CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
OF RESEARCH
2.1
Prologue
“Teaching is the art of changing the brain”
- James Zull (2002)
Human learning has been one of the important field of study since ages. How
individual learn and think is not only the field of study for cognitive, developmental
and neuroscientist but also for the common man. Systematic attempts have been made
to study human mind since the nineteenth century; by the turn of this century many
new theories emerged about how human learns. All these theories presented new
ways of thinking about the most important neurological organ- the brain.
Brain performs an important role in learning of the individual. Human brain is
different from the brain of other species. It performs various functions in many
different ways. An important difference between the human brain and the brain of
other species is that human brain has the ability to use it for higher order thinking.
Every person is born with a brain that functions as an immensely powerful processor.
Learning is a natural function of the brain. The brain responds to stimuli and collects
information which is further processed and given meaning.
The brain is ―not only the control center of the entire human body, organizing our
behaviors and biological functions, but it also is the seat of our humanity. It defines
who we are, how we act, and the very nature of our species.‖ (Slavkin 2004, pg 38).
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John Bransford (2003), a researcher in brain-based education, believes that the main
goal of education is to help students develop intellectual tools and learning strategies,
to be the productive members of the society. Current research in learning theory
revealed that implementation of multidisciplinary, multisensory approach enhances
one‘s learning. Brain Based Learning can be one of such approach wherein the
learners get opportunity to develop their thinking. The research findings, in
neurosciences have important implications for education. The brain is made up of
billions of nerve cells called neurons. When the neuron gathers information, it gives
rise to dendrites. More than 30,000 dendrites can fit onto the head of a pin (Sylvester,
1995). Dendrites constantly scan for information because the brain continually wants
to learn. Information is passed from one neuron to the next by an electrochemical
process. When neurons repetitively communicate with each other, a neural network is
formed (Springer, 2002) and a pattern is repeated thus increasing the potential of the
brain to learn. The brain is always searching for meaning from gathered information
and stimuli. These demands to make subject interesting so that the brain will be
excited to gather information, process information and learn.
In the light of brain-based studies, current theories and practices of instructional
design, development, and delivery modes need to be reexamined for their
compatibility with the brain and the best learning.
2.2
How the brain learns
For centuries scientists have tried to decipher the inner workings of the human brain.
The human brain is a complex organ that allows us to think, move, feel, see, hear,
taste and smell. It controls our body, receives information, analyzes information and
stores information.
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All sensory inputs gets sorted, prioritized, processed, stored or dumped by the brain.
The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem. The
largest most highly developed portion of the brain is cerebrum. The cerebrum is made
up of billions of nerve cells and is divided into two hemispheres. The right side of the
cerebrum controls left side of the body and vice versa. It is the cerebrum that is
responsible for higher order thinking and decision making functions.
The cerebrum is made up of four primary areas called lobes. They are the occipital,
frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The occipital lobe is located at the middle back of
the brain and is primarily responsible for vision and reading. The frontal lobe is
located in the area around forehead and is involved with purposeful acts like
judgment, creativity, problem solving, abstract thought processes, and coordination of
movement and planning. The parietal lobe is located at the top back portion of the
brain. Its duties include processing higher sensory and language functions. The
temporal lobe is above the ear. This area is primarily responsible for hearing,
memory, music, emotions and meaning.
The cerebellum helps in balancing, posture, cardiac and respiratory activities. The
brain stem helps in motor activities and sensory pathways to body and face.
The brain produces electrical signals which are transmitted by neurons throughout the
body. Learning is a matter of making connections between the brain cells and the
experiences of an individual. Every new experience a person encounter actually alters
electrochemical wiring of the neurons.. When the brain is motivated the neurons get
connected faster through dendrites. The more novel and challenging stimuli, the more
likely it will be to activate learning.
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2.3
Brain based learning
Learning can‘t take place without participation of the brain. The Brain Based
Learning is the learning in accordance with the way the brain is naturally designed to
learn. It is a multidisciplinary approach built on the fundamental question, ―what is
good for the brain? It is also called as brain compatible learning. It is an educational
approach based on the assumption that brain naturally learns best. (Slavkin,
2004).Brain based learning is based on the structure and function of the brain.
Learning takes place when one neuron communicates with other neuron. When these
neurons repeatedly communicate with each other, a neural network is formed and a
pattern is repeated, thus learning takes place. (Springer, 2002).
Human brain constantly does search for meaning and seeks patterns and connections.
Brain based learning increases brain‘s ability to make connections and retain new
information.
Brain based learning transforms the student from passive recipients of information to
active participants in the learning process. . It engages the emotions of the students,
provides enriched environment, actively process the information, makes meaning and
takes maximum participation of learner with high challenge and low threat. Brain
based learning emphasizes contextual learning and engages learners in decision
making, forming cooperative groups, locating resources and applying the knowledge.
BBL provides an environment where teacher immerses students in complex learning
processes by providing challenging environment.
Traditional schooling however, often inhibits learning by discouraging, ignoring and
punishing the child and therefore brain‘s natural learning process. On the other hand
BBL creates friendly and safe emotional and physical environment with simple
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exercises, freedom to move around, express thoughts in variety of ways along with
appropriate feedback and opportunities for cognitive process.
Previously it was said ‗everybody can learn‘ but now it is said ‗everybody does learn‘.
This approach reflects a genuine revolution in the way individual learns.
Brain based learning is a way of thinking about learning process.
It is not a programme, nor a recipe for teachers.
And it is not the trend or gimmick.
It is however, a set of principles: and a base of knowledge and skills upon which
We can make better decisions about the learning process.
(Jenson E, 2005)
When students are provided with such an enriched environment, learning can be
enhanced. The teacher in the classroom should use teaching strategies that involve
creation of authentic learning situations that increases the brain‘s ability to make
connection and retain new information
2.4
History of Brain Based Learning
Brain based learning emerged in 1980s as a whole new breed of science. The world
has learned more about the human brain in the past 10 to 15 years than in the rest of
recorded history. And that information is leading to revolutionary changes in how we
can each use our own "individual brain-based computer" to learn anything much
better, faster and more easily. For Thousand years there have been primitive models
of how the brain works. Until the end of 1970‘s brain was compared with
switchboard. Brain theory given by Roger Sperry in the 1970‘s throw light on right
and left brain. According to this the brain is divided into two parts, left and the right
brain called hemispheres. Both of them plays a role in determining how human being
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process information, and how one thinks, learn and act. Each hemisphere has specific
function and works in a distinct way. The left hemisphere processes information in a
sequential, analytical manner; The right hemisphere processes information in amore
holistic and intuitive manner. The human brain is designed to process spatially from
left to right hemisphere.
Later, Paul McLean developed the concept of triune brain, which refers the human
brain is divided into three parts- the cerebral cortex, the limbic system and the brain
stem. These three brains operate like "three interconnected biological computers, each
with its own special intelligence, its own subjectivity, its own sense of time and space
and its own memory". Each of the three brains is connected by nerves to the other
two, but each seems to operate as its own brain system with distinct capacities. It had
previously been assumed that the highest level of the brain, the neocortex, dominates
the other, lower levels .The physically lower limbic system, which rules emotions, can
hijack the higher mental functions when it needs to.
Ned Herrmann has given the more holistic view of the brain –the whole brain
learning (Four Quadrant) model, the whole being greater than its parts. According to
this model there are four thinking styles. Logician, Organizer, Communicator and
