Polio and Historical Inquiry
Author(s): Karen L. Wellner
Reviewed work(s):
Source: OAH Magazine of History, Vol. 19, No. 5, Medicine and History (Sep., 2005), pp. 54-58
Published by: Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25161982 .
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Lesson
Plan
Karen
Polio
It was
the robber
and
a
of hope for
Historical
several
generation,
L.Wellner
generations
of children.
Inquiry
There
were
...
diseases
that were more
devastating,
more
affecting
children,
more deadly than polio. But polio left kids crippled, and thatwas an image that this big strongpostwar country simply couldn't abide. We had children lining
up inwheelchairs, in iron lungs,whose very vitality [was drained] and everyone's hopefor theirfuture was.. .[shaken]right at themost critical time in their
childhoods. And that'swhy polio seemed like such a horrible scourge,far more so than any number of other diseases or accidents that, any way you want to
measure it,were more deadly and were fatal. And the image of a child in an iron lung is about as tearful and wrenching as we could imagine at that time,
and any time certainly in this century. There were many other diseases thatwere badfor America, but polio broke its heart.
?Mark
Writing about the teaching of history, Zachary Osofsky suc
cinctly captures the purpose of a history classroom by ask
ing this question: how is the past different from the present
(2)? In the case of polio, medicine, and public health, the answer is: a
lot different. Before the arrival of the polio vaccine in the mid-1950s,
Americans lived for many years in fear of this dread disease. As sum
mer appeared, so too did the specter of polio. And for the most part,
for which
the virus,
are
humans
in epidemic
deliver?sometimes
the only
natural
proportions
never
host,
failed
to
less
so.
sometimes
and
Students todaymay have difficulty comprehending the fear that polio
elicited in that era (although AIDS provides a useful analogy). How
have we gone from heightened anxiety to complacency in such a brief
period of time?
Since large polio outbreaks occurred throughout the 1940s and
1950s,
students
your
will
have
grandparents
and
older
relatives
or ac
quaintances who are familiar with polio and may have been directly
affected by it. Collecting their accounts will familiarize your students
with qualitative and quantitative analyses and demonstrate how they
can be useful tools in historical inquiry. In addition, this lesson will
help establish your classroom as a learning community by providing
opportunity
for
interaction
and
can
success
Time
This lesson should take two to three class periods, with homework.
Student Objectives
1. To draw
upon
quantitative
and
qualitative
data
to formulate
gen
eralizations about polio in the United States during themid-i900s.
2. To evaluate the implementation of a vaccine study by analyzing
54 OAH Magazine of History
September 2005
(i)
story.
Background
The year 2005 marks the fiftieth anniversary of the announce
ment that clinical trials of the Salk polio vaccine had proved successful
across the United States. Before this discovery, polio knew relatively no
boundaries. The March of Dimes's successful poster campaigns of the
1950s made use of clean and wholesome children in braces to drive
home the point: polio must be stopped, and itwould be done so with
public support. The same citizenry that had been called upon to pitch
in to help win World War IIwould be called upon again, only this time
was
polio.
could
attack
polio
slums
and immigrants
the enemy
While
lieved
even
higher
such
ignored
to good
health.
rates
played
be
many
its spread.
that affluent suburban dwellers suffered
than
evidence
A backlash
at any time,
anywhere,
a
role in
significant
anyone,
evidence
Despite mounting
often
National Standards
This activity will fulfill the following standards in the National Stan
dardsfor United States History:
Standard 4 in Standards in Historical Thinking: Historical Re
search Capabilities
Era 9: Postwar United States (1945-early 1970s)
Standard iB: Demonstrate understanding of how social changes
of the postwar period affected various Americans.
survivor
polio
the interests served and ethical dimensions of the study.
3. To recognize that science in the era immediately following the
Second World War was seen as a powerful and objective tool, best left
in the hands of experts.
4. To identify why the eUmination of polio is considered an Ameri
from
discourse.
Sauer,
inner
did
because
city or
cleanliness
urban,
against
rural
residents,
was
Eastern
poor,
people
to lead
expected
im
European
followed. In Dirt and Disease (1992), Naomi Rogers notes that
migrants
the power
of dirt,
and
disease,
overrode
disorder
the
germ
theory
of
disease; and nothing spoke to those three D's like immigrants (3). In
addition, with so little known about how the virus spread, there were
those
own
cold war
in the
Americans.
share
era who
Never mind
of polio
saw
polio
as a communist
that the Soviet Union
plot
against
also suffered from its
epidemics.
