanas "a well-to-doburgher"(EnglishMedieval Theatre,1400-1500 [London:Routledgeand KeganPaul,1986],2), a viewmorein keeping
withours.
23Indeed,one stock
a spendthrift
who blows
subtypeof thegallantis "ProudPenniless,"
anymoneyhe comesintoon vanities.Even whenthatparticularmotifis notbroughtintothe
portraitofa gallant,all theemphasisfallson his dedicationnotto whateverwealthhe mayhave,
butto attainingeverloftierheightsoffashionabledisplayand frivolity.
Diligentacquisitiveness
is quitealien to his lifestyle
offree-spending
riot.
24
beverhat,/His bootesclaspedfaireand fetisly.
/His resons
"Uponhisheeda Flaundryssh
he spak fulsolempnely,
/ Sownyngealweythencreesof his wynnyng"
(The CanterburyTales
1.272-75).The worksofChaucerarecitedfromTheRiversideChaucer,3rded.,gen.ed. LarryD.
Benson(Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1987).
25SanfordBrownMeech and
Hope EmilyAllen,eds., TheBook ofMargeryKempe,EETS
o.s. 212 (London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1940;reprint,
1997),221/17-18,223/32,and 221/2930.
26See,forinstance,Nature,where
Prydedescribeshiselegantdress( 1.739-70) and prompts
Man to dresslikewise(1.1022-81); Medwall'sotherknownplay,Fulgensand Lucrèce,wherethe
arrogantCorneliusis attiredverysimilarlyto Prydein Nature(Fulgensand Lucres1.7 17-70)
and is accusedbythevirtuousGayusofpridein associationwithhis"nysearay"(2.634-35); and
theDigbyMaryMagdalen,wherea "galavnt"comesintoa taverndescribinghis own finedress
(496-505) and lateris identified
byBad Angelas "Pryde,callydCurioste"(550).
27
finedressis associatedwiththetemptation
of
Manytimesin The CastleofPerseverance
theworld,whoseonlydirectlyattributed
sin is avarice:see 11.501,554-55,564-65,624-26,705,
ofUnderstanding,
whofallsprey
728,732,and 831. A similarlinkis foundin Wisdoms portrayal
to thetemptation
oftheworld(see 11.474,510-11,and 558-65; Mind and Will,too,changeinto
ofthedeviland thefleshrespectively).
elegantclothingundertheinfluenceof thetemptations
See Ann EljenholmNichols,"Costumein theMoralities:The Evidenceof East AnglianArt" in
Dramain theMiddleAges:Comparative
and CriticalEssays:SecondSeries,ed.Clifford
Davidson
and JohnH. Stroupe(New York:AMS Press,1991),284-87, foran argumentthatfashionable
clothingcan havea varietyofsinfulassociations.
28
E.g.,KingHerod,who is proudof his appearanceand makesabsurdclaimsof omnipotenceandinvincibility.
See theCoventry
Shearmenand Taylors'
Pageant436-70;ChesterVIII. 16196; YorkXVI.1-15; and TowneleyXIV 1-51 as wellas theopeningscenesofpageantXVI.
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304
Drama
Comparative
29The contrastivedemarcationof these two character
typesis clear much earlierthan
Everyman,as in Wynnereand Wastoure(ed. StephanieTrigg,EETS o.s. 297 [Oxford:Oxford
Press,1997]).
University
30John
Lydgate,The Dance of Death,ed. FlorenceWarrenand BeatriceWhite,EETS o.s.
181 (London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1931).
31As
arguedbyVanhoutte.
32In
thebook is mentionedas a single,pre-existing
Everyman,
objectfourtimes,each time
in statements
theEnglishadapterhas mademoreconcreteor particular:see Everyman104 ("thy
boke of countewiththe thou brynge")beside Elckerlijc87-88 ("brengtu ghescriften
ende u
pampieren/ Met u" [bringyourwritingsand yourpapers / Withyou]); Everyman134 ("all
beside Elckerlijc118-19 ("mijnpampier/ Es so verwerret
vnredyis myboke of rekenynge")
ende so beslet"[mypaper/Is so muddledand encumbered]);Everyman136 ("mycountyngebokeI woldemake. . . clere")besideElckerlijc123-24 ("soudicmijnghescrifte
exponeren/Ende
oversien"[I wouldputmyrecordsin order/And reviewthem]);and Everyman502 ("yourboke
die nu onreynis,/
of countefullredyhad be") beside Elckerlijc467-68 ("ic sou u rekeninghe,
Ghesuverthebben"[I shouldhavecleansedyourreckoning,
/Whichis now unclean]).Textand
translations
ofElckerlijc
aregivenfromJohnConleyetal.,eds.andtrans.,TheMirrorofEveryman's
oftheOriginalEveryman,
Costerusn.s.49 (Amsterdam:
Salvation:A Prose Translation
Rodopi,
1985).