Visionary. Ned Herrmann combined the Triune Brain model of Paul McLean with the
Left / Right Brain hemisphere theory of Roger Sperry to form a model of the human
brain with two paired structures, the two halves of the cerebral system and the two
halves of the limbic system.
The four-sided model of thinking styles is
metaphorically attributed to four regions of the brain. These four quadrants (A, B, C,
D) may be characterized as: A-logical, B-organized, C-interpersonal, and Dimaginative. It is discovered that creativity is a process involving all four
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quadrants. He also incorporated is the theory of dominance in this model. The four
quadrants and the thinking styles associated with are as follows.
The upper left A- analytical, mathematical and technical problems solver (Logician).
Upper right D - imaginative, synthesizing, artistic, holistic and conceptual (visionary).
The lower left B- controlled, conservative, planned, organized and administrative
(Organizer).
The lower right C- interpersonal, emotional, musical, spiritual and ―talker"
(Communicator).
The following fig 2.1 shows the whole brain model given by Nedd Herman.
Fig2.1
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A number of neuroscientists have researched in the last two decades on brain and the
process of learning and it‘s implication for education. Some eminent names are Eric
Jensen,2000;
Renate
Numella
and
Geoffrey
Caine,2005;Nelson,2001;Sousa,2001;Sylwester,2003;Wolf,2001;Candace Pert, etc.
Path breaking research in the field of brain science has enabled to learn more about
the brain in the past five years than what we know about the brain in past hundred
years. Brain Based learning is the latest buzzword in the field of education as research
has identified the importance and role of brain and its structure in the entire learning
process.
Brain based learning is an approach of learning, not a description of teaching. To
make sense of the vast amount of research that has been generated in the field
ranging from psychology to biology and neuroscience, Caine and Caine, (Making
Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain, 2000) developed a set of 12 brain /
mind principles that summarizes learning.
2.5
Principles of brain based learning
These principles look at all learners as living systems where physical and mental
functioning are interconnected. These principles are:
1.
All learning engages the whole Physiology.
Learning engages the whole physiology of learner. Physical movement and
engagement of body and senses are essential for learning. When a person is engaged
in complex experience, multiple body parts with brain and mind integrates, focuses
and work together naturally.
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2.
The brain/mind is social.
The informal learning which is very effective is take place with the social interactions.
It helps in forming the beliefs, sharing the information and solving the problems
collaboratively. This demands the use of social interaction in the classroom.
3.
The search for meaning is innate.
The need to make sense of things is the characteristic of every human being from
infancy to adulthood. Brain constantly does the search for meaning. The natural
tendency of brain is to receive stimuli and to respond it and do search for meaning.
4.
The search for meaning occurs through patterning.
Patterning refers to meaningful organization and categorization of information. When
one finds pattern it creates meaning. Patterns are based on what one already know or
have experienced. The more association a piece of information elicits, the more firmly
it becomes embedded in the brain and more will be creation of pattern. Therefore
there should be provision to form pattern while receiving information.
5.
Emotions are critical to patterning.
Emotions play a very important role in human life. They are the part of every thought,
decisions and response. Emotions play crucial role in learning. Emotions flavour or
colour each experience, decides further receiving or denying of experience. The
positive experience gives pleasure and motivates for further learning while negative
experience dissatisfies the person and demotivates learners.
6.
The brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously.
The brain is designed to make sense of the world. Each hemisphere of the brain is
active in nearly every activity. Brain synchronizes small pieces of information to
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derive longer global relationships. The brain gives meaning to experience by paying
attention to a complete picture as well as individual parts of it. The experience of the
whole decides what can be achieved. The details or parts are taught as students pursue
their urge to create or understand something of large significance to them. Teaching
needs to begin with an experience to students that provides exposure to the overall
nature of the subject.
7.
Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perceptions.
Attention is the natural phenomenon guided by interest, novelty, emotion and
meaning. Attention is critical to memory. Individual absorb everything but attend to
that which is novel, out of the ordinary, different or personally important. The brain
absorbs stimuli beyond individual‘s conscious attention. Human being also learns
from context they attend. This is how culture is taught and how children ‗pick up‘
behaviours, beliefs and preference or dislikes without ever having paid direct
attention.
8.
Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.
Learning requires a person to consciously attend to a problem that needs to be solved
or analyzed. Some learning at a deeper level requires unconscious incubation like
creative insight.
9.
There are two types of memory: contextual and rote.
Rote memory archives isolated facts, skills and procedures whereas contextual
memory engages multiple systems in order to make sense of experiences. It gives
meaning to the experience which helps in understanding the concept. Contextembedded information is stored in relationship to locations, circumstances and
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associations. This type of memory forms quickly and is easily updated.
It is
motivated by curiosity, novelty, sensory activity, and expectations.
10.
Learning is developmental.
The richer and complex the experience one have, the more elastic his brain becomes.
Experiences stimulate neural development. With new experiences, brain becomes
denser providing greater capacity for new and deeper understanding. The richer and
more complex the experiences one have, the more elastic the brains become. The
experiences stimulate neural development, creating a thick forest of branch-like
neural connections.
11.
Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.
The brain can be strengthened through presenting sensory rich, challenging situations.
Brain expands or shuts down certain functions based on the presence of challenge or
threat. One can strengthen the brain through presenting sensory-rich, challenging
situations in a safe environment that promotes risk taking. The more complex the
challenge and the safer the social and psychological environment, the greater will be
the learning.
12.
Each brain is uniquely organized.
Each person‘s brain matures differently, and brain size and weight can vary by as
much as 50 percent among people of normal intelligence.
These principles based on the unique structure of brain , role of emotions in learning ,
function of the brain gives rise to different thought for planning teaching learning.
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The principles suggest that there are three fundamental elements of great teaching.
They are an appreciation of the fact that body, brain, and mind are a dynamic unity.
The following interactive teaching elements emerge from these principles.
2.6
Elements of brain based learning
The objective of Brain Based Learning is to move from memorizing information to
meaningful learning. Thus BBL focused on three fundamental elements needed for
planning teaching learning. These three fundamental elements are 1.
Relaxed Alertness- Creating the optimal emotional climate for learning.
Relaxed alertness means the brain is alert but relaxed .It means that learning is taking
place in a comfortable situation and not in stressful environment. The individual will
be relaxed and alert at the same time feel confident, comfortable and intrinsically
motivated. This provides low threats but make learner ready to accept challenges.
This demands teachers to create a learning situation which involves emotional and
social competence. The social environment will help in developing sense of
belongingness, listening skills, convincing ability, accepting everybody the way he /
she is . This in turn provides them emotional support which makes them relaxed but
alert. When a relaxed accepting environment prevails in the classroom, children use
their maximum potential.
2.
Orchestrated Immersion - Creating optimal opportunities for learning.
Learning is a natural process which takes place when brain receives stimuli through
various sense organs in the form of sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste. These stimuli
provide information to brain which is then processed. The information in various
forms activates different sense organs. The information can be given in textual form,
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diagram, auditory form and so on which can be interconnected with previous
information to make meaning. This happens when students are asked to relate and
understand the ‗new‘ in terms of what they already know. The brain needs repetition.
The learner has to do something with what
has been learned in order to make his
learning successful. This means that students need to be given opportunities. The
opportunities can be given by
Allowing students to physically interact with what is to be learned or
understood.