The first well-documented
polio epidemic in the United States
occurred in New York City in 1916. At the time the polio virus was
known
to be
the
causative
but
agent,
it remained
a mystery
as
to how
one "caught" polio. Did it have something to do with the new method
and house
of pasteurizing milk? Was it carried by flies, mosquitoes,
hold
then
cats? Was
easily
the virus
transmitted
carried
on clothes,
to humans?
Was
coal dust,
polio
or street
waterborne,
grit, and
contribut
ing to the likelihood that exposure to pond water, drinking fountains,
and
tap water
ordinary
would
in polio?
result
so many
since
Or,
are
school
so many
With
fountains,
swimming
bizarre.
Retarded
to leave
encouraged
their
children
home.
Cats,
whether
household
to avoid
naps
stress
(4).
And yet, even with
and
sterilizing,
ing,
to grow the most
in countries
and sanitation
programs
to what
contrary
Sabin
immunization
enough,
perhaps,
for
S., children
the
was
had
people
or
polio
50
medical
to special
In
country
would
with
facilities
. J????? ill.. V-...,,
polio
as
patients.
s approach
Salk and Sabin, revolving
to vaccine
Salk
production.
favored
using a killed virus for polio vaccination while Sabin believed that a
weakened, but still live, virus would offer more antibody production
and longer-lasting protection. Salk and his University of Pittsburgh
on
of monkeys
served
a killed
virus
vaccine
from
as Salks
as test animals,
1947
team
to
1952.
to
sought
identify how many types of poliovirus existed (there are three) and to
test the vaccine. At the end of 1951, the NFIP granted Salk approval to
begin
vaccine
testing
on humans.
But which
testing
children
cohort?isolated
and
complet
incidence
about
rate?only
people,
to
compared
that
children
many
Each
jail inmates.
from
the media,
the
size must
be.
sample
a tremendous
required
and logistical
support.
the
larger
who
group
easy
can
doctors
after
school
county
con
con
as children
too,
immunization,
prin
and
required
to
had
Support
planning.
child
the vaccine,
of parents,
state
nurses,
and
officials,
siderable
tinue
efforts
teachers,
cipals,
health
receive
would
in experimental and control groups had to
be
tracked
and
community
physicians
to report
needed
po
suspected
lio cases promptly. Costs of the 1954 field trials were funded largely
remained
were
tax dollars
used.
Jonas Salk was receiving most of the publicity, Albert Sabin
While
vaccine
to the NFIP?no
donations
public
through
in the background,
the 1950s
throughout
continuing
and 1960s.
his
research
with
also was
Sabin
a weakened
funded
heavily
by the NFIP but once word of the Salk vaccine's success spread, Sabin
had
to redirect
his
to locate
efforts
another
where
country
he
could
test
his work. The Soviet Union provided such an opportunity.
Sabirfs live but weakened polio vaccine had an advantage: it could
be administered
orally,
in the form
of a sugar
cube.
vaccine
The
entered
the digestive system in the same manner
that the polio virus did. Only
a
be no
single
dose
was
There
required.
would
need
rather
as was
than weeks,
Although
in the Soviet
it seems
Union
the case with
strange
during
that Sabin
the
cold war,
the Salk
was
and
in days
vaccine.
allowed
he was
for boosters
antibodies
Sabin predicted that the body would begin making
to test his
given
vaccine
permission
in
1956 to visit and speak with Soviet virologists and health officials. He
humans?
Traditionally, human testing had been accomplished using institu
tionalized
...V-MM
a dose of the "dead virus" vaccine to a
Jonas Salk administers
Division
of
child. (Image courtesy of the History of Medicine
the National
Library of Medicine.)
polio
such
V^^U; ;'.:.-...
^MMt
A rift subsequently emerged between
laboratory
Hundreds
per
the unpaid
and
to prevention.
Enter
for polio,
attention
shifted
Jonas Salk, Albert
on medical
researchers
who
drew
break
and a host
of other
Sabin,
as tissue
vaccine
and
flu
such
culture
production
techniques
throughs
to
advance
their work.
help
staff worked
be
testing
In addition to the nearly half million
the public and
accept
scientist
a low
volunteers
cure
each
the
large sample
amount
of planning
At first, the NFIP tackled the growing problem of patient care and
physical rehabilitation. As it became apparent that there would be no
around
the
that
(6).
