S350 Evaluating contemporary science
Are you ready for S350?
Contents
1 About S350 Evaluating Contemporary Science
2
2 S350 Learning outcomes
3
3 How to use this AYRF document
4
4 Assumed prior study in Science
4
5 Assumed Digital and Information Literacy Skills (DILS)
5
6 Assumed maths skills
5
7 Other skills
10
8 Suggested further preparation
10
9 Answers to the self-assessment questions
12
Copyright © 2016 The Open University
WEB 05108 4
1.1
1 About S350 Evaluating contemporary science
In this module you will study important concepts in evaluating science and explore
how science is communicated to a wider audience. This module will help you to
evaluate topics in science that are multidisciplinary with links to societal issues.
You will develop your knowledge and understanding of:

current academic literature both within, and outside, your chosen discipline

data analysis and statistics

the peer review process

critical evaluation

decision making (i.e. both evidence based and where there is a degree of
uncertainty)

different methods of communicating your science such as a scientific poster or
as a briefing document
The skills that you develop in this module will be useful when moving on to study
the final S390 Science Project module. Additionally this module will help those
students who have not studied S201 Science and Society or S250 Science in Context
but who still wish to follow the SXN390 Science in Society pathway.
Important: You will need access to a computer and to the internet for most of
your study of this module.
This is because:

it is an entirely on screen module which may be new for you, even if you are an
experienced OU student.

you must read, watch and engage in all aspects of the study material.

the module has many live web-links

you will need to access the OU library on a regular basis to search for
contemporary scientific materials to use to develop your own posters and
reports.

you must attend on line tutorials, use forums and other online media to
communicate with your tutor and fellow students.