33Where
watsaltbedien?"[How am
Elckerlijcasks,"Hoe sal ic datverstaen?/Rekeninghe?
I to takethat?/Reckoning?
Whatdoes itmean?](82-83), EverymananswersDeath'sannounce"To gyuea rekenynge
mentthathe mustmake a reckoningwitha statement:
longerlayserI
craue!/This blyndematertroublethmywytte"(101-2).
34
lechery,
gluttony,
Perhapsused as a technicaltermforthesins oftheflesh,traditionally
to materialpleasures.
and sloth;butperhapsjust referring
35Atfirst
to identify
seems,quitediscordantly,
prideas thesubjectof
glance,thisstatement
theplay;but the"moral"thatthe Doctour mentionslikelyrefersinsteadto the statementthat
has been made just previouslyby the Angel.The admonitionagainstprideis probablyto be
groupedwithwhatfollowsit,theDoctour'sreminderthatpersonalqualitiesdeserteveryonein
and so on is a conventionalsign
as Beauty,Strength,
theend. Unduepleasurein suchattributes
ofpridein latemedievalmoralliterature.
36As dramatized,
forinstance,in The Worldand theChild;cf.David Bevington's
analysis
{From "Mankind"to Marlowe:Growthof Structurein thePopularDrama of TudorEngland
Press,1962],119). The principleis also explainedbyAvaricia
[Cambridge:HarvardUniversity
in The CastleofPerseverance1019-44.
37
as majorfactorsin Mankind'sdownfall(883-90)
all threetemptations
Mercyidentifies
the temptawhenhe explainsNowadays,New-Guise,and Noughtas collectively
representing
of the
tionof theworld,Titivillusthatof thedevil,and Mankind'sown desiresthetemptation
flesh.The correspondenceof the play'saction withthis schemais loose at best,but Mercy's
to rangewidelythroughthelandspeechclearlysignalsa desireon thepartof theplaywright
scape of sinfulness.
38Our treatment
of this metaphoricaleconomywill differfromearlierones,but it has
In additionto Ko've,"Everymanand theParreceivedsomediscussionin previousscholarship.
"Comedieand Litursee in particularJohnCunningham,
able,"and Velz,"EpisodicStructure,"
in Everyman"in Drama in theMiddleAges:Comparativeand CriticalEssays:
gicalRestoration
Davidsonand JohnH. Stroupe(NewYork:AMS Press,1991),368-79,
SecondSeries,ed. Clifford
whichdiscussesthe financialmetaphoras one of fourin the playthatpossiblyderivefroma
prayerbyAquinas.
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
305
39Severalsuchreferences
can be added to theoccurrencesofreckoningand accountlisted
byKolve("Everymanand theParable,"95,n. 2). Kolve'stabulationmissesthewordreckoningin
reference
to thejudgmentin 11.46, 101,134,411, 508,521,610,898; and in additionto theinstancesofaccounthelists,see 11.104,136,344,502,503,and 507,all ofwhichalso gesturetoward
thejudgmentas an occasionat whichan accountmustbe made or a ledgerpresented.
40See also 447: "Therforeto
thysoule Good is a thefe."
41In fact,itsuse in a
theologicalsense was quitefresh:The wordsredeemand redeemer
and the verb'sfirstrecordeduses in
begin to appear in Englishonlyin the fifteenth
century,
reference
to thepurchaseofhumansoulseffected
bythevalueofthespentblood ofChrist(as in
withEveryman.
The noun redemption(in bothsecularand theological
584) are contemporary
See The OxfordEnglishDictionary,2nded.,
senses)beginsto appearin thefourteenth
century.
s.w. 'redeem,'
and 'redemption.'
'redeemer,'
42Both Pritchard(42-43) and Vanhoutte
(105-6) recognizethe quasifeudalrelationship
establishedbetweenGod and humankindin Elckerlijcbutoverstatecertaindifferences
between
thetwoplaysso thatitappearsabsentin Everyman.
43On the
theologyof the efficacyof good works,see ZachariasP. Thundy,"Good Deeds
Rediviva:Everymanand the Doctrineof Reviviscence,"
Studies17 (1990):
Fifteenth-Century
421-37; and D.Ryan.