Making associations with what is being experienced and linking it to what one
already know.

Formulating questions, raising doubts and sharing views.

Performing in variety of ways like expressing thoughts through pictures,
drawings, poetry, story.

Receiving feedback from others.
The brain needs inputs for various senses to respond to stimuli. The activities which
involves hand, heart and head leads to meaningful learning.
3. Active Processing of Experience- Creating optimal ways to consolidate learning.
The brain is better at remembering things that are of meaningful to the student. The
brain learns through experiences. These experiences are stored in the memory. The
brain needs the learner to do something with what has been learned. When the
individual learn some new concept, he/she try to relate it with the stored information.
He /she has to consolidate and internalize the information by actively processing on it
for learning to take place. Using teacher and peer questioning and feedback, students
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identify specific characteristics and see relationships, analyze situations, develop
goals and make critical decisions and communicate their understanding.
Although experience is essential, students do not automatically learn all that they need
to learn just be being immersed in experience. The key is for the teacher to move
away from providing information to assuring that students have many opportunities to
receive feedback, think about, question, examine and process what they are
experiencing. Active processing of information involves:

Detailed sensory observation;

Deliberate practice and rehearsal;

Making links to previous learning;

Multiple modes of questioning;

Incorporation of expert knowledge;

Analysis of data and sources;

Writing reflections.
All these preferences help student to consolidate the knowledge which is based on
past and present experiences.
All the three elements are interrelated .For learning to take place provision of stress
free learning environment as this environment makes learners feel comfortable and
emotionally stable. Thus motivates children to express themselves without any fear or
threat. Further it leads to relate new information with existing knowledge and
processing the information so as to make learning meaningful.
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Movement and education
Movement plays a very important role in learning. Movement activates brain cells
which help in learning. It includes number of alternative healing techniques, which
use physical movements. The techniques involved in movement education are to help
release stress from the body and increase normal range of movement. Increasing ones'
normal range of movement allows a person to experience more of healthy and
energetic. Cross laterals and stretching exercises activates the brain.
a)
Cross-laterals
Arm and leg crossover activities force both brain hemispheres to "talk" to each other
better. "Pat your head and rub your belly" is an example of a crossover. Other
examples include marching in place while patting opposite knees, patting yourself on
the opposite shoulder, and touching opposite elbows or heels.
b)
Stretching exercises
Get everyone up to do some slow stretching. Ask students to lead the group as a
whole or let teams do their own stretching. Allow learners more mobility in the
classroom during specific times or simply let them walk around the back of the class
as long as they do not disturb other students.
For incorporating the elements of brain based learning in teaching learning process
some essential requirements are as follows.
2.7
Essentials of Brain Based Learning
The following are the essentials one should keep in mind while using brain based
learning strategies.
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 Pre Exposure: Make sure that learners are pre - exposed to the content and
context of the new topic at least one week in advance of learning. Post a
summary or mind map of the proceeding unit on the bulletin board a couple of
weeks prior to starting it . Let students notice and ask about it.
 Sufficient Time for Learning: Time is an essential ingredient and always a
factor in the learning equation. Provide sufficient time for learning. Make sure
to plan time for review and reflection, as well.
 Low or No Threat: Interact daily with each learner. Provide frequent, non –
judgmental feedback. Remember it‘s not what the teacher teach, but how they
best learn.
 High Engagement: Engage learners physically and socially, so that they are
continuously interacting and taking action. ―Involve, don‘t tell‖.
 Positive Emotional Engagement: The quality of learning and ability to recall
depends upon how students feel. While teaching change activities frequently
providing choice and individual attention by keeping challenge level high.
 Moderate to High Challenge: Create enough challenge that what teacher asks
students to do is worth doing. Keep the challenge level high. Any activity can
be made challenging by adjusting time, resource, altering the circumstances.
 Strong Peer Support: Encourage positive peer affiliation. Positive peer
affiliation can be encouraged by group assignments and team efforts.
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 Mastery Goals: Set high standards, provide benchmarks, and acknowledge
learner for reaching their mastery level.
 Balancing Novelty and Predictability: The optimal learning environment
provides a balance of novelty or surprise and predictability. Constant novelty
is too stressful, while constant predictability is too boring for students.
 Safe for Taking Risks: Ensure that the culture in the classroom is one that
supports emotional safety. This can be done by adopting zero tolerance policy
for teasing, humiliation, put downs etc.
 Moderate Stress: A little stress is good; but too much is bad. Again, it is the
balance that is important. Monitor the stress in your class and manage it
accordingly.
 Frequent Feedback: All of the previous goals are supported by frequent
feedback. Ensure that every student get some kind of feedback.
Scientists have found that as one learns new information, brain actually undergoes
physiological changes. Teacher can make use of various strategies to bring desirable
changes in the learners.
2.8
Strategies of Brain Based Learning
There are various strategies of brain based learning. Some of the strategies are as
follows.
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Following table 2.1 shows various strategies of Brain Based Learning.
Table 2.1
Strategies of Brain Based Learning
Mind
Concept
Semantic
Advance
Graphic
Mapping
Mapping
Maps
organizers
Organizer
Problem based
Project based
Cooperative
Collaborative
Reflective
learning
learning
learning
learning
writing
KWLH Chart
SQ3R Chart
Integrated
4 MAT
Reciprocal
Thematic
Model
teaching
Instructions
Role Plays
Visualization
Visual
Expository
Music /
and Guided
Maps
learning
Rhythm
Imagery
Movement
Drawing
Education
and
Rhyme
Brainstorming
Real- life
Simulations
Apprenticeships
Artwork
Word webs
Brain teasing
Metaphoric
and puzzles
games
activities
Analogies
Mnemonic
devices
Following things should be kept in mind while using these strategies.

Address all aspects of brain operations – entertainment, imagination etc.

Routine leads to stability so innovation is important.

Learning material should be patterned and then presented.

Rote learning should be limited .Experiential learning should be used as much
as possible.

Students should feel emotionally comfortable and academically challenged.

Lesson must be meaningful to the students.
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
Incorporate more examples, images, correlations, role play, visuals and
movement into the learning.
There are various strategies of Brain Based Learning. Researcher had made use of
following strategies in her study.
Mind Mapping
A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other items linked
to and arranged around a central key word or idea. It is a Strategy for visualizing the
central idea of the concept. Mind maps are used to generate, visualize, structure, and
classify ideas, and as an aid to studying and organizing information, solving
problems, making decisions, and writing.
The elements of a given mind map are arranged intuitively according to the
importance of the concepts, and are classified into groupings, branches, with the goal
of representing connections between portions of information. Their visual basis helps
one to distinguish words or ideas, often with colors and symbols. Mind maps
generally take a hierarchical or tree branch format, with ideas branching into their
subsections. Mind maps differ from concept maps in that mind maps focus on only
one word or idea. Following figure elaborates the mind map of a mind map.
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Fig 2.2
Mind map
(Source-http://www.tonybuzan.com/about/mind-mapping)
Steps of Mind mapping
1.
Generate a topic. Decide the focus of your thinking. It can be word or image.
2.
Center First. Placed a word or image that symbolizes what you want to think
about in the middle of the page.Write it in bold letters. Circle or place a square
around the topic.
3.
Start writing what comes to mind. As you generate thoughts, draw a branch
from the main topic. Keep it to as few words as possible.
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4..
Begin branching. Try to extend your thoughts from one idea to the next. Draw
lines between thoughts to create lateral thinking. As new ideas come forth,
draw a different branch from your topic.
5.
Repeat branching until all your ideas appear on the map.
6.
When finished mapping, carefully study the connections that you have made
between your thoughts and ideas and try to relate them.
Concept Mapping
A concept map is a diagram showing the relationships among concepts. It is a
graphical tool for organizing and representing knowledge. concept maps connect
multiple words or ideas.
Concepts, usually represented as boxes or circles, are connected with labeled arrows
in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts
can be articulated in linking phrases such as "gives rise to", "results in", "is required
by," or "contributes to".
The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called
"concept mapping".
A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images, or
words. In a concept map, each word or phrase is connected to another and linked
back to the original idea, word or phrase. Concept maps are a way to develop logical
thinking and study skills by revealing connections and helping students see how
individual ideas form a larger whole.
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Steps of Concept mapping
1. Select key concepts. This is a recognition process that activates relevant
knowledge, and assists in topic identification;
2. Write the key concepts;
3. Make an attribute list of the key concepts;
4. Relate key concepts in a spatial relationship;
5. Rearrange spatial representations;
6. Compare representation to the text.
Following figure shows the concept map of a concept map.
Fig 2.3
Concept map
(Source - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_map)
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Graphic Organizers
A graphic organizer is a visual and graphic display that depicts the relationships
between facts, terms, and or ideas within a learning task. Graphic organizers come in
many different forms, each one best suited to organizing a particular type of
information. The following are types of graphic organizers.