100,000
dence,
The Home for Incurables or The Hospital
for the Ruptured and Crippled. As late as 1939, only 300 hospitals in the
entire
that
This
for rehabili
Those
treatment
work
Salks
moreover,
publicized,
100,000?required
to treat
insurance,
were often isolated from
taken
Because
of volunteers.
highly
the incidence of cancer today at 566 per
to
for
unprepared
research.
and
ones
be part of the testing. The lower the inci
there was little federal money
tation
vaccine,
such
had
thousands of crippled children and adults.
Few
in
The fact that polio in the United States
constituted
Foundation
and
Depression
enormous
to prove
the safety
since
earlier
the
tions required
ed in one year
fantile Paralysis (NFIP) began in 1938, the
United States was still deeply mired in the
Great
was
testing
vaccine
would
work
and
laboratory's
Such
be quickly
available.
expecta
his
of the disease
the National
children.
of
so
would
childhood viral infections.
When
stim
public already had high expectations
thereby
but leav
severity
worse?a
trait common
infancy,
often much
vaccine
in the 1930s had triggered the disease in a
to
susceptible
polio. When
at this time
of life rath
occurred
exposure
er than
was
six to nine
aged
and
nationwide.
the killed-virus
administered
number
most
the group
agreed
57,000
clinical
efficacy
ing them vulnerable as they aged? In the
U.
school
be
(5).
in infants completely or partially fought off
the disease? Were children in the United
just too clean and protected,
to
infant exposure
polio
reducing
testing.
both scope and design. A field trial had to
Early
antibodies
States
that
The
to the virus?
that maternal
authorities
recorded?over
believed,
Did crowded and unsanitary conditions aid
in early
the
ulated high and long-lasting antibody production. Such encouraging
findings paved theway for the design of amassive inoculation program
with
water
sound
ever
to climb. Ironically, it
of polio continued
seemed
S. was
in the U.
incidence
the
state
Pennsylvania
all of this clean
resting,
of
Initial experiments proved that the vaccine did protect against polio
and,
or stray,were killed by the thousands. Children were forced to take after
noon
Feeble-Minded.
and
cases
polio
during the summer months. Mothers who had to go grocery shopping
were
to the
dangers
oblivious
testing began in June of 1952, the same year that the highest number of
libraries,
public
were
shut down
Many
theaters
and movie
pools,
strat
and preventive
avoidance
transmitters,
suspected
if not somewhat
numerous,
were
egies
water
often
and
transient,
rarely
Salk convinced the NFIP that a group of volunteers awaited him at the
D.T. Watson Home for Crippled Children and the Polk School for the
children suffered from polio, could itbe due to the posture necessitated
by bending over their school desks? (4)
serve
to track
as an
since
"ideal"
subjects
spent
mission
ing.
one month
return
in Leningrad,
and upon
his
per
requested
to the Soviet Union
strains
of polio virus
for test
concerns
Defense
about
warfare
Department
biological
to send
Despite
his
OAH Magazine of History
September 2005
55
the
dangers,
State
Department
approved
to the
the virus
of
shipment
over
vaccine
the Salk vaccine.
a handful
year, however,
Every
of children
contracted polio from the Sabin live vaccine and in 2000 the Centers
for Disease Control recommended returning to the Salk vaccine for
childhood immunization.
answers
or
tions
the
after
completing
to their responses.
the mid-i900S.
to add
occurring
during
stand the context
in which
to correct
lesson
Then
ask
lowing
information
tracted;
the year
It is important
feared
and
for
was
polio
section
increased
to mass
accessibility
media.