44In
Elckerlijc595-600,DuechtbringsElckerlijc'sweldaet(good deeds,or perhapscapacityforvirtuousaction)alongwithherafterherrecoveryto health.C. J.Worthamarguesthatthe
butmustreferinsteadto
grammatically
singularweldaetcannotmean"gooddeeds"collectively,
"virtuein action"or"a moralact"("Everymanand the Reformation,"
sensi29-30). Wortham's
tivediscussionofthechangefromDuechtto Good Deeds (ibid.,25-30) is morepersuasivethan
thatthetwotermsmustreallymeanthesamething( TheDevelopment
JohnJ.Parker'sargument
oftheEveryman
Dramafrom"Elckerlyc"
toHofmannsthals
"Jedermann"
[Doetinchem:Drukkerij
Ratio,1970],18).
45
Everymansharestheparticipatory
vigor,butnotthesacramentalnature,ofthispenance
withElckerlijc.
On theomissionofpenanceas a sacrament
in ElckerlijcseeWortham,
"Everyman
and the Reformation."
46Editedas
appendix2 of Meech and Allen,The Book of MargeryKempe (353-57). De
Worde'spamphletwas reprinted
withminorchangesbyHenryPepwellin 1521.
47E. K. Chambers'sremarkthat
"perhapsthe long passage on priesthoodand the seven
sacramentswas introducedas a makeweight"
(64) seems to have exerteda lastinginfluence
oftheplay'stheologyforwhichChambershas been
despitebeingbased on a misapprehension
rebukedbylaterwriters;and thetreatment
of thepriesthoodpassage in theintrothoroughly
ductionto Cawley'sedition,whereCawleyrelegatesall mentionofitto a footnotereferring
to it
as an "extension,"
at
helpedto canonizethedigressiontheory.See Chambers,EnglishLiterature
theClose of theMiddleAges,2ndcorr.impression,
vol.2, pt.2 of The OxfordHistoryofEnglish
ed. F. P. Wilsonand BonamyDobrée (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1947),64; Cawley,
Literature,
xxii,n. 2.
Everyman,
48LawrenceV.
in Everyman"Speculum32 (1957):
Ryan,"Doctrineand DramaticStructure
David Bevington,TudorDrama and Politics:A CriticalApproachto TopicalMean732-34;
esp.
Press,1968),36-37; Wortham,
ing (Cambridge:HarvardUniversity
"Everymanand theReformation,"23-31 (and cf.Geoffrey
Wortham,eds., The Summoningof
Cooper and Christopher
ofWestern
AustraliaPress,1980],xxvii).MurdoWilliamMcRae,
Everyman[Nedlands:University
Last Ritesand theDigressionon Priesthood,"
"Everyman's
CollegeLiterature13 (1986): 305-9,
also sees thepassage as significant
but makesa dubiouscase thatit createsa dilemmaforthe
which,forMcRae,explainsthe(supposed)absenceofanyvisiblefigureofPriesthood.
playwright
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Drama
Comparative
306
49
in themidstof a fineanalysisof theemphasison priesthoodand thesacraBevington,
refersto the"digressive
nature"of Knowledge'sspeech( TudorDrama and
mentsin Everyman,
Politics,37); Worthammentionsitonlyas evidencethatthecharacterConfessiondoes notstand
"thesacredroleof
forpriesthoodand alludesto it obliquelywhenhe saysthattheplayaffirms
priesthood. . . despitethe abuses of whichindividualmembersof the clergymaybe accused"
thespeechof Knowledge
25). OnlyL. Ryantrulyintegrates
("Everymanand theReformation,"
of Everyman(732-34).
intoa fullerinterpretation
50
The readingin theoriginalis "redempcyo"(Ciir).
CorrectingCawley's"redempycon."
51To our
knowledge,such a comparisonhas neverbeen made. It is evenpossiblethat,as
absenceduringpartofthepriesthooddialogueis a factorin critics'
L. Ryansuggests,
Everyman's
tendencyto see itas a digression(733).
52
n. 36 to 11.750ff.
Cawley,Everyman,
53BecauseFiveWitscontinues
addressingEverymanthroughline749 (naminghimin 747),
it is clearthatthe threeremaintogetheruntilthatpoint.Thereis likelyto have been a figure
eventhoughhe has no lines.The second-person
singularpronounsin 742-44
playingPriesthood,
seemto demandthis.Then a physicalseparationbetweenKnowledgeand FiveWits,on theone
hand,and Everymanand Priesthood,on theother,mustoccur,notonlybecause of thecontent
of Knowledge'ssubsequentspeech,butalso because Everymanis cued to re-entertheactionin
wouldbe forKnowledgeand FiveWitsto
769.The easiestaccommodationoftheserequirements
lead Everymanto PriesthoodduringFiveWits'monologue,reachinghimby742; Everymanand
Priesthoodto exitorwithdraw,
leavingKnowledgeand FiveWitsfreetohavetheirexchangeabout
thesceneofactionalonewhencued byFiveWits.