Relational Organizers
A Descriptive or Thematic Map
Particularly
well
for
mapping
hierarchical relationships.
Fishbone Map
When cause-effect relationships are
complex and non-redundant a Fishbone
Map may be particularly useful.

Sequence Organizers
Sequential Episodic Map
It is useful for mapping cause and
effect.
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A Network Tree
Organizes
a
hierarchical
set
of
information, reflecting super ordinate
or subordinate elements.
Cycle Map
It is useful for organizing information
that is circular or cyclical, with no
absolute beginning or ending.
Event Chain Map
If the topic involves a linear chain of
events, with a definite beginning,
middle, and end chain of events
graphic organize is used.
Example: Analyzing the plot of a
story.
Comparative and Contrastive Map
Can help students to compare and
contrast two concepts according to
their features.
Venn Diagram Map
If the task involves examining the
similarities and differences between
two items Venn diagram is used.
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
Concept Development Organizers
Problem and Solution Map
When information contains cause and
effect
problems
and
solutions,
a Problem and Solution Map can be
useful for organizing.
Star Map
If the topic involves investigating
attributes associated with a single
topic, a star diagram is used as graphic
organizer. Example: Finding methods
that help study skills (like taking notes,
reading,
doing
homework,
memorizing, etc.).
(Source-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic organizer)
KWL Chart
A KWL chart, is a graphical organizer designed to help in learning. The letters KWL
are an acronym for "what we Know", "what we Want to know", and "what we
Learned". A KWL table is typically divided into three columns titled Know, Want
and Learned. The chart is a comprehension strategy used to activate background
knowledge prior to reading and is completely student centered. The chart is divided
into three columns. The first column, 'K', is for what the students already know about
a topic. This step is to be completed before the reading. The next column, 'W', is for
students to list what they want to learn about the topic during the reading. This step is
also to be completed before the reading. The third column, 'L', is for what the students
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learned from the reading. This step, of course, is done after finishing the reading. The
KWL chart can also be used in reading instruction at the beginning of a new unit.
A KWL chart can be used for all subjects in a whole group or small group
atmosphere. The chart is a comprehension strategy used to activate background
knowledge prior to reading and is completely student centered. Here is what the KWL
chart can look like:
K
W
L
What I know
What I want to know
What I learnt
Students
write
the Students
write
information
about
what information
about
the After the completion of the
what lesson or unit, students
they know in this space. they want to know in this write the information that
space.
they learned in this space
Problem solving
Problem solving is a mental process which includes problem finding and problem
shaping where problem is defined as a state of desire for the reaching of a definite
goal from a present condition that either is not directly moving toward the goal, is far
from it or needs more complex logic for finding a missing description of conditions or
steps toward the goal . Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions,
problem solving has been defined as a higher-order cognitive process that requires the
modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills.
42
Steps of problem solving
There are seven main steps to follow when trying to solve a problem. These steps are
as follows:
1.
Define and Identify the Problem
2.
Analyze the Problem
3.
Identifying Possible Solutions
4.
Selecting the best Solutions
5.
Evaluating Solutions
6.
Develop an Action Plan
7.
Implement the Solution
(Source- http://www.pitt.edu/~groups/probsolv.html)
Project based learning (PjBL)
Project-based learning is an instructional method that provides students with complex
tasks based on challenging questions or problems that involve the students' problem
solving, decision making, investigative skills, and reflection that includes teacher
facilitation, but not direction. PjBL is focused on questions that drive students to
encounter the central concepts and principles of a subject hands-on. Students form
their own investigation of a guiding question, allowing students to develop valuable
research skills as students engage in design, problem solving, decision making, and
investigative activities. Through Project-based learning, students learn from the
experiences and take them into account and apply them to the world outside their
classroom. PBL is a different teaching technique that promotes and practices new
learning habits, emphasizing creative thinking skills by allowing students to find
many ways to solve a problem.
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To implement Project-Based Learning, following six steps are used:
1. Start with the Essential Question
2. Design a Plan for the Project
3. Create a Schedule
4. Monitor the Students and the Progress of the Project
5. Assess the Outcome
6. Evaluate the Experience
(Source-http://www.pitt.edu/~groups/probsolv.html)
Cooperative learning
It is an approach to organizing classroom activities into academic and social learning
experiences. It differs from group work, and it has been described as "structuring
positive interdependence." Students must work in groups to complete tasks
collectively toward academic goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be
competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively capitalize on one another‘s
resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another‘s
ideas, monitoring one another‘s work, etc.). Furthermore, the teacher's role changes
from giving information to facilitating students' learning. Everyone succeeds when
the group succeeds. It gives learners the opportunity to share and construct
knowledge, problem solving and develop social and interpersonal skills.
44
Five essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative
learning in the classroom.
1.
Positive interdependence
2.
Face-to-Face interaction
3.
Individual and Group Accountability
4.
Social Skills
5.
Group Processing
There are various strategies of cooperative learning. For the present study following
strategies were used.
i)
Jigsaw
Jigsaw is a grouping strategy in which the members of the class are organized into
"jigsaw" groups. The students are then reorganized into "expert" groups containing
one member from each jigsaw group. The members of the expert group work together
to learn the material or solve the problem, then return to their "jigsaw" groups to share
their learning. This is an excellent method for improving students' teamwork and
communication skills. In this way, the work of the expert groups is quickly
disseminated throughout the class, with each person taking responsibility for sharing a
piece of the puzzle.
The jigsaw strategy follows following steps:
1. Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups. The groups should be
diverse in terms of gender and ability.
2. Appoint one student from each group as the leader.
45
3. Divide the lesson into 5-6 segments.
4. Assign each student to learn one segment, making sure students have direct
access only to their own segment.
5. Give students time to read over their segment at least twice and become
familiar with it. There is no need for them to memorize it.
6. Form temporary "expert groups" by having one student from each jigsaw
group join other students assigned to the same segment. Give students in these
expert groups time to discuss the main points of their segment and to rehearse
the presentations they will make to their jigsaw group.
7. Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.
8. Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group. Encourage others
in the group to ask questions for clarification.
9. Roam around from group to group, observing the process. If any group is
having trouble , make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the
group leader to handle this task.
10. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that students quickly
come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.
(Source-http://www.jigsaw.org/steps.htm)
ii)
Think, pair, share
The think, pair, share strategy is a cooperative learning technique that encourages
individual participation and is applicable across all grade levels and class sizes.
Students think through questions using three distinct steps encouraging individual
participation:
46
1. Think: Students think independently about the question that has been posed,
forming ideas of their own.
2. Pair: Students are grouped in pairs to discuss their thoughts. This step allows
students to articulate their ideas and to consider those of others.
3. Share: Student pairs share their ideas with a larger group, such as the whole
class. Often, students are more comfortable presenting ideas to a group with
the support of a partner. In addition, students' ideas have become more refined
through this three-step process.
This is an excellent method for promoting critical thinking and articulate
communication in the classroom.
Steps of think pair share
1. Teacher poses a problem or asks an open-ended question to which there may
be a variety of answers.
2. Teacher gives the students ‗think time‘ and directs them to think about the
question.
3. Following the ‗think time‘ students turn to face their Learning Partner and
work together, sharing ideas, discussing, clarifying and challenging.
4. The pair then share their ideas with another pair, or with the whole class. It is
important that students need to be able to share their partner‘s ideas as well as
their own.
(Source http://www.eazhull.org.uk/nlc/think,_pair,_share.htm)
47
iii)
Round Robin Brainstorming
In it the class is divided into small groups (4 to 6) with one person appointed as the
recorder. A question is posed with many answers and students are given time to think
about answers. After the "think time," members of the team share responses with one
another round robin style. The recorder writes down the answers of the group
members. The person next to the recorder starts and each person in the group in order
gives an answer until time is called.
Step 1 –
Team is gather together around a table. Give each person some cards,
so that people can record their ideas on individual pieces of card.
Step 2 -
Explain the problem that to be solved. The goal in this step is to allow
individual people to think creatively without any influence from others.
Step 3 -
Have each team member, think on idea and write it down on the card.
Step 4 -
Once everyone has written down an idea, each person pass their idea to
the person next to them. Everyone should now be holding a new card
with their neighbor's idea written down on it.
Step 5 -
Have each person use their neighbor's idea as inspiration to create
another idea, which they then write on a fresh card. Then ask each
person to hand in their neighbor's card, and pass their new idea to the
person next to them to repeat step 4.
Step 6 -
Continue this circular idea swap for as long as is necessary to gather a
good amount of ideas. When the time is up, gather up all the ideas.
48
You can now collate them, eliminate any duplicates, and discuss them
further as required.
(Source http://www.mindtools.com/pages/Newsletters/30Nov10.html)
Integrated Thematic Instructions (ITI) Model
Integrated Thematic Instruction (ITI) is a comprehensive model designed by Susan
Kovalik in 1982 to increase student performance and teacher satisfaction. The primary
purpose of the model is to grow responsible citizens. The ITI model is a braincompatible instructional model grounded in the biology of effective instructional
strategies, and the development of conceptual curriculum (Susan Kovalik).
It encourages learners to make thematic connections across disciplines related to
social issues and personal concerns. Thematic instruction is characterized by a range
of distinct strategies. Teachers who incorporate thematic instruction employ researchbased strategies such as:
1.
Choose authentic themes that matter. Choosing themes that are authentic
content connectors strengthens students' ability to build fluency between
school subjects and apply them in real-world contexts. Select concepts or
ideas that will blend disciplines and create bridges to new knowledge.
2.
Employ cooperative grouping. Using small, cooperative learning groups to
support problem-solving and cooperation.
3.
Design inquiry-based learning experiences. Designing hands-on, activities
that help students to make real-world sense of concepts by applying what
they have learnt.
49
4.
Provide for student choice. A curriculum that provides students choices for
demonstrating their learning will allow construction of new knowledge,
engage individual students, and promote self-direction, autonomy, and
collaboration (Bank Street College, 2004).
5.
Create a resource-rich classroom. Provide a rich environment for exploring
the theme in multiple avenues. Computers connected to the Internet,
magazines, materials to experiment with, and tools for creating records of
learning all enable elaboration of new knowledge.
6.
Connect to the local surroundings. Extend the classroom into the
neighborhood, town, and environment by integrating them into the
curriculum in meaningful ways.
7.
Team with other teachers. Collaborate with colleagues to bring good ideas
into the planning process and create strong links to other disciplines by
sharing content expertise.
8.
Provide timely feedback. The real world provides authentic feedback,
allowing us to internalize what success or failure looks and feels like.
Feedback in the classroom should replicate authentic learning situations by
being timely and instructive.
9.
Link assessment to real-world performances. Use authentic performance
assessments that ask students to apply what they understand in new ways.
10.
Use technology effectively. Employ appropriate technology tools for
students to explore ideas, engage in simulations, and make new
connections.
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The nine brain-compatible elements of the ITI (Integrated Thematic Instruction)
model designed by Susan Kovalik are:
1.
Absence of Threat,
2.
Meaningful Content,
3.
Choices,
4.
Movement to Enhance Learning,
5. Enriched Environment,
6.
Adequate Time,
7.
Collaboration,
8.
Immediate Feedback, and
9.
Mastery of the content
Reciprocal teaching
It is an instructional activity that takes the form of a dialogue between teachers and
students regarding segments of text for the purpose of constructing the meaning of
text. Reciprocal teaching is a reading technique which is thought to promote the
teaching process. A reciprocal approach provides students with four specific reading
strategies that are actively and consciously used to support comprehension:
1. Questioning,
2. Clarifying,
3. Summarizing
4. Predicting.
When using the questioning strategy, readers monitor and assess their own
understanding of the text by asking themselves questions. Questioning involves the
51
identification of information, themes, and ideas that are central and important enough
to warrant further consideration. The Questioner will pose questions about:

