Mahboobin 10:00
R13
ETHICAL ROADBLOCKS TO QUANTUM COMPUTERS
Brian Fedorka ([email protected])
POSSIBILITIES WITH QUANTUM
COMPUTERS
Making the switch from transistor computers to quantum
computers would open up a whole new world of possibilities
in the field of computation. Computers could perform
bigger calculations faster and more accurately, which would
open unparalleled possibilities. Today is the day of the
computer, and almost everything we do both inside and
outside of the professional world runs on computers. Simply
put, upgrading to quantum computers would have an effect
on the world as a whole; not just in the lab.
Processing Power
The easiest way to conceptualize how magnanimous this
difference would be is to compare the power of a quantum
computer to that of a current computer. Dr. Gregg Jaeger of
Boston University’s Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering shows that a quantum bit (qubit) gives the same
number of computational outputs as 2 N classical bits of
information [1]. What this means, is that a 10-qubit system
could produce the same number of computations as a 1,024
classical bit computer. This makes it very easy to see just
how powerful quantum technology could make computation.
Simulation and Modelling for Physics
Now, one might ask exactly what we could use quantum
computers to do. If the expected answer is super-fast
YouTube video streaming, prepare for disappointment.
Quantum computers could have very serious, very beneficial
implications for the field of theoretical physics. To solve
some of physics greatest mysteries, mostly dealing with the
field of quantum mechanics, we would be able to simulate
conditions on a computer that we could never test in a lab.
Dr. Andris Ambainis, a leading researcher in quantum
information theory and quantum computing, explains that
we could both “model the behavior of atoms and particles at
unusual conditions (for example, very high energies that can
be only created in the Large Hadron Collider) without
actually creating those unusual conditions” and “model
chemical reactions—because interactions among atoms in a
chemical reaction is a quantum process” [2].
Encryption Breaking
An incredibly practical application of quantum
computers, and predictably the one that governments are
giving up research dollars for, is the ability to break
encryption. When people or institutions want to store
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information publicly, but the information is too sensitive to
share, they use a type of security based on large numbers
that only certain readers have access to. The data that is
being saved or sent is encoded into numbers, and only the
original writer has the “key” to decode the original data. If
one was to attempt to break an encryption without the key,
he or she would have to be able to factor extremely large
prime numbers. Current computers do not have the power
nor time to do this. However, if one was able to harness the
power of a quantum computer, factoring large prime
numbers would be no problem with the exponentiallygrowing processing power, and all types of encryption used
today would be rendered obsolete. This, quite obviously,
would change the face of the cyber world, and many parties
could use this to their advantage –whether for good motives
or bad ones. Governments and militaries with the first
quantum computers would hold enormous technical
advantages over their enemies, and every secret written into
the code of a computer would be accessible with ease.
Hackers, likewise, could get a hold of some of the world’s
most confidential secrets, and this opens up a dangerous
Pandora’s Box when considering how much secret data in
weapon development is floating around private networks.
Even for the purposes of spying on other citizens, what you
once thought was hidden from others behind the safety of
your cell phone screen would now be public information to
someone using a quantum computer. It is these drawbacks,
specifically, that lend to the dilemma an engineer might face
when creating a quantum computer.
THE DILEMMA
There are many particular scenarios that could concern
ethical problems to building quantum computers, but the
common theme between them would be the encryption issue.
The most likely scenario might involve the government of
the United States of America, but in reality, any large
government would do. Imagine I work for a defense
contractor, such as Harris Corporation, based in Melbourne,
Florida. Harris Corporation typically does work for the
government and military, and its expertise lies in
communication systems and mass surveillance technology.
It is not unlikely to think that Harris Corporation is a firm
that will take the lead in quantum computation, simply
because of the surveillance possibilities. Therefore, imagine
that I am a senior project engineer at Harris Corporation, and
I receive a commission from the NSA to complete a crucial
circuit that a quantum computer needs in order to run. No
other company has the experience or knowledge base to
design this crucial piece, so Harris has a lot to gain
financially.
The board of executives approve the
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considered. The first canon states that engineers shall “Hold
paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public” [3].
If I were to assist on a project that could potentially
compromise the privacy of my fellow countrymen and
endanger the world by aiding a military, I would be
completely disregarding the safety and welfare of the world.
The fifth canon demands that engineers shall “Avoid
deceptive acts” [3]. The executives at Harris Corporation
are knowingly engaging in deception against the rest of the
world on a very serious matter, and by aligning myself with
their prerogative, I would also be partaking in a deceptive
act. It would not be a customer that I am deceiving, but
rather my fellow Americans and human beings across the
world.
commission, despite the known fact that this would grant the
NSA the ability to break every piece of encrypted data it
could ever get a hold of.