to re-enter
clericalabuses;and Everyman
54In this
thereadingsharedbyall fourtexts
quotationwe haverestored"samesacrament,"
forCawley'semendation"seuensacramentes"
of Everyman,
(753), whichscarcelyfitswiththe
sentence'sreference
to thecorporalnatureofChristat his Passionand thefactthatEverymanis
receivingtheEucharistat thatmoment.Cawley'sobjectionto thereceivedtextis thatitdoes not
agreewiththepluralpronoun"them"in thefollowingline,butthatpronouncould wellreferto
theBodyand theBlood (whichhavebeen mentionedseparatelyleadingup to thisspeech)- or
could itselfbe emendedto "it"withless violenceto the contextand meaningthan Cawley's
adjustmentdoes.
55Criticshave oftenused thewordsummon,as Skotdoes in thetitle
pages of his prints;
haveoccasionallyused thewordarrest;and haveeventalkedabouta "SummonsofDeath"motif
to theSummonsof Death motif,see W. Roy
as beingtheplottypeof Everyman(forreferences
Mackenzie,TheEnglishMoralitiesfromthePointof ViewofAllegory[Boston:Ginnand Company,1914],202 and 206-10; Bevington,From"Mankind"to Marlowe,117; ArnoldWilliams,
"The EnglishMoral Playbefore1500,"AnnualeMediaevale4 (1963): 18-19; and MerleFifield,
"Methodsand Modes: The Applicationof GenreTheoryto Descriptionsof Moral Plays,"in
Everymanand Company:Essayson the Themeand Structureof theEuropeanMoral Play,ed.
has neverexplored
Donald Gilman[NewYork:AMS, 1989],21-28). But moderncommentary
ofwhatis goingon whenEverymaninterthepossibilitiesforan earlyaudience'sunderstanding
one ofwhosefunctionsis to summonto court,mightalso be
This officer,
actswitha summoner.
or dean.The detailsofeach officeareunimportant
calleda bailiff,
constable,apparitor,
sergeant,
becauseofficialsgoingbythesetitlesall had in common,at leastsometo thepresentargument,
times,thefunctionofsummoningpeople to a courtforexaminationor trial,and itis thatfuncofthemthatwillbe cited.Forconveniencewe willuse
tionthatis emphasizedin theportrayals
whichdescribesthefunctionwe referto,regardlessof thetitleof
thegeneraltermsummoner,
officeused in a givencontext.
56Pritchard(44-47)
arguesforthisidea in Elckerlijcbutthinksit is absentin theEnglish
as Pritchard
play.Everymandoes not directlytranslatesome of Elckerlijcs legal phraseology,
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
307
shows,butitdoes containa substantialamountoflegallanguageand certainlyretainstheconThe motifoflegaladvocacy
ceptofEveryman's
hoped-for
helpfromhisfriendsbeforetheJudge.
"Ferenot;I wyllspeke
is fulfilled
whenGood Deeds tellsEveryman,
as he approachesjudgment,
forthe"(876).
57In theUnfaithful
Friendsstory,
is a requiredlegal
theprincipalcharacter's
predicament
eitherforfinancialreasons(Barlamandlosaphat,
appearancebeforehisking(justas in Everyman),
The ThrieTañesoftheThriePriestsofPeblis)or criminalones (real,as in theAlphabetof Tales
and Caxton'sGolden Legend,or onlyfeigned,as in the two Gesta Romanorumversions).In
Barlamand Iosaphat,The GoldenLegend,and The ThrieTailesof the ThriePriests,whatthe
faithful
friendprovidesfortheprotagonistis advocacyin court.Anotheranalogue,a seldomstudiedworkthatis in manywaysverysimilarto Everymanand was in contemporary
circulade Wordein 1514and edited
tion,TheLamentationof theDyingCreature(printedbyWynkyn
froman earliermanuscript
in Comper,"Bookof theCraftofDying" 137-68), is a closetdrama
constructed
on theidea ofa legalsuit.The dyingprotagonist,
afterbeingsummonedby
entirely
Cruelty,
approachesseveralvirtuesand his fivewits,lookingin vain forsomeoneto speak for
him in court.It culminatesin his gainingtheVirginMary'sadvocacybeforeChristthe Judge,
whichtakesplace in a long scene steepedin legal languageand resonatinga numberof times
withthephraseologyof Everyman.
58See,forinstance,11.42-63, 106-12,and 338-44.
59
MargaretBridges,"The Economicsof Salvation:The Beginningsof an EnglishVocabuin Studiesin HonourofRenéDerolez,ed.A. M. Simon-Vandenbergen
(Ghent:
laryofReckoning,"
SeminanevoorEngelseen Oud-GermaanseTaalkunde,R. U. G., 1987),44-62. Sincethetimeof
herwriting,
havebeenconfirmed
s.v."reckBridges's
findings
byTheMiddleEnglishDictionary,
oning."