Television,
and
radio,
2: Post
of this
new
the war was
cold war
with
charged
answer"
The
the
As
it was
such,
was
science
scientists
bold
the
possessed
as a
viewed
and
"can-do"
of the American
triumph
and
innovative,
attitude
that
American
form
stronger
once
generalizations
the
interview
data
1:
Interviewing
occurs
when
II technology?a
about
powerful
and
War
read about polio and post-World
merely
is something
truth in the text. There
quite
ready-made
a person
he or she was when
tell you where
po
having
point
your
out
"Yes, but
that
the
thaf s not
I have
each
adolescents
had
students
enter
not
could
father
text
offers
the
same
"You could
tell me,
for months.
the house
similar
information
the
be quarantined
..." When
students
of
I
reply,
scripted, and there is a potential danger with each approach. A loose
script beginning with the question "Tellme about polio" can prove rich
if the respondent is comfortable talking with students. But if that in
or her
answers,
students
may
not
know
how
to pursue questioning. A heavily scripted interview may lose insightful
information
and
because
the
students
concentrate
to the
script
sticking
I suggest
the written
questions.
role-playing,
beyond
probe
to start
the students
before
you act as an interviewee,
allowing
do not
in which
on
56 OAH Magazine of History
September 2005
this
Then
lesson.)
a class
into
data
the demographic
or ask
spreadsheet
stu
the spreadsheet further in the mapping
return
the
interviews
and
ask
the
students
part
what
If this is where
the lesson
is collected,
and returned.
ends,
graded,
to go beyond
their own data. For a
will never
get the chance
to know
to succeed,
students
need
historical
they will
inquiry
approach
thing."
at least young
two
who were
interview
people
one
In a
interview
the mid-^oos.
class,
per
large
his
Arizona.
students
at that time knew
most
and adults
the interviewees,
teenagers
ly affect
or will
and
avoidance
remember
who
had polio
of someone
strategies
or
can be either
news
interview
The
the vaccine.
about
loosely
heavily
is short with
in Phoenix,
should be done with the collected data. All too often this type of student
student works fine. The biggest concern that students initially have is
that they will not find anyone who knows anything about polio. From
my experience, this problem will not occur. Even if polio did not direct
dividual
lives
work
student
during
now
enter
either
students
I have
relatives.
"question and
easier
coding
dents to do it. (I discuss
lio shots became available in 1954 or how polio affected their friends
and
in
their
Students follow the same format for all their interviews, which
typically are one to three pages long. Collect and review the interviews
before using them for the next part of the lesson. At this point you can
Jean Piaget, the noted psychological theorist, believed that "a ready
made truth is a half-truth" (7).While he generally had the development
of logical thinking inmind, I contend this half-truth style of learning
also
out
to write
been
collected and categorized.
Part
want
may
I:What can you tellme about polio?
A: Well, when Iwas little we couldn't go swimming at all. The
park pool was shut down during the summer andmy mother would
not letme and my brother swim in the pond behind our house.
life af
has
He
school.
ter the Second World War. With this background knowledge, students
aremore apt to ask good questions during their interviews. Italso helps
them
students
1, 2004
September
system.
American
dedicated
typified
will
interviewees
Albert is my grandfather who grew up in Chicago, Illinois.
He was in sixth grade when the polio shots were given out at his
vaccine became an affirmation of American scientific and technological
progress.
American
most
experience,
Example: An Interview with Albert Smith
for a polio
search
some
makes
format
and prevention.
tensions.
From my
or friends who contracted polio.
terviews in paragraph form, I have found the following
important was the fact that the scientific atmosphere
Perhaps most
after
treatment
for polio
developments
contracted;
Procedures
Interview
press played a large role in advertising the March of Dimes and report
ing
was
con
age when
polio
gender;
and the city and state where
the patient:
was
lesson.
typed. While
possible,
reason
One
why the spread of polio was halted when it was is due to the rapid
growth of science and technology afterWorld War II. Another factor
was
about
that polio
I usually give students one week to complete their interviews. At
that point, all questions and responses need to be organized and, if
to under
students
combated.
to ask
to redirect
the individual lived at that time. This information is used in themap
Part
any misconcep
what
else was
students
see how
and how
an interviewee back to the topic of polio.
Students should begin their interviews with the statement "What
can you tellme about polio?" If the interviewee identifies someone that
he or she knew who had polio, the student will need to collect the fol
identify family members
Before beginning the lesson, ask your students what they know
about polio. Keep track of student responses on the board and return
can
the process,
students
to probe
for answers,
By modeling
when
questions,
open-ended
ping
Procedure
to their
interviews.
their
Soviet Union. With Sabin's help, the Soviets produced the vaccine and
inoculated tenmillion children during the first five months of 1959. In
i960, the incidence of polio in the Soviet Union dropped dramatically.