you will need to use software applications and platforms that may be new to
you. For example, you will share some of your work via a platform called
OpenStudio.
To study this module you will need approximately 8 hours per week over 31 weeks
from October to May. If you have not completed the recommended predecessor
modules it is likely you will need more study time each week to cover all the study
material. Spending sufficient time studying is the most important factor for success
on this module so you should carefully consider how you will fit this study time
around your other life commitments.
2
2 S350 Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes for S350 are given below. Learning outcomes can be
considered to be the main learning aims of the module and should help you to judge
whether you are studying this module at an appropriate point in your learning
journey.
KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING:
By the end of your study you will have knowledge and understanding of:
1. key and up to date aspects of relevant areas of scientific knowledge;
2. the current thinking as well as uncertainty, ambiguities and limits of scientific
knowledge;
3. the wider implications associated with any scientific investigation. For instance
communication, risk, ethics and decision making.
COGNITIVE SKILLS:
By the end of your study you will be able to:
1. apply knowledge and understanding to address familiar and unfamiliar
problems; summarise, analyse and synthesize scientific information and/or data;
2. critically evaluate statements, different viewpoints and data to inform
judgements based on scientific evidence;
3. make informed judgements based on available evidence.
KEY SKILLS:
By the end of your study you will know how to:
1. locate and use scholarly reviews and primary and secondary sources appropriate
to the topic;
2. communicate your findings using a form and format appropriate to different
audiences, e.g. from scientific experts, government agencies to the general
public;
3. present your findings appropriately including references, figures, tables and
equations where relevant.
PRACTICAL AND/OR PROFESSIONAL SKILLS:
By the end of your study you should demonstrate that you are able to:
1. adopt an adaptable and flexible approach to studying science, using and giving
feedback and using reflection;
2. use the skills necessary for self-managed and lifelong learning in terms of
working independently, time management and organisation;
3. work effectively as a member of a team;
4. provide constructive feedback to your peers.
3
3 How to use this AYRF document
This document helps you to prepare for S350 and to judge whether you have the
necessary background knowledge and skills to be able to enjoy this module fully,
giving yourself the best possible chance of completing it successfully.
Please read through the document carefully, taking particular note of the assumed
prior study in Science in Section 4, and the links to library skills given in Section 5.
You should also work through the maths self-assessment questions given in
Section 6. The self-assessment questions are a useful exercise, even if you have
already completed the assumed prior courses for S350; working through this
material will act as a reminder of some of the skills which it is assumed you will
bring with you from earlier modules. The answers to these questions are provided in
Section 9.
In Section 8 we have suggested sources of further preparation if you are keen to get
a head start on the module. These are additional resources and are not essential
preparation.
If, after working through this AYRF and the associated questions and activities, you
are concerned about studying S350, we advise you to seek further help and advice
from your student support team, or from your qualification online forum which you
can access from your StudentHome page.
4 Assumed prior study in Science
It is expected that you will have already studied a minimum of 60 credits in Science
at both levels 1 and 2 before this module. This could include the Open University:
Level 1 Science modules S104 Exploring Science, S141 Investigative and
mathematical skills in science, S111 Questions in Science, SDK100 Science and
health or SDK125 Introducing health sciences: a case study approach, or the
Level 2 Science modules S201 Science and Society or S250 Science in Context
alternatively this may be a more discipline focussed module such as S209 Earth
science, S215 Chemistry: essential concepts, S216 Environmental science, SDK228
The science of the mind: investigating mental health, SK277 Human biology,
SXHL288 Practical science: biology and health, S294 Cell biology or S295 The
biology of survival.
Many of the biological, chemical, environmental, health, and mathematical concepts
in these level 1 and 2 modules are applied and developed further in this science
module. In particular you will an opportunity to develop your scientific
understanding related to your own scientific area of interest selected from several
topic options.
If you have previously studied with another higher education institution, then it
would be worth consulting the module descriptions for the above courses. This will
help you to determine your experience in relation to them and therefore whether or
not your background and experience is appropriate.
If you are coming to S350 without having studied any of the assumed prior
modules, then you should establish whether or not your scientific background and
experience give you a sound basis on which to tackle the work. In this module
remember that you will be studying contemporary science and so you need to have a
reasonable scientific background and awareness of its wider impact on society. If
you find that you have difficulty answering a significant number of the selfassessment questions, you are advised not to study this module without first
completing the study of some of the recommended prerequisite modules; please
contact the Study Support Team for further advice.
4
5 Assumed Digital and Information Literacy
Skills (DILS)
This module focuses on contemporary issues in science and how they are
communicated so it is vital that you have developed your digital and information