Unclear parts

Puzzling information

Connections to other concepts already learned
Clarifying involves the identification and clarification of unclear, difficult, or
unfamiliar aspects of a text. These aspects may include unclear sentence or passage
structure, unfamiliar vocabulary, unclear references, or obscure concepts. Clarifying
provides the motivation to remediate confusion through re-reading.
Summarizing is the process of identifying the important information, themes, and
ideas within a text and integrating these into a clear and concise statement that
communicates the essential meaning of the text. Summarizing may be based on a
single paragraph, a section of text, or an entire passage. Summarizing provides the
impetus to create a context for understanding the specifics of a text.
The prediction phase involves readers in actively combining their own background
knowledge with what they have gathered from the text. With a narrative text students
imagine what might happen next. With an informational text, students predict what
they might learn or read about in subsequent passages.
Palincsar (1986) believes the purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group
effort between teacher and students as well as among students in the task of bringing
meaning to the text. Reciprocal teaching is best represented as a dialogue between
teachers and students in which participants take turns assuming the role of teacher.
52
Reciprocal teaching is most effective in the context of small-group collaborative
investigation, which is maintained by the teacher.
Role-playing
It refers to the changing of one's behavior to assume a role. In role-playing students
explore human relations by enacting problem situations and then discussing the
enactments. Together students explore feelings, attitude, values and problem solving
strategies.
Role playing is dealing with problems through actions; a problem is analyzed, acted
out and discussed. Some students are role players while others are observers. A
person puts himself/herself I the place of another person and then tries to interact with
others who are also role playing.
Role playing activity consists of nine steps.
2.9
1.
Warm up the group
2.
Select participant
3.
Set the stage
4.
Prepare observers
5.
Enact
6.
Discuss and evaluate
7.
Reenact
8.
Discuss and evaluate
9.
Share experience and generalize.
Stages of Brain Based Learning
Brain-based lesson planning does not follow a template—mainly because the basic
premise of brain-based learning is that every brain is unique, so a one-size-fits-all
53
approach does not work. Learning different things requires different approaches for
different people, depending on variables such as prior learning, experience, preferred
modalities, and the type of skill being taught. Thus, a toolbox rather than a template
is the basis for brain-based lesson planning. There is a wide range of tools that help
encourage the brain to absorb, process, and store experiences and information
meaningfully. The following general strategies reflect a brain-based approach to
lesson planning. They are followed by a more detailed sequence of guidelines that
reflect the seven stages of learning.
Stage 1: Pre-exposure
This stage provides the brain with an overview of the new learning before really
digging in. Pre-exposure helps the brain develop better conceptual maps. The various
ways which can stimulate brain are as follows.