Because this is such a
groundbreaking, unprecedentedly powerful technology, this
project would earn Harris Corporation an unimaginable
payment. So, it becomes clear to me that the company is
putting its financial gains before the welfare of the world.
Completing this project would yield terrible consequences,
not only in this country, but around the world.
Consequences
Piecing together the last component of the world’s first
quantum computer could not be done without wiping out
web security as we know it. Doing this for the NSA would
clear out any obstacle to spying domestically and abroad.
Anything an American puts on the internet, despite all
efforts to secure it with encryption, would be visible to the
NSA. This is in direct conflict with American principles,
where privacy is valued above other things. Even outside of
the United States, and perhaps what we should be more
worried about, is how other governments would react.
Knowing that the United States had unlimited access to
secret computer documents, presumably containing weapon
data, military strategies, intelligence, and government
initiatives, would give cause for other countries to feel
threatened by the United States. This should be of utmost
concern to Americans in the case that we create the world’s
first quantum computer, because conflict could very quickly
ensue. We may even discover intelligence that could not be
ignored, in a sense “forcing” the United States into conflict
that could have otherwise been avoided.
IEEE
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’
code of ethics, just like the National Society of Professional
Engineers’ code, lays out guidelines based on the values of
humanity. This code is particularly useful in guiding an
engineer like myself through this kind of issue. The first
responsibility obliges engineers to “accept responsibility in
making engineering decisions consistent with the safety,
health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly
factors that might endanger the public or the environment”
[4]. It has already been made clear that quantum computers
could endanger the safety and welfare of society, but the
other important point to this responsibility is the disclosure
of this kind of information. Not only would I have a duty to
decline this contract, but I would also be obligated to report
it to the necessary authorities. The second responsibility
calls on engineers to “avoid real or perceived conflicts of
interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected
parties when they do exist” [4]. Here, the NSA is interested
in one thing that the American public, as a whole, would not
be supportive of. As an American, myself, I would have an
obligation to act in the favor of both parties instead of
simply the government. Again, the disclosure of this
conflict is an important aspect. The fourth statement in the
code of ethics urges engineers to “reject bribery in all its
forms” [4]. Given the circumstances, Harris Corporation
would be the only company capable of producing the final
circuit for the quantum computer, so the NSA would pay a
high price for the technology. Both parties know about the
aftermath of completing this part, so a big part of the price
would go toward convincing Harris Corporation to go ahead
with the potentially disastrous project. This is bribery, plain
and simple, and according to the code, I should reject the
offer. With the fifth responsibility of engineers, quantum
computers could be created ethically if the correct
consideration to the future is given at the start of the project.
It claims that engineers should “improve the understanding
of technology, its appropriate application, and potential
consequences” [4]. Understanding the risks of a project
before time, energy, and money are invested in it will
THE CODE OF ETHICS
The most important texts an engineer can live by are the
codes of ethics. All of the analysis books, theory books,
math and physics books, chemistry and circuit books would
be for nothing if engineers did not live and work by the
codes of ethics. Engineering is a powerful career with a lot
of implications for the world. We owe everything around us
to engineers: roads, buildings, computers, phones, even
food. Engineers have built the world, and only they can
build it over again. If this undertaking is not carried with
responsibility and attention to ethics, engineers could easily
build an ugly, hostile, malevolent world. This scenario
provides a perfect example of what a dangerous place an
engineer can make the world if his job is not carried out
ethically.
NSPE
The National Society of Professional Engineers Code of
Ethics, perhaps the most highly regarded code, outlines very
clearly the duties and responsibilities of an engineer.
Pertaining to this scenario, Canons 1 and 5 should be closely
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Brian Fedorka
increase the chances of its success on the market. The
eighth responsibility calls on engineers to “treat fairly all
persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender,
disability, age, or national origin” [4]. Accepting the NSA
contract would put other countries at a disadvantage to the
United States, which may have unwanted and unfair
consequences. Even as a citizen of the United States of
America, an engineer has a duty to stand up for mankind,
and getting involved in the affairs of countries at strife is not
serving mankind. Finally, the tenth obligation of engineers
is to “assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional
development and to support them in following this code of
ethics” [4]. The Harris Corporation executives are in clear
violation of this code of ethics, as well as the values of
common decency and respect for humankind, so I would be
obliged to intervene in their decision at all costs and inform
them of their violations.
a certain amount of societal pressure that makes him
consider going through with the dangerous design.