60God as
King"calleth"Everyman(20); Everymanexplainsto Fellowshipthathe has to
appear"Beforethe hye luge,Adonay"(245); he tells Kindredand Cousin thathe has been
thatEveryman
(329-30); Good Deeds understands
"commaunded"by"a
hyekyngeschefeoffycer"
has been"somonde. . . /BeforeMyssyas,ofIherusalemkynge"(493-94); Everymanis afraidthat
he willbe "dampned"whenhe appears"BeforetheRedemerof all thynge,
/That Kyngeis,and
was,and euershall"(510-13).
61Once in
Die Doot is presentedmomentarily
as a lesserlordrulingfora greater
Elckerlijc,
one byproxy:"Ickwilterwereltgaenregneren"
[I shallgo to reignin theworld](57), changedin
Everymanto"Lorde,I wyllin theworldego renneouer-all/And cruellyout-serchebothegrete
and small"(72-73). Shortlyafterward,
Die Doot impliesthathe willhavesome rolein thereckoningitself("lek ben die doot,die niemanten spaert/ Maer Elckerlijcksal bi / Gods beveele
doen rekeninghe
mi" [I am Death,who sparesno one. / But everyman shall,by / God's command,givea reckoningto me],99-101), an implicationeliminatedbytheEverymanadapterin
favorofa cleardetermination
ofDeath'sroleas a summoner,
withreferences
to his authority
to
- /Foreueryman I reste- and no man spareth;/Forit
arrest:"I am Dethethatno mandredeth
is Goddes commaundement
/Thatall to me sholdebe obedyent"(115-18).
62Owst calls attentionto a fewinstances
{Literatureand Pulpitin MedievalEngland:A
NeglectedChapterin theHistoryofEnglishLettersand theEnglishPeople [Cambridge:Camsermonby JohnWaldebydescribes
Press,1933],532). A fourteenth-century
bridgeUniversity
"thesolemnmoment'whenDeath,who is God's Bailiff,
shallcome to arrest'men"(Owst,ibid.),
and anotherpreacher,
ThomasWimbledon,in thelate 1380sspokeat lengthaboutGod's three
summoners
oldage,anddeath),introducing
deathas"J>e
(sickness,
}>riddesomenourto})isrekenyng
. . . and J>econdiciónofJ?is
is J)is:J>at
whanneso euerehe come})- first,
oj>ersecunde,oj?erlasthe ne spare})ney])erpowere,ne 3oug))e;/ne he drede})no })retyng,
ne takif)hedeofno praierene
ofno 3ifte;ne he graunte})
no respit;butwi{)outendalayhe brynge})
for})to '>e dorn"(Ione Kemp
Tue":A MiddleEnglishSermon
ed., Wimbledon's
Sermon,"ReddeRationemVillicationis
Knight,
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308
Drama
Comparative
of theFourteenthCentury[Pittsburgh:
Press,1967],p. 108,11.751-56). In
Duquesne University
Dance ofDeath,Death severaltimesrepresents
himselfas a summoner,
Lydgate's
usingexplicto servean ironicpurposeas he
itlylegallanguage,thoughtheportrayalthereseemsprincipally
ofthecourt:see 11.265-80 in theEllesmereversion(no analoguein the
addressesdyingofficers
Lansdowneversion),Ellesmere11.473-80 (Lansdowne 11.337-52), and Ellesmere11.481-96
(Lansdowne11.417-32). The metaphoralso occursin a speechbyPityin Hick ScornerRemembregod thatis our heuenkynge
Forhe wyllrewardeyou afteryourdeseruynge
Whan dethwithhis mace doothyou areest
We all to hymowe fewteand seruyce
(Biiv)
- whereithas an ironicdimensiongiventhecontextof exuberantcriminalactivity(including
an earlierboastbyImaginationthathe talkeda suspiciousbailiffout of arresting
himforstealing a horse).As Owst pointsout (Literatureand Pulpit,532, n. 3), Shakespearedrawson the
same traditionofdeathas a summonerin Hamlet5.2.336-38:"Had I buttime- as thisfellser- O, I couldtellyou- /Butletitbe"( TheRiverside
Shakespeare,
geant,Death,/Is strictinhisarrest
1997]).
gen.ed. G. BlakemoreEvans,2nded. [Boston:HoughtonMifflin,
63"Here
begynnetha treatysehow Vehyefaderof heuen sendethdetheto somon euery
creatureto come and gyuea counteof theyrlyuesin thisworlde/and is in manerof a morali
playe"(citedfromthe Huntingtontext).In the onlyothercompleteearlytextof theplay,also
printedbySkot(BritishMuseumHuth32),thetitlepage differs
onlyin punctuationand orthography.See the facsimileof the Huth textin Everyman,[gen.ed. JohnS. Farmer],Old English
Drama: Students'FacsimileEdition25 (issued n.d.,fromfacsimilemade in 1912).