Post an overview of the new topic on the bulletin board. Mind maps work great
for this.

Encourage good brain nutrition, including drinking plenty of water.

Model and practice coping strategies, self-esteem, and life skills.

Create a strong immersion learning environment. Make it interesting!

Consider time-of-day brain cycles and rhythms when planning morning and
afternoon activities.

Discover students‘ interests and background; start where they are in their
knowledge base, not where you think they are.

Have learners set their own goals, and discuss class goals for each unit.

Post many colorful peripherals, including positive affirmations.

Plan brain ―wake-ups‖ (e.g., cross-laterals, relax-stretching) every hour.
54

Plan activities during which students can move around and choose from a menu
of offerings.

State strong positive expectations, and allow learners to voice theirs, too.

Build strong positive rapport with learners.

Read your students‘ learning states, and make any adjustments as you proceed
through the lessons.
For the intervention programme based on brain based learning pre exposure was
provided in terms of pictures, posters, charts, video clips ,articles, newsletters,
puzzles, quizzes. An overview of the new topic was posted on the bulletin board in
advance.
Stage 2: Preparation
This is the stage at which you create curiosity or excitement. It‘s similar to the
―anticipatory set‖ but goes further in preparing the learner.

Create a ―you are there‖ experience; give learners a real-world grounding.

Provide the context for learning the topic (can be a repeat of the overview; the
classic ―big picture‖).

Elicit from learners what possible value and relevance the topic has to them
personally. They must feel connected to the learning before they‘ll internalize
it. Encourage them to express how they feel it is or is not relevant. The brain
learns particularly well from concrete experiences first.

Provide something real, physical, or concrete. Conduct an experiment, go on a
field trip, or invite a guest speaker who is professionally involved with the
topic.

Create complex interdisciplinary tie-ins to the session.
55

Provide a ―hook,‖ a surprise, or a bit of novelty to engage learners‘ emotions.
For this stage preparation was provided in terms of
video clips, projects and
discussion was conducted before starting the new topic.
Stage 3: Initiation and Acquisition
This stage provides the immersion. Flood with content! Instead of the singular,
lockstep, sequential, one-bite-at-a-time presentation, provide an initial virtual
overload of ideas, details, complexity, and meanings.
Allow learners to feel
temporarily overwhelmed. This will be followed by anticipation, curiosity, and a
determination to discover meaning for oneself. Over time, it all gets sorted out
brilliantly by the learners. If that sounds like the real world of learning, outside the
classroom, you‘re right: it is.

Provide concrete learning experiences (e.g., case study, experiment, field trip,
interview, hands-on learning).

Provide activities that employ a majority of the multiple intelligences.

Offer a group or team project that encompasses building, finding, exploring, or
designing.

Attend the theater, put on a skit, produce a commercial, or create a class/school
newspaper.

Provide enough choice that learners have the opportunity to explore the subject
using their preferred modality: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and so on.

A well-designed computer program can be helpful at this stage.
For this stage concrete learning experiences were provided in terms of case study,
experiment, interview and hands on learning experiences like projects wherein
56
emphasis was given on providing multisensory inputs using various brain based
learning strategies.
Stage 4 : Elaboration
This is the processing stage; it requires genuine thinking on the part of the learners.
This is the time to make intellectual sense of the learning.

Provide an open-ended debriefing of the previous activity.

Tie things together so that learning across disciplines occurs (e.g., read a
science fiction story about outer space while studying the solar system, discuss
how literature relates to science).

Have learners design an evaluation procedure or rubric for their own learning
(e.g., write test questions, facilitate peer reviews, design mind maps).

Have learners explore the topic online or at the library.

Watch a video, view slides, or see a theatrical production on the topic.

Stimulate small-group discussions, and have groups report back to the entire
class.

Create individual and/or group mind maps reflecting the new material.

Hold a school forum, debate, essay contest, or panel discussion.

Hold a question-and-an-answer period.

Have students done the teaching (e.g., in small groups, as class presenters, in
pairs).
For these stage group discussions, conducting debate, drawing pictures, collecting
relevant news related to the topic, presentations on information collected, writing
stories and poems were encouraged.
57
Stage 5 : Incubation and Memory Encoding
This stage emphasizes the importance of downtime and review time. The brain
learns most effectively over time, not all at once.

Have learners keep a journal of their learning.

Have learners take a walk in pairs to discuss the topic.

Provide stretching and relaxation exercises.

Provide a music-listening area.

Ask learners to discuss new learning with their family and friends.
For this stage students were told to write reflections. Stretching and relaxation
exercises were provided. Students were asked to discuss new learning with their
family and friends.
Stage 6 : Verification and Confidence Check
This stage is not just for the benefit of the teacher; learners need to confirm their
learning for themselves as well. Learning is best remembered when students possess
a mode or a metaphor regarding the new concepts or materials.

Have learners present their learning to others.

Ask students to interview and evaluate each other.

Encourage students to write about what they‘ve learned (e.g., journal, essay,
news article, report).

Have students demonstrate learning with a project (e.g., working model, mind
map, video and newsletter).

Let students present a role-play, a skit, or a theatrical performance.

Quiz students (verbally and/or in writing).
58
For this stage students were told to write in the reflective journal about what they‘ve
learned.
Stage 7: Celebration and Integration
At this point, it is critical to engage emotions. Make it fun, light, and joyful. This
stage instills the all-important love of learning. Never miss it!

Have a class toast (with juice).

Provide sharing time (e.g., peer sharing, demonstration, acknowledgments).

Play music, hang streamers, and blow horns.

Invite another class, parents, the principal, or community guests in to view
projects.

Facilitate a class-designed and –produced celebration party.