literacy skills in your previous studies. These skills will be particularly important as
you research and report on science that interests you, and which you will choose
from several suggested topics.
This module assumes that you have the skills expected of a student who has
completed 60 credits of Level 2 study. You can check your current skills by
working through the following activity Information Literacy skills: do you have the
Level 2 skills you need? As you work through this activity, if you identify any skills
which you feel you are yet to develop, or need to refresh, you will be directed to
associated activities to provide you with training in these areas. You are strongly
encouraged to work through these associated activities if necessary as they will
greatly assist your performance in this module.
6 Assumed maths skills
Interpreting science is often about understanding data, in particular you should be
comfortable and confident with interpreting graphs and tables of data. The level of
mathematics required for S350 is not high; but to study the module successfully (for
example, to be able to confidently interpret scientific data in different types of
science communications) you need to be comfortable and confident using a limited
range of basic mathematics. These have been introduced for instance in the Level 1
science modules S104 Exploring Science, S141 Investigative and mathematical
skills in science, (or S151 Maths for Science) and SDK100 Science and health and
are also used in S201 Science and society, SXHL288 Practical science: biology and
health, and other OU level 2 science courses. In addition, you should be able to
perform scientific calculations involving units and powers of ten. Check this by
attempting the following question:
Question 1
If a patient is told to take 3mg of a drug daily for 10 days what is the overall dose in
grams?
Now work through the questions in Section 6.1 and 6.2.
6.1 Handling data: units and equations in Science
Science often involves evaluating research findings by understanding what other
scientists have done to analyse and report their data. So you need to be familiar with
units and the basic rules of using equations as the following examples will illustrate.
It is noteworthy that the intention is that you should understand calculations and
units connected to what is being reported in the research that you encounter in the
module, rather than that you will necessarily need to perform all these types of
calculations for yourself.
An example using SI units
Question 2
In science, in addition to the system of SI units, there is a set of prefixes that act as
decimal-based multipliers which allow very small and very large numbers to be
worked with easily.
5
(a) The common multipliers are shown in Table 1. Identify the missing prefixes and
symbols.
Table 1 Commonly used prefixes and symbols.
Multiplier
Prefix
Symbol for prefix
10–15
femto
F
10–12
pico
P
10–3
milli
m
100
—
—
103
kilo
k
109
giga
G
1012
tera
T
10–9
10–6
106
(b) Put the following measurements into ascending order of magnitude:
10 nm, 10 mm, 0.1 μm, 0.0001 m
(c) Express the following measurements in the units indicated using scientific
notation, i.e. powers of ten, as detailed in Table 1:
(i) a concentration of 0.48 pmol l−1 as mol l−1
(ii) a dose of 36 mmol min−1 as mol s−1
Calculation of a mean value
Question 3
A researcher takes the following measurements of air temperature over a period of
24 hours: 18 ºC, 24 ºC, 22 ºC, 16 ºC, 16 ºC, 10 ºC and 12 ºC.
What is the mean value for air temperature in this 24 hour period? Give the answer
to two decimal places.
An example considering logarithms and pH
In the scientific literature numbers such as 100 and 0.01 are often expressed in
powers of 10, as 102 and 10–2, respectively. In fact, by using decimal powers, any
number can be expressed as a power of 10.
The power to which 10 is raised is called the logarithm to base ten or the common
logarithm (abbreviated ‘log10’, ‘log’, or sometimes ‘lg’) of the resulting number.
For example:
100 = 102 so log10 100 = 2
0.1 = 10−1 so log10 0.1 = –1
2 ≈ 100.301, so log10 2 ≈ 0.301
251 ≈ 102.4, so log10 251 ≈ 2.4
6
Taking a logarithm to base 10 is the inverse of raising 10 to a power, i.e. the ‘log10’
button on a calculator reverses the operation of the ‘10x’ button.
Logarithms are frequently used to represent data in a more convenient way. For
example the pH scale is a convenient method of describing the hydrogen ion
concentration of a solution, avoiding the need to use very small numbers that
include scientific notation. The pH scale simplifies the huge range of values of the
hydrogen ion concentration, by the use of logarithms, from very acidic to very basic
solutions as a number from 0 to 14.
Question 4
(a) Identify the missing terms from the sentence below:
A solution with a pH below 7 is considered an [ ], and one with a pH above 7
is a [ ].
(b) The pH value can be calculated by taking the negative of the logarithm of the
hydrogen ion concentration, [H+(aq)], in mol dm−3. This relationship can be
written simply as:
pH = -log10 [H+(aq)]
Thus, if the concentration of hydrogen ions is 1 × 10−n mol dm−3, the pH is n.
This means that the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, the
lower the pH value.
Similarly, the ‘pOH value’ is the negative of the logarithm of the OH− ions in
solution. So pOH = 14 – log[H+] and hence pH = 14 – pOH (although pOH is
rarely used to describe a solution).
Based on this information calculate the pH of the following solutions:
A waste solution of HCl of concentration 1.0 × 10−3 mol dm−3
A cleaning solution of NaOH of concentration 1.0 × 10−2 mol dm−3
6.2 Interpreting data: tables, graphs, averages and probability
Plotting a graph is a very useful way of showing the relationship between two
measured variables, or of testing whether a postulated relationship is valid. To study
this module successfully, you will need to consider tables of data that involve units
and powers of ten, and to present analyses of such data in graphical form.
Conversely you may need to understand what a graphical representation is
illustrating about how a particular quantity varies against another variable.
Therefore it would be good to check that you know how to:

Give each column of data in a table an appropriate heading, or interpret
correctly the heading provided.

Calculate an average from a set of data.

Plot a graph from a set of data, choosing an appropriate scale, and labelling the
axes.

Study a graph to tell you whether it’s a positive or inverse relationship (in other
words linear with a positive or negative gradient) or whether the variables are
not correlated at all.

How to represent data as a probability.
7
Calculation of averages form a table of data
Question 5
The mass M of some water samples are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Mass M of water samples.
Sample
M/x 102 g
1
2.05
2
2.20
3
1.95
4
2.14
5
2.00
6
2.05
7
2.10
Consider the data in Table 2 to determine the following types of averages:
(i) the median value of M in kg?
(ii) the mean value of M in kg?
(iii) the mode of the values of M in kg?
Interpreting graphical data
Question 6
Determine the type of relationship between the variables shown in the graphs (a)
and (b) (i.e. positive or negative correlation/gradient).
Figure 1 For use with Question 6.
8
Representation of data as a percentage
Question 7
For OU module A 550 students sign up, 250 sign up for OU module B. At the end,
505 students pass module A and 201 pass module B. Calculate the overall
proportion of students passing these modules and express this as a percentage to two
significant figures.
Types of experimental design
Question 8
A researcher sets up a study to explore whether students learn more effectively
using text or video information. The researcher splits participants into two groups
with one group given text information and one group given video information. The
researchers observe and record the learning level of the two groups and compare
them. What type of study is this?
A Experimental study
B Observational study
A question involving probability
Question 9
This question is about probability. If you have trouble with this question, you might
consider studying the relevant section of the short course S151 Maths for Science
prior to tackling S350. Similarly the OpenLearn article on Probability should prove
helpful.
In a study of bacterial contamination in drinking water, 5 out of 45 samples
collected were contaminated. What is the probability that a sample selected at
random would be contaminated as a fraction or as a percentage?
Now check your answers to all the questions. Answers can be found in Section
9 of this document. How did you do?
If you struggled to answer all the questions correctly and so need to improve your
maths skills before studying S350 you will find it helpful to work through the
following OpenLearn activities for basic maths and quantitative analysis skills:
–
Maths for science and technology available at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/mathematics-andstatistics/mathematics-education/maths-science-and-technology/content-section0
–
Diagrams, charts and graphs available at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/mathematics-andstatistics/mathematics-education/diagrams-charts-and-graphs/content-section-0
and
9
–
More working with charts, graphs and tables available at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/mathematics-andstatistics/mathematics-education/more-working-charts-graphs-andtables/content-section-0
The following books also cover maths for Science and can help you to prepare your
maths skills:

A. Lane, A. Northedge, A. Peasgood, and J. Thomas, The Sciences Good Study
Guide (1997), The Open University. This text contains Maths Help, and covers
basic mathematical skills in a readable and user-friendly style.

Lori K. Garrett, Ailsa Clarke and Pearl Shihab, Skills for nursing and
healthcare students: study skills, maths and science, second edition, (2011)
Pearson Education Limited.

E. Steiner, The Chemistry Maths Book (2008) Oxford University Press. This
book provides a complete course companion suitable for students at all levels.
All the most useful and important topics are covered, with numerous examples
of applications in chemistry and the physical sciences.
7 Other skills
As this module is a level 3 module it is assumed that you will already have had the
opportunity to develop the generic skills listed below depending upon your specific
degree pathway.

Time management skills;

Effective reading to extract relevant data from irrelevant or redundant
information and data from scientific texts, diagrams, graphs and accounts;

Drawing logical conclusions and inferences from data presented in various
formats;

Summarising selected information in your own words;

Constructing logical, coherent and objective arguments;

Structuring and writing a short scientific account, illustrated with suitable
diagrams (if appropriate).

Use of a computer and the internet to obtain information;

Use of the word procession and data handling software programs;
If you need to read about the tips and guidance on effective study you can visit the
‘Skills for OU Study’ and the Library websites. Both can be accessed from your
StudentHome.
8 Suggested further preparation
If time permits and you are keen to get a head start on this module you can work
through some of the suggested resources below depending on where your interests
lie. All of the resources suggested below are additional preparatory resources and
are not essential so do not worry if you do not have time.
Academic Practice and Digital Information Literacy Skills
If you are not yet familiar with ‘good academic practice’ we encourage you to study
the free OpenLearn course ‘Developing Good Academic Practice’. The following
level 3 DIL activities are also relevant to this module:
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Read faster, remember more
(http://learn1.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=8434), citation searching
(http://learn1.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=4616) and keeping up to date
(http://learn1.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2946).
Science and Science communication
Some good general science communication skills are discussed in the following
books and OpenLearn resources. These books provides breadth of coverage of the
whole of communicating biosciences, chemistry and science respectively with indepth of information on individual topics and all of the skills are transferable
between scientific disciplines.

Maureen Dawson, Brian Dawson and Joyce Overfield, Communication Skills
for Biosciences, First Edition, 03 April 2013, Wiley.

Tina Overton, Stuart Johnson, and Jon Scott, Study and Communication Skills
for the Chemical Sciences, Second Edition, 28 May 2015, Oxford University
Press.

Kristy Macdonald, Key Skills for Scientists: Getting the Message Across, 05
Nov 2007, RSC publishing.