64" TheSom."in Skotsearlieredition.In theHuthtextitis
spelledout each time(variously
as The summenynge,
The somonynge,
and The summonynge).
65
in boththeHuntington
and Huthtexts,excludingthetitle
Twenty-nine
pagesofplaytext
page and (in the HuntingtonLibrarycopy) theversoof thelast folio,whichcontainsonlythe
colophon.The signaturetitleoccursninetimesin theHuntingtontextand eighttimesin Huth.
66See the historical
"The
studyof the officeand its reputationby Louis A. Haselmayer,
Speculum12 (1937): 43-57.
Apparitorand Chaucer'sSummoner,"
67The
Tales1.649-58and III.1321-26, 1338-78,1434-42,and 1571-623.
Canterbury
68The B versionof PiersPlowmanmentionssummoners
each timedrawing
repeatedly,
devoteesofLady
as sycophantic
attentionto theiravariceand corruption.
Theyarerepresented
Meed in passus2, 3,and 4; anothertimein passus2 theyaresaddledup to serveas thehorsesof
personifiedSimony;and in passus 15 theytaketheirplace in a listof churchofficialswho acquire moneyimmorallyand use it to supporttheinterestsof thewickedwhileallowingGod's
faithful
to sufferwant(see B 2.57-62 [cf.A 2.44-47 and C 2.57-64], 2.169-72 [cf.A 2.132-36
andC2.184-96],3.131-35[cf.A3.120-24and C 3.168-72],4.165-68 [cf.C 4.160-64],and 15.13135 [cf.C 16.274-82]).Most harshlyofall,in thelaterC versionLanglandportraysa summoner
of HolyChurch:
who deliberately
situateshimselfoutsidethefortress
Thennealle kynecristenesaue communewommen
Repentedenand forsokesynne,saue theione
werenforsworen
And a sisourand a sompnourJ>at
ofte;
withthefalsehelden
and wilfully
Wytyng
- sothlytheiwistenhit.
And forsuluerwerenforswore
(C 21.367-71)
to GeorgeKane,ed.,PiersPlowman:The
CitationsoftheA, B,and C versionsreferrespectively
of London,AthlonePress,1960); GeorgeKane and E. Talbot
A Version(London: University
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
309
of London,AthlonePress,
Donaldson,eds.,PiersPlowman:TheB Version(London:University
1975);andGeorgeRusselland GeorgeKane,eds.,PiersPlowman:TheC Version(London:Athlone
of CaliforniaPress,1997). References
Press,and Berkeley:University
gatheredwiththe aid of
PiersPlowman:Concordance(London:Athlone,2001).
JosephS. Wittig,
69Come fortheSireBailli/thatkneweal the
gise
Bi 3owreofficeoftrewthe/& rightwisnesse
3e mostecome /to a neweassise
Extorcions& wronges/to redresse.
{Dance ofDeath 265-68)
70As
(N-TownPlay,2:468,n. to 14.25;cf.2:548).A
suggestedbySpectorin hiscommentary
similardeviceis foundin Mankind457-74,wherethevicesNew Gyse,Nowadays,and Nought
telltheaudiencetheywill notbe able to see thedevilTitivillusunlesstheycontribute
money;
and Povertyin Skelton'sMagnyfycence
mayhave takenup a collectionof moneyor foodfrom
theaudience(see Neuse,Magnyfycence,
43-44).
71
Spector,N-TownPlay,l:xvi,xxii-xxvi,and xxxviii-xli.
72See JillMann,Chaucerand MedievalEstatesSatire:The Literature
ofSocial Classesand
theGeneralPrologueto theCanterbury
Tales(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press,1973),
fora fewadditionalexamples.
139-41,and especiallyHaselmayer,
"Apparitor,"
73
2870.
E.g.,Chaucer,Troilusand Criseyde4.505-6; CastleofPerseverance
74
Goet,
[Elckerlijc:]So bid ic u, mijnuutvercoren
Dat ghimetmi gaetsondercesseren;
Wantghimochtmi lichtvoerGode pureren,
WanttGoetkan suverensmettenclaer.
ic mochtu lettendaer.(378-82)
Tgoet:Neen,Elckerlijc,
I beg you,mybelovedGoods,
[Therefore
Thatyou go withme withoutdelay;
Foryoucould easilyclearme beforeGod,
Forgoods can wipeout stainscompletely.