In 1964, the American Medical Association endorsed the Sabin
ideas with
their
share
pate
in a discussion
I suggest
each
other
that you
allow
groups
their data. With highlighters
to devise
a
and
that
entire
the
class
will
partici
of the work.
or category
coding
of three
to four
students
to combine
and large pieces of paper, they will need
to
system
organize
their
as
information
they sift through interviews, looking for key words, events, and pat
terns. While the number of categories they will require depends on
the questions
asked
and
responses
received,
I recommend
five
to six.
Categories need to be general enough to subsume but specific enough
to tease out different quotes. This process is not easy, and you will be
busy facilitating and suggesting at this point in the lesson.
come up with
at least these
students
event;
categories:
My
usually
use scissors
to cut out quo
and science.
social
structure;
They
strategy,
the category
and tape them under
tations
from their interviews
heading
that they have written on their large pieces of paper. Using
students
to move
the quotations
from
one
category
tape allows
to another.
While
I
offer examples below, the approach to historical inquiry will be lost if
students are not able to sift through their data and come up with their
own
unique
categories.
Event Category
Students will find quotes addressing who got the disease, how
severe
the disease
ments
was,
where
was
the disease
treat
and
contracted,
14 or
about
losing feeling inmy
legs and felt extremely
allows
lung for several weeks.
from
the neck down."
When
iron
lyzed
he
he was
recovered
para
in this
work
everyone's
and differences
between
wall.
Presenting
to see commonalities
students
Part 3:Mapping
The
"My best friend in high school had a severe case and was put in
to a classroom
affixed
group.
to my
complaining
ill."
an
be
each
I remember
old.
15 years
that Iwas
mother
can
manner
offered for polio:
"I was
The public health history of polio is filled with ironies.
The generalizations should be written on large pieces of paper that
of
purpose
data
collecting
about
and
year,
age,
gender,
geo
graphic location is to plot this information on amap and enter it into
a spreadsheet. Iuse a large political map of North America, and each
students
year's
own
their
plot
on
data
the map.
After
several
the
years,
map provides students with additional data to use while working on
their
In this
students
quotations
category
place
whether
enforced
by mothers
strategies,
ance
that
deal
(you will
with
avoid
tiple
for
sum
the whole
stickers
were
die
on
placed
for
treatments,
Kenny
polio
"I was a polio
pioneer
polio
....
shots,
the virus
I remember
polio
the front
itself,
when
the map
can
and
Jonas Salk:
nurses
or doctors
and
as a whole
then
class.
see
meaningful
Once
the
became
Number
paralyzed.
For example,
data.
patterns
and
themes
polio
appeared
Disease
was
spread
was
initially
students
assump
the
unknown,
these
the
that
images
theater
Spreadsheet
| Yearof Onset
male
Early 1950s
19
male
1948
*9
female
Location
LittleRock,AR
Needham,
MA
male
1948
Detroit,
MA
female
1942
Warren,
OH
through the March of Dimes
and
collections,
DC
Washington,
to door
door
collecting.
poster children,
The
image
of a
child in braces, facing adversity with dogged determination, motivated
to open
Americans
their wallets
Such strategies revolutionized
of many
power
knowledge
individual
within
are
and
and organized
of philanthropy
volunteers,
concept
like
pocketbooks
never
before.
the way in which charities raised mon
with
chapters
available
local,
to everyone,
grass-roots
no matter
how large or small their donation, created a new model of giving in the
United States (9).
groups
the categories
and
no
age
Conclusion
to
it
is
difficult
understand
themassive
Today
they
have
can
lead to the following generalizations:
Polio affected everyday life during the 1940s and 1950s and gener
ated changes in behavior.
How
as more
erroneous
certain
then,
Why,
I Gender
Age
its cure to Americans
ey, recruited
This
efforts.
the cure [amis
devised distinct categories and placed quotations in each, theymay be
gin making generalizations about polio, backing them up with inter
view
infant
age groups:
are
adult. The
stickers
be updated
simply
spreadsheet,
Sample
movie
must be given time to analyze and discuss their findings, first among
themselves
and
doors."
it."
"I think Salk got the Nobel Prize for finding
taken impression] (8)."
their
students
interviews,
By pooling
to construct
voices.
students
To enable
that can
on a spreadsheet
patient
Map
came to the school and lined us up to give us the experimental
shot and after that the certificate. It says polio pioneer and I still
have
three
and
years;
we have? The NFIP focused tremendous attention on polio, marketing
sure."