Incorporate the new learning in future lessons. Never introduce something and
then drop it. If it‘s not important enough to refer to in the future, don‘t waste
time on it to begin with.
Students were provided sharing time to discuss what they have learnt. Students were
appreciated for their performance.
2.10
Advantages of Brain Based Learning
Brain-based learning seeks to create a more effective learning process to benefit the
learner by understanding how the brain learns and providing the most efficient
learning environment possible. Following are some of the advantages of BBL.
1.
It engages whole body and mind
In brain based programs, a child learns actively instead of sitting passively for
59
hours in a classroom. Rather than assessing a child's progress based on his
homework or test scores, brain based learning uses student demonstrations and
portfolios of his writings and artwork to track his progress. Brain based
learning embraces the concept that attention follows emotion. The
comprehensive approach also promotes creating art to encourage individual
expression. Music is often used to create calm, relaxing atmosphere for certain
activities.
2.
Teaching Through Practical Experiences
Brain based learning methods immerse a student in a subject. For example, a
student may visit a various places to learn how waste is generated at these
places. The brain based learning system is partially based on the theory of
learning through spatial memory, which is the ability to absorb and retain a
lesson. Students learn more when they learn lessons of a practical nature or
through practical experiences.
3.
The Immersion Advantage
In brain-based learning strategies , the student benefits from a wide variety of
stimuli which are incorporated in order to make the experience as real and
engaging as possible. Applying problem-solving skills to learn. The personal
reward motivate students to
develop insight .Self-directed learning leads
naturally to further exploration and higher levels of complexity in problemsolving skills.
4.
Stress-free Learning Environment
The environment which demands the students to perform in limited time
period and in a specific way does not provide freedom of learning and hence
60
leads to discouraging learning , suppressing creativity and low memory
retention. The brain based learning provides supportive learning environment
which includes physical exercises for relaxation and emotional engagements.
5.
Individualization
Providing the setting for effective learning using a brain-based model creates
an individualized and multisensory approach by fostering learning as a process
of discovery, deepening learning. A number of approaches and methods of
problem-solving are encouraged so the student learns in an experiential and
personal manner.
BBL has influenced different aspects of personality of students. In the present
study the researcher had made an attempt to study the effect of BBL on Self
esteem, Academic stress, learners‘ attitude towards learning along with the
achievement in environmental education of standard VIth students.
2.11
Role of the Teacher in Brain Based Classroom
In the Brain Based classroom, the teacher‘s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion.
Thus, the teacher‘s main focus is on guiding students by asking questions that will
lead them to develop their own thinking and comprehend the subject.
In Brain Based Classroom the teacher is expected to Provide atmosphere that combines a sense of low threat and high challenge. Teachers
create a positive environment by encouraging and praising students‘ efforts.
Cooperative approaches to learning can be used to create such kind of environment.
Provide information in small chunks. The brain learns new information in chunks.
61
Brain research states that children between the ages of 5 and 13 learn best when given
chunks of 2 to 4 pieces of information. Children ages 14 and older can learn up to 7
chunks at a time. So while teaching teachers need to plan for these limits and teach
material in small chunks.
Provide adequate time schedule. The brain works on a time schedule. Children ages 5
to 13 learn best in 5 -10 minute increments. Children 14 and older learn in increments
up to 10 – 20 minutes. Sometimes, teachers may extend time limits through positive
reinforcement.
Provide new material first and review previously learned material at the end of
instruction. Visuals such as charts, illustrations, designs, art creates interest in
learning.
Teach in short units (1 to 2 segments at a time) and then provide students with activity
time. Students need time to practice the skills they are learning. Students need a
moment to ―rest their brain‖ from a task.
Allow off-task time between lesson segments often increases a student‘s focus. For
example, allow students to take time to stand up and stretch, provide a 2-minute talk
break, etc. By providing these moments, the brain becomes more ready to stay on
task and store information.
Allow students to drink water, juices during learning time. Research shows that
dehydration causes higher salt levels in the blood which in turn raises blood pressure
and stress. Dehydration also causes a loss in attentiveness and lethargy. Ideally,
students should drink 6 to 8 glasses of water a day to be properly hydrated.
Take advantage of students‘ high energy time. There is a high-low energy level cycle
62
that occurs during the school day.
A higher energy level correlates to an increased
level of attention. Teachers should take advantage of the times during the day when
the students‘ energy levels are higher by teaching the most important material during
these times.
Provide adequate personal space for the student. More personal space reduces stress
for a learner. Provide time at the end of a lesson to think about and discuss the topic.
Understanding may not take place immediately, it may occur later. Processing time
and reflection are vital to the learning environment.
Orchestrate the immersion in appropriate experiences because all learning is
experiential. Integrate subjects while teaching. Transform school in small healthy
‗real word community‘ where students will be given responsibility of handling
various functions.
Activate processing of information through activities like questioning and writing
reflection. This helps learner to take charge of consolidation and internalization of
learning in a way that is personally meaningful. This will allow students to recognize
and deal with their attitude and develop thinking skills and logic as they search for
broaden implication and connection for what they have learnt.
2.12
Concept of Achievement
„‟Spectacular achievement is always preceded by unspectacular preparation.”
- Schuller Robert H
Achievement is anything which gives a sense of pride in any personal act, or acquired
knowledge, no matter how simple. What might be a major achievement for one
person could be pretty minor thing for another. It is anything which makes one feel
63
good and confirm his/her capabilities to himself or herself. Every bit of information,
knowledge gained adds to one‘s store of confidence and pushes one farther along the
road to complete self-development.
Achievement gives an incredible sense of satisfaction that it's possible for one to have
set a goal. So it's important for one‘s own self-esteem to achieve something regularly.
In order to do this one must set goals which are realistic and achievable by him/her.
There are various factors contribute in one‘s achievement. Some factors are within
school‘s control and some are outside school‘s control. Lack of challenging
curriculum, large class size, culturally unfriendly environments, Poor instructional
leadership, Poor teacher preparation, low expectations of students; inadequate
materials, equipment, and resources are some of the school related factors.
There are some outside school factors which also affects one‘s performance. These
are families' income level; Students' diet and nutrition at home; Students' mobility;
and Students' primary language, parental qualification, motivation by parents and so
on .
Learning is enhanced when the environment accommodates the needs of the learner
and the instructor. Reigeluth and Beatty (2003) support the notion that the student‘s
―…whole environment, school, home, and other settings should be considered as part
of the learning environment‖. Students need to understand the impact of a lack of
sleep, food and water on their biology and how such things impact their brain‘s ability
to learn (Erlauer, 2003; Slavkin, 2004).
Brain based learning provides environment in which students participate actively in
teaching and learning. This helps in bringing excitement among students about their
64
education. It provides a rich, stimulating environment, allowing students to become
immersed in a complex milieu that stimulates the mind (Caine et al, 2005; Caulfield et
al., 2000; Wagmeister and Shifrin, 2000; Wolfe, 2001). They can design a variety of
teaching and learning activities that will access the brain‘s ability to remember
visually and emotionally and encourage students to take risks (Caine et al., 2005;
Caulfield et al., 2000; Saunders and Vawdrey, 2002; Wagmeister and Shifrin, 2000).
In BBL students learning is through a preferred learning style so they in turn
demonstrate their knowledge through a preferred learning style. Immediate and
constructive feedback increases motivation and makes students aware of how to
improve their work.
2.12.1 Achievement in Environment Education
Environmental Education is important for changing peoples' attitudes and values in
order to develop and enhance skills for sustainable environmental management. The
students' perceptions about importance of environment education plays a key role in
applying the knowledge, attitudes and skills in changing their perceptions of the
environment. This would also enhance their achievement in environmental education.
Many people think of environmental education as ―nature studies‖ – a supplement to
the educational system that relates only to the core curriculum. But, Environment
Education refers to educational efforts that increase public awareness and knowledge
about environmental issues, while providing critical thinking, problem-solving, and
effective decision-making skills. The main goal of Environment Education is to know
enough about environmental science and related social issues to make sound and wellreasoned environmental decisions and to behave with responsibility so as to take care
of environment.
65
Environment Education has been chosen as the subject for measuring achievement
because this subject provides concrete experiences along with ample scope foe social
interactions, the projects which demands higher level thinking and decision-making
ability. Brain based learning emphasizes on providing concrete and real life
experiences along with social interaction and emotional engagements in the learning.
This subject provides ample scope for all this, therefore this subject was thought to be
chosen for the present study.
The various BBL strategies were framed not only to enhance cognitive development
but also affective domain therefore self esteem was selected as one of the variable for