Goods: No,Everyman,
I mighthinderyou there.]
75Several,butnotall,
examplesofthisproverbialformula,
statingthepowerofmoneyas its
abilityto exchangewrongand right,are scatteredthroughthe entriesof BartlettJereWhiting
withHelenWescottWhiting,
and ProverbialPhrasesfromEnglishWritings
Proverbs,
Sentences,
Mainlybefore1500 (Cambridge,Mass.: Belknap,1968); see G82, M494, M630, and P124; cf.
M639. In his earlierdiscussionof proverbsin Everyman,
Whitingincludeslines 412-13 but
does notnotetheirinversionoftheproverbsusual meaning(BartlettJereWhiting,Proverbsin
theEarlierEnglishDrama,HarvardStudiesin ComparativeLiterature14 [1938; reprint,
New
York:OctagonBooks,1969],93).
76As
book,see Siegfried
Wenzel,
quotedin Owst,317.Fora surveyand studyofGrimestone's
Princeton
Preachers,
Poets,and theEarlyEnglishLyric(Princeton:
Press,1986),101-73.
University
77As translated
in Owst,3 16-17."Dumb"in thefinalsentenceofthequotationis corrected
fromOwst's"deaf"The erroris mostlikelyOwst's,but even ifit is Bromyard's
(Owst does not
to verify
the
quote theLatin,and we havenothad access to a textoftheSummaPraedicantium
also call attentionto
reading)it is obviousand easilyamended.Severalproverbialstatements
thequasimiraculouspowerofmoney:see forinstancethoselistedin entriesG296,M622,M631,
and M633 in Whitingand Whiting,Proverbs,Sentences,and ProverbialPhrases.Bromyards
formulation
mayderivepartofitsironicforcefromitsinversionofEcclesiasticus20:31or (more
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Drama
Comparative
310
ofthe
somemedievalstatements
passagesunderlying
distantly)Deuteronomy16:19,scriptural
influenceofmoneyon judgesand rightjudgment.
78Tauno F.
Mustanoja,ed.,"MyneAwen Dere Sone" NeuphilologischeMitteilungen49
(1948): 145-93.Also KingSolomonsBook of Wisdom11.51-52:"withrichene piede{>ouno3t;/
Foroft'>e ri3th,J?orou3
ed., "AdamDavy's
(in F.J.Furnivall,
gretmedeis in-towrongy-brou3th"
"
5 DreamsaboutEdwardII ""The LifeofSt.Alexius "SolomonsBook of Wisdom""St.Jeremies
15 TokensbeforeDoomsday""TheLamentationofSouls"EETS o.s. 69 [London,1878],81-90).
79Poemno.58 in Rossell
Hope Robbins,ed.,SecularLyricsoftheXIVthandXVh Centuries,
corr.ed. (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1955).See also SirPenny13-8: "penyofwronghe makytry3t
/ In euerycuntreqwerhe goo. /J)owI haue a man I-slawe/ & forfetyd
J>ekyngeslawe,/ I xal
a man oflawe /Wyltakynmynpeny& letme goo" (poem 57 in ibid.).
fyndyn
80Not noticedin
{Proverbsin theEarlierEnglish
Whiting'sdiscussionof Magnyfycence
Drama,84-90).
81No. 49 in Rossell
Hope Robbins,ed., HistoricalPoems of theXIVb and XVh Centuries
Press,1959).
(New York:ColumbiaUniversity
82Ibid.,no. 50.
83Lawe
haj>eputteMeede in gretdistresse
And avoydedhiracqueyntaunce,
Pariureein Englandand Fraunce
Is fleddebyyondeMountGodard,
IuroureswithTrouthhaue allyaunceSo as J?ecrabbegoo}>eforwarde.
pledirsof Kyndenesse,
Sergeauntes,
Haue made oon Guerdouna defyaunce;
ConsistoryesforHoolynesse,
Bytweenehemand Meede is gretdistaunce;
So as {>ecrabbegooj>eforwarde.
(19-28,32)
2 vols.,EETS e.s.
CitedfromHenryNoble MacCracken,ed., TheMinorPoems ofJohnLydgate,
107 and o.s. 192 (London: OxfordUniversity
Press,1911-32;reprint,
1961),2:466.
84See 11.41-48 of
Money,Money,no. 51 in Robbins,HistoricalPoems.
85In WilliamA.
Craigie,ed., TheMaitlandFolio Manuscript,ContainingPoemsbySirRichardMaitland,Dunbar,Douglas,Henryson,and Others,2 vols.,ScottishTextSocietyn.s.7 and
20 (Edinburgh:W Blackwoodand Sons,1919-27), 1:399-400.