Science and Technology Category
this category, interviewees discuss iron lungs, the Sister
With
students
undertake the activity. A sample spreadsheet is shown below.
taken."
quarantine
allows
numbered and placed on the city or town where the particular individ
ual contracted polio. By numbering the stickers you can keep track of
"The news in Chicago in the 1950s had a special segment every
night about certain infectious diseases. They would talk about how
many people were infected that day and where these people were
"Yellow
to denote
color
sticker
particular
seven
to
years
eighteen
In using
Iwould
meant
disease
It also
polio.
tions about polio begin to fade. For example, not every polio victim
was young. Nor did polio suddenly appear in the 1950s, and not every
Social Category
This category addresses how interviewees dealt with the threat
of polio on a day-by-day basis and how society stigmatized those
with polio.
polio
a
to six years;
the data
of people."
against
gatherings
me
made
take a nap every day
"My mother
in the tenth
and Iwas
mer,
grade!"
restrictions
contracting
about
generalizations
sources.
I use
a strong
find
emphasis on the mother's duty to protect the family during in this
period) or by local public health officials:
"During this time all the public pools were closed along with
"...
and
categories
to see that good historical inquiry is often strengthened by using mul
Avoidance Category
group
the announcement
companied
For most
ly been discovered.
that an effective
of us,
the vaccine
sigh of relief that ac
had final
polio vaccine
In
has always
existed.
vestigating polio in depth allows students to see that this circumstance
was
not
sources,
always
students
the
case.
can
begin
interviews
with
other
historical
Combining
the process
of reaching
their own conclu
sions about the multifaceted history of polio and where it belongs in
the context of the history of public health, non-profit organizations,
the funding of scientific enterprises, and the rapid rise of science and
technology during and afterWorld War II.
immune.
severity
was
inconsistent
and
treatments
varied.
Endnotes
OAH Magazine of History
September 2005
57
A
BUILDING
LASTING
LEGACY
FORTHE STUDY OF U.S. HISTORY
Since 1907 OAH has promoted U.S.
teaching and scholarshipy
the broadest possible
encouraging
while
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resources and
to historical
sive discussion
3. Naomi
inclu
history.
to commemorate.
is something
Longevity
to celebrate
what better way
than
history
a
for
the
future?
provide
legacy
And
to
4.
9 (i99?):
I3"I6.
is to Invent: The Future of Education,
7. Jean Piaget, To Understand
trans., reprint (New York: Viking Press, 1974,1973),
Roberts,
8. Neither
Jonas Salk nor Albert Sabin received the Nobel Prize
with
and Thomas Weiler
received
polio. John Enders, Frederick Robbins,
Prize in Physiology
in 1954 for their breakthrough
and Medicine
growing polio virus in tissue culture.
at universities,
between
9. Oshinsky,
and college
university
school teachers.
public historians,
and secondary
professors,
Promote
the dissemination
historical
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Ensure
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For more
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Science
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(TEAMS)
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Recent
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Include:
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and media.
government,
in
5.
the curriculum.
OAH works with
the National
interpretation.
to foster
Park Service and other organizations
Advocate
Polio,
interpretation.
in and access
excellence
the
colleges,
and secondary schools by bridging the gaps
Support
George-Anne
51.
for their work
Nobel
education
and
and Disease: Polio Before FDR
NJ:
(New Brunswick,
Press, 1992), 118.
Jeffrey Kluger, Splendid Solution: Jonas Salk and the Conquest of Polio (New
York: G.P. Putnam's
1; Jeffrey Kluger,
Sons, 2004),
chapter
"Conquering
Polio," Smithsonian
36 (April 2005): 82-89.
University
5. David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford Press, 2005), 6.
6. Paul Meier, "Polio Trial: An Early Efficient Clinical Trial." Statistics inMedicine
Your support will help:
Improve history
Dirt
Rogers,
Rutgers
the most
our national
of
access
i. As quoted in Nina Gilden
Seavey, Jane S. Smith, and Paul Wagner, A Paralyzing
Fear: The Triumph Over Polio in America
(New York: TV Books, 1998), 16.
2. Zachary Osofsky,
"American History
in American
Classrooms,"
History
Matters
16 (2003): 1.
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