Honesty
The final case study deals with the true story of Marilee
Jones, a undergraduate director at MIT who had
“misrepresented her own educational history - claiming to
have earned degrees from several well-known universities at
the start of her career in an effort to boost what she felt was
an inadequate resume and get the job.” [7]. The connection
between this case study and my scenario is pretty thin, but
the overriding message is that honesty is the best policy, and
if I were to “lie” to the rest of the world by ignoring the
consequences of my actions, serious consequences could
follow for me.
MY RESOLVE
CASE STUDIES INVOLVING ETHICAL
ISSUES
Recognizing the potential dangers associated with the
introduction of a quantum computer into the world, I would
refuse to take on the commission. Despite pressures from
my higher-ups, I would not help to complete a product that
may be used to infringe on other peoples’ privacy, whether
domestically or abroad. Privacy is one of the most important
aspects to American life, so it would be a total injustice to
take that away from anybody.
An article from the
Washington Post speaks on how important it should be for
“schools to add ethics to their computer courses” [8].
Furthermore, I would never want to associate with a project
that might cause conflict in the world, and granting your
country access to every other country’s hidden data might
allow for that to happen.
There are very few if any case studies related to quantum
computing, but the themes involved in this ethical issue
common with those found in other case studies.
The Union of Concerned Scientists
In 1979, the Union of Concerned Scientists predicted the
nuclear disaster at Three Mile Island two months before it
actually happened. Prior to the incident, the “UCS called for
the government to shut down the facility because the
organization's nuclear power experts felt that the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission had dramatically understated the
probability of an accident,” and then only after the
meltdown, “state and federal officials turned to UCS
scientists for expert advice about the Three Mile Island
accident and the risks to neighboring communities” [5].
This case provides an excellent example to the importance of
being proactive when handling potentially dangerous
technology. The UCS saw the risks that the government was
taking and attempted to intervene. If state officials had
taken their advice, there would have been one less nuclear
disaster in history.
For Those in My Position
Recommendations I could give to someone else in a
similar situation, is to listen to the voice inside. If a situation
does not feel good, it is probably not good. Anytime one
finds himself or herself in question of whether or not he or
she might be hurting someone else, the best course of action
is to refrain from the project. An engineer should always
bear in mind the necessary respect for how much his or her
work could affect the world. W. Richard Bowen reminds
engineers that “Proper expression of such respect can
demand great care, for the effects of an engineer’s activities
may have consequences that are very extensive in both place
and time” [9]. No matter what an engineer is ever asked or
paid to do, he or she should never forget how important the
work of an engineer is, and the kind of consequences a
mistake can create in this field.
The Cost of Integrity
This case study deals with an established structural
engineer who receives a call from a graduate student
concerning design flaws in his skyscraper. The engineer is
conflicted with the decision to either admit his mistake at the
expense of his reputation or keep quiet about the potentially
dangerous flaw. His faulty design could “topple and in the
process kill thousands of innocent people” [6]. The engineer
here is facing a similar dilemma to mine. There is a good
chance that his project could hurt a lot of people, but there is
REFERENCES
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Brian Fedorka
[1] Qubits. (2007). (pp. 1-27). New York, NY: Springer
New York. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-36944-0_1
[2] Ambainis, A. (2014, April 1). What Can We Do with a
Quantum Computer? Retrieved October 26, 2014, from
http://www.ias.edu/ias-letter/ambainis-quantum-computing
[3] National society of professional engineers (NSPE) code
of ethics (2005). . Detroit: Thomson Gale.
[4] IEEE code of ethics. (2004). IEEE Potentials, 23(2), 3233. doi:10.1109/MP.2004.1301956
[5] Physical Scientists, the Union of Concerned Scientists,
and Pugwash. (2013, October 7). Online Ethics Center for
Engineering.
[6] E. Karagianis. (1999) MIT Spectrum: 11, p. 3. "The
Right
Stuff.
A
Question
of
Ethics."
http://web.mit.edu/giving/spectrum/winter99/stuff.html
[7] E. Hoover and S. Millman. (2007) Chronicle of Higher
Education. May 11. "Shocking Admission. A Popular Dean
at MIT Lied About Her Credentials, But Her Message
Resonated
With
Many
Supporters."
http://chronicle.com/weekly/v53/i36/36a04501.html
[8] By Vivian Aplin-Brownlee Washington Post Staff
Writer. (1984). Ethical questions arise from computers biting
into privacy: Computer explosion unearths new questions of
ethics, privacy. The Washington Post (1974-Current File)
[9] Bowen, W. R. (2014). Engineering ethics. DE: Springer
Verlag.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
Levy, Jeremy. (2014, September). Speech on Information
Theory and Quantum Computation. Cathedral of
Learning. Pittsburgh, PA.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Chris Grant, Paul Davis, Corey
Noel, and Ethan Welsh for the excellent descriptions of how
encryption works, and for all the encouragement through this
titan of a paper.
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