Communicating science in the digital age. Duration 15 minutes available at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/culture/mediastudies/communicating-science-the-digital-age

Decisive science Duration 10 minutes available at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/across-thesciences/decisive-science

Ethical science where considers the issues ‘Can science be ethical as well as
innovative? Should we even try?’ Duration 5 minutes available at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/culture/philosophy/ethicalscience

The reality of risk considers whether it is possible to avoid risks altogether, or
are we always destined to be playing the odds? Duration 5 minutes available at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/mathematics-andstatistics/statistics/the-reality-risk
Ultimately by the end of the module you need to be confident to evaluate the
basic science behind some challenging scientific issues in society such as ‘The
MMR vaccine: Public health, private fears’, available on OpenLearn at
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/healthsciences/the-mmr-vaccine-public-health-private-fears/content-section-0
It would also be useful preparation to develop the habit of investigating how
science is reported in the newspapers and online, such as on the BBC news or
the NHS websites, and reading popular science periodicals– such as New
Scientist and Scientific American. You will find that many of the scientific
topics covered in S350 frequently appear in these publications.
You might also consider studying a Science Short Course on a topic that
interests you or alternatively visit openlearn.open.ac.uk where there are other
free online courses covering a number of science subjects and the
communication of science. For example ‘Science Communication and Public
Engagement’ (available at http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-mathstechnology/science/across-the-sciences/science-communication-and-publicengagement#).
11
9 Answers to the self-assessment questions
Question 1
The daily dose is equivalent to 3 × 10-3 g.
So the total dose over 10 days = 3 × 10-3 g × 10 = 3 × 10-2 g = 0.03g.
Question 2
(a)
Table 1 Commonly used prefixes.
Multiplier
Prefix
Symbol for prefix
10–15
femto
f
10–12
pico
p
10–9
nano
n
10–6
micro
μ
10–3
milli
m
100
—
—
103
kilo
k
106
mega
M
109
giga
G
1012
tera
T
(b) The following measurements in ascending order of magnitude:
10 nm < 0.1 μm < 0.0001 m < 10 mm
(c) (i) 0.48 pmol l−1 = 0.48 × 10−12 mol l−1 = 4.8 × 10−13 mol l−1
(ii) dose = 36 mmol min−1 = 36 × 10-3 mol min-1 = 3.6 × 10-2 mol min-1
As 1 minute = 60 seconds divide the above value by 60
dose =3.6 × 10-2 /60 = 6 × 10−4 mol s−1
Question 3
As the mean 
sum of data
number of independent
Over the 24 hour period
mean 
18  24  22  16  16  10  12
 16.86C
7
(to 2 decimal places.)
12
Question 4
(a) A solution with a pH below 7 is considered an [acid], and one with a pH above
7 is a [base].
(b) For a waste solution of HCl with a concentration 1.0 × 10−3 mol dm−3
HCl(aq) = H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
pH= -log10 1.0 × 10-3 = 3
For a cleaning solution of NaOH with a concentration 1.0 × 10−3 mol dm−3
Na(OH)(aq) = Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
pOH= -log10 1.0 × 10-3 = 3
pH + pOH = 14
therefore pH = 14 - 3 = 11
Question 5
First place the values of mass M (×102 g) in ascending value: 1.95, 2.00, 2.05, 2.05,
2.10, 2.14, 2.20.
(i) The median value is found by placing the values in a sequential order and
selecting the middle value.
Median = 2.05 × 102 × (10−3 kg)
= 0.205 kg
(ii) The mean value is found by summing the values and dividing by the total
number of data points
mean 
2.05  2.20  1.95  2.14  2.00  2.05  2.10
 2.07 x 102g = 0.207kg
7
(iii) The mode is the value that appears most often in a set of data.
Mode = 2.05 × 102 g = 0.205 kg
Question 6
13
Graph (a) shows a positive correlation between the variables of distance and time,
so the distance increases with increasing time.
Graph (b) shows a negative correlation between the variables of temperature and
time, so the temperature decreases with increasing time.
Question 7
Percentage of students passing 
number of students passing
x100=xy%
original number of students
Percentage of students passing A 
Percentage of students passing 
505
x100=92% to 2 significant figures
550
201
x100=80% to 2 significant figures
250
Question 8
An observational study draws inferences from a sample of a population where the
independent variable is not under the control of the researcher this is the case in
Question 8.
Question 9
In a study of bacterial contamination in drinking water, 5 out of 45 samples
collected were contaminated.
Therefore the probability that a sample selected at random would be contaminated
could be written as 5 in 45 samples.
Although this is more normally written as 1 in 9 or 1/9 samples that is where we
have divided both values by 5 which is the largest integer that both values are
divisible by.
This fraction could be converted to a percentage (or a fraction of a 100) by
multiplication by 100 as follows
1/9 x100 = 11%
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