86
IncludingA Satyreon theConsistoryCourts,no.6 in Robbins,HistoricalPoems;A Song
on theTimes,in ThomasWright,
ed.,PoliticalSongsofEngland,195-205,esp. 197-202;Songon
ofthefudges,inWright,
theVenality
ibid.,224-30; PiersPlowmanB prol.2 11- 16; On theTimes,
in ThomasWright,
ed.,PoliticalPoemsand Songs,1:270-78,esp.272-73; SirPennyII, no. 58 in
Robbins,SecularLyrics,11.43-48 (in additionto 11.19-24 citedabove); The Powerof thePurse,
no. 59 in Robbins,ibid.,11.33-36; SiegfriedWenzel,ed. and trans.,FasciculusMorum:A FourStateUniversity
Park:Pennsylvania
Press,1989),
PreachersHandbook(University
teenth-Century
in TheBook ofMargeryKempe
statement
IV.ii.73-103and 118-43 (pp. 316-18,320); a rhyming
59/12-16;and otherscitedbyOwst,348-49.
87See 11.465-68 and 481-88.
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ElizabethHarperand BrittMize
311
88Thereare severalothercomments
and Mind to the same effect:see
by Understanding
lines653-54,673-76,and 789-92.
89Forthe
ofhistoricalreference
in thispassage,see Lancashire,"Auspices,"
98possibility
fortheconventionalnatureofsuchsatire.
99,butLancashiremaynotaccountsufficiently
90Here
In theLamagain,theLamentationof theDyingCreatureis parallelto Everyman.
thesummonerwarnsthedyingman explicitly
thatthisjudgewillnotbe influencedby
entation,
in his
unusualrestriction
money(Comper,138),and thedyingmanlaterrepeatsthisapparently
suitto theVirginMary(ibid.,148). This analogueshowsboththecommonnessof theassumption(at leastin literature)
thatcourtswouldbe swayedbywealthand theplausibility
ofperceivingan intentionon Everyman's
partto benefitfromhis richesin court.
91The word"almes"is followed a
by virgule(1.699 in Cawley'sedition;fol.[B.viii]vin the
in thistext(as Cawleynotes[Everyman,
xxxvii];Cooper
original),whichis used quitesparingly
and Worthamare mistakenin theirclaim [SummoningofEveryman,
xlvii]thattheonlypunctuationin theHuntingtontextis thefullstop).This instanceis unique:everyothertimea virguleappears,it eitherseparatesitemsin a seriesor marksa majorsyntacticdivision,such as a
sentenceor clauseboundary.Whileone shouldnotgivethisfacttoo muchweight(in theHuth
thantheHuntington
text,whichuses thevirgulemuchmorefrequently
one,"almes"at thesame
pointis notthusemphasized),it does pointto eitheran exemplaror an earlyact of readingby
JohnSkotor someonein his printshop thatgave"almes"in 699 special stress.
92"Whatscholdewortheofthatweleifno wastecome?/Somerote,somerustesomeratouns
fede./Let be thycramyngeof thikystesforCristislufeof heuen/Late thepeple and thepore
hafeparteofthisiluere"(11.253-56; cf.296-98). In specifying
theamountofalmsas halfofthe
subject'stotalwealth,both Everyman(as Kolve notesin "Everymanand the Parable,"86-87)
and WastourehererecalltheconversionofZaccheus (Luke 19:1-10).
and Wynnere
93The Old Man in the
prologueto Hoccleve'sRegimentof Princesexplainsthattherich
man's"nygardie
/Suffrith
hysneghtburgh
byhymsterue& dye,/Rathirf>anwitha ferthyng
hym
releeue"(1306-8) and that"Whosomoosthath,he moostofschalanswere"(1310). In one ofhis
ironicper antiphrasim
poems,Ryghtas a RammesHome, Lydgatewritesthat
Porefolkepleynehemforno nede,These richemendotheso gretealmesse!
Píenteekedothethehungryfede,
Clothethenaked& his wrecchednesse;
And Charitéis now a chiefmaistres;
. . . ryghtas a rammeshorn.
(25-29, 32)
ofPrincescitedfromHocdeves Works,
TheRegiment
ed.Frederick
and IsraelGollancz,
J.Furnivall
3 vols.,EETS e.s. 61, 72 [vol.3], and 73 [vol.2] (London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1892-1924),
vol.3; Ryghtas a RammesHome fromMacCracken,MinorPoems ofJohnLydgate,
2:462-63.
94No. 51 in Robbins,HistoricalPoems.See also the
passagequotedabovefromGentleness
and Nobility,and FasciculusMorum4.6 (pp. 344-46), the sectionon "Treachery,
Tricks,and
Lies,"whichuses themerchantas itssole example.
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