the study.
2.13 Concept of Self esteem
“We are each gifted in a unique and important way. It is our privilege and our
adventure to discover our own special light‟‟.
~Mary Dunbar
„‟The strongest single factor in prosperity consciousness is self-esteem: believing
you can do it, believing you deserve it, believing you will get it „‟
- Jerry Gillis
Self esteem is a self evaluation on various behaviors and activities. The self part of the
word self esteem pertains to the values, beliefs and attitudes that one hold about
oneself. The esteem part of the word self esteem describes the value and worth one
gives oneself. The word esteem is derived from Greek word means to estimate. Thus
self esteem is how one estimates oneself. In other words how much one values
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oneself? Self esteem is how one feel about self. It is one's thoughts and feelings about
oneself. It is how a person views self and how one feels about own achievement and
also other qualities. For example:
I feel good about myself. I am kind. I am
competent.
Self esteem plays central role in one‘s life. It influences the ability to take risk, change
things, make decisions and behave in specific way. It also influences the thinking
process of an individual. Once individual achieve something then develop positive
self image for self. Thus it is very important that students self esteem should be
developed in school so that he / she consider self as worthy individual.
The child with high self esteem is likely to be confident in social situations and in
tackling school work. He/she will retain the natural curiosity for learning and will be
eager and enthusiastic when prepared with new challenge. The child with low self
esteem in contrast will lack confidence in his /her ability to succeed. Self esteem can
be developed .Child should be provided such a kind of learning environment in which
confidence and morale of the students can be boost up .Maximum opportunities
should be provided to the students to develop their self concept. The more clearly
defined one‘s self concept higher is the self esteem.
Self esteem develops throughout the life. The self esteem of an individual depends on
childhood experiences which play an important role in shaping basic self esteem. Our
success and failures, treatment given by others contributes the creation of basic self
esteem.
Self esteem is required for developing positive attitude towards life. Self esteem is
one of the key building blocks of school success. It is not a measure of person‘s
capabilities but rather the evaluation of person‘s capabilities.
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Brain based learning provides a kind of environment where self esteem can be boost
up.
Brain based learning suggests to provide optimal learning environment with low
threat & high challenge which helps in enhancing their self esteem thereby gaining
confidence in doing,
knowing and sharing the things. Hence to study the
effectiveness of this strategy on self esteem has been taken as one of the indicator.
Attitude, values and beliefs play a significant role in building entire mental set up of
an individual. So it was decided to take attitude towards learning as one of the
variable for the present study.
2.14 Concept of Attitude
‘‟The state of your life is nothing more than reflection of your state of mind‟‟.
- Dr. Wayne Dyer
Attitude, values and ideals play a significant role in building the personality and entire
mental set up of an individual. What a pupil think, feels and values is a reflection of
his attitude. Attitude usually arises in individual as a result of their effort to satisfy
particular tendencies. If the individual is assisted in finding or by chance comes upon
an object that satisfies his tendency, his future reaction to that object is positive. On
the other hand if the object fails to satisfy his tendency, the individual may develop
negative attitude towards it.
Attitudes are the final product of feelings and emotions experienced in connection
with given things. This develops through years of slow and unnoticed learning and
undergo changes according to the emotional reaction occasioned by their stimuli.
Young children are quick to develop attitude and quick to change it.
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Attitude is predisposition to behave in a consistent way towards a given class of
object. It is a persistent mental state of readiness to react to a certain object, not as
they are but as they are perceived to be.
(Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychology and Psychological terms)
Attitude is person‘s perception towards a specific object. It is a hypothetical construct
that represents individual‘s like or dislike for an item. It is a response tendency
(Wikipedia 2008).
Attitudes are composed from various forms of judgments. Attitude does not form
overnight. When an individual come across similar experiences it leads to formation
of opinion. The similar prolonged opinion gives rise to a particular attitude towards
anything. Attitude can be changed through persuasion and one should understand that
attitude also changes as a response to communication.
Attitude plays a very important role in learning. Learning is closely related to the
attitudes. Positive attitudes let learner have positive orientation towards learning
whereas negative attitude let learner to have negative attitude towards learning.
Attitudes play a very crucial role in learning as it influences students‘ success or
failure in learning.
Thus attitude of a person develops as a response to various experiences from the
environment.
2.14.1 Concept of Attitude towards learning
Attitude towards learning is the state of mental and emotional readiness to react to
situations, perceived as leading to academic learning. The attitude of the students
towards learning is said to be favourable if the student has no negative reaction
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towards learning, finds interest in learning, participates in classroom learning,
classroom activities and develop pride in learning and achievement. The attitude of
the students towards learning is said to be negative when student hates study, has to
be forced by parents for study, does not participates in classroom learning, classroom
activities and always criticizes education and learning.
The attitude of the students towards learning can be change with the change in
teaching learning process. The democratic way of teaching, more sympathetic and
positive behavior of the teachers towards students can enhance the attitude towards
learning..
As Skinner puts in ―a permissive classroom atmosphere that promotes free expression
and discussion has been proposed as a means for changing attitudes in the classroom‖.
In the present study attitude towards learning can thus be defined as predisposition of
students towards knowing new things, collecting information, analyzing and
interpreting information and sharing information with others, which direct his/her
responses, behavior and thoughts towards learning.
Researches have demonstrated that students‘ attitudes are important in determining
the effectiveness of any programme. Providing conducive environment can motivate
individual to learn and share. Thus it would be interesting to study students‘
inclination towards learning process. Hence in the present study attitude of the
students towards learning was investigated as one of the indicators of effectiveness of
BBL.
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2.15
Concept of Academic Stress
“Stress should be a powerful driving force, not an obstacle‟‟.
~
Bill Phillips
Stress is a force when applied to a system causes some significant modification of its
form. Usually a modification is deformation cause strain or distortion in the system.
Stress is a physiological and Psychological strain, which threatens the ability of a
person to go on coping with a given situation. Stress is person‘s adaptive response to a
stimulus that places excessive psychological demands on that person. Stress is a state
of psychological & or physiological imbalance resulting from the disparity between
situations demand and the individuals ability or motivation to meet those demands. It
is an adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and psychological
process that is consequences of any external action, situation or event that places
special physical and psychological demands upon a person. (Lukencevich and
Malteson 1978).
As children get older, academic and social pressures create stress. In addition, wellmeaning parents and teachers sometimes unwittingly add to the stress in children's
lives. For example, high achieving parents often have great expectations for their
children.
Stress is an aspect of living being that can be beneficial when it motivates, inspires or
encourages change. It can be the opposite when it does not. Stress also affects the
psychological level in the form of anxiety, tension, boredom, dissatisfaction,
depression etc. which can be seen through frequent mood changes, loss of selfesteem, inability to concentrate on work, inability to make decisions etc. Some
children experience physical effects, including stomachaches and headaches, cold
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hands, sweaty palms, breathlessness, fast heart beating, indigestion, nausea, fatigue
etc. Others have trouble concentrating or completing schoolwork. Still others become
withdrawn or spend a lot of time alone. Short-term behavioral changes, such as mood
swings, forgetfulness, depression, anxiety, nervousness, lack of interest, poor
judgment, confusion, negative self talk, changes in sleep patterns, or bedwetting, can
be indicators of stress.
Hence coping with stress is very important. Good social support improves ones
ability to cope with stress. It's not always easy to recognize when child is stressed out.
There are various reasons for academic stress. Increasing amounts of schoolwork,
Assignment deadlines, Quizzes and exams, Class presentations (public speaking),
Balancing school with sports, hobbies and social life, Expectations of parents and
teachers, Competing with siblings and peers, Fear of failure are some of them.
The social demands of academic excellence bring stress among students. To excel
students end up with rote learning and memorizing content. The processes of
memorizing again produce stress and students loose interest in learning. The stressful
environment limits children‘s ability to learn, so it is important to create and maintain
safe and secure learning environment. Brain based learning opposes such kind of
learning environment where more emphasis is given on memorizing facts without
conceptual understanding, rather it recommends highly challenging learning
environment without fear or stress which helps in understanding the concepts and
developing thinking abilities among the students. Hence in the present study academic
stress has been taken as one of the indicators to measure effectiveness of brain based
learning strategy.
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