GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM TROPICAL PEAT
FOREST AND PEAT OIL PALM PLANTATION -A REVIEW
CHIENG BEND YUAN
This project is submitted in partial fulfillment
of
the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of't: ngineering With
Honours (('ivii
Engineering)
To my beloved purenis and family
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take the opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to people that
foremost,
First
I
this
thesis.
the
and
towards
success of
have given contributions
It
is
by
His
for
His
God
throughout
this
project.
like
mercy
grace
and
thank
to
would
hands and wisdom in guiding me to finish my work within study period.
My appreciation
also goes to my FYP supervisor,
for his academic guidance throughout
Professor Ir. Dr Law Puong Ling
this project.
Thanks
for gave out a lot of
in
discussion
for
thesis.
my
errors
checking
and
time
precious
for
Sarawak
Malaysia
Universiti
like
providing a resourceful
to thank
I would also
library that enabled me to gain adequate information for my thesis.
Last but not least. I would like to thank my family members and friends for all your
support and care.
Thank you.
ill
ABSTRAK
Ulasan jurnal telah dibuat bagi menentukan pembebasan gas rumah hijau (GI IG) dari
hutan gambut and pcnanaman kclapa sawit di kawasan gambut. Kebanyakan CiII(i
adalah tcrdiri daripada CO,, C114,dan N20. dcngan C'O: mangandungi 90% daripada
kcscluruhan GWP manakala (.'114 dan N_O hanya mengandungi <1% daripada
jumlah GWP.
Kcbanyakan kawasan gambut bcrada di Asia Tenggara (69%) yang
daripada
karbon
53.1%
Indonesia
tcnggclam global
potcnsi
mcnyumbang
mana
dengan karbon simpanan dianggarkan bcrnilai 20.28 Mt C yr''.
GII(i
ditcbang
tclah
pcmbcbasan
mcmpunyai
yang
Kawasan gambut
yang lebih tinggi daripada hutan
daripada
CO,
disebabkan
pcmbebasan
pertambahan
pembakaran
gambut semulajadi
( 1.42 - 4.32 Gt,'y) dan juga danpada pcnguraian setnula di parit (700 Mt yr", tahun
2009). Penanaman kelapa sawit di tanah gambut tclah mcnycbabkan hutang karbon
dibayar
discbabkan
ha"')
Mg
3000
(melebihi
uniuk
oleh pembebasan
tinggi
yang
ha")
337
dan
juga
Mg
kepada
(648
f
penebangan
tinggi
semasa
udara
yang
carbon
daripada pcnguraian semula di tanah (55 Mg of CO, ha*' yr"). Walaubagaimanapun,
penanaman
kelapa
sawit
di
kawasan
berrumput
telah
didapati
berupaya
di
kelapa
ha"
Mg
C'O,.
Jadi,
135
dengan
CO,
sawit
penanaman
nilai
mengurangkan
kawasan berrumput adalah lebih sesuai bagi mcngurangkan pembebasan (ill(i.
IV
ABSTRACT
Reviews had been carried out on related journals in determining the G11G emissions
from tropical pcatlands and peat oil palm plantations. Majorities of G11G arc CO2,
CH4, and N, O, with CO2 consisted of 90% of total GWP while C:114 and N, ()
GWP.
total
<1%
of
contributed
A majority of tropical pcatlands arc located in
Sourthcast Asia (69%) while Indonesia alone has accounted for 53.1% of global
'
20.28
Mt
C
Degraded
yr
of
potential carbon sink with estimated carbon storage
forests
due
GHG
higher
to
than
have
natural
peat
emissions
relatively
pcatlands
1.42
4.32
Gt/y)
fire
from
(in
to
CO2
and soil
of
range
peat
emissions
additional
i,
700
Mt
decomposition in drainage (approximately
yr year 2009). Establishment of
1)
ha*
3000
Mg
debt
high
in
(over
to
carbon
a
resulted
soil
oil palm plantation on peat
land
during
into
(648
losses
s
large
clearing
due
atmosphere
to
carbon
amount of
pay
ha"
Mg
55
('O,
drainage
in
decomposition
(approximately
ha")
of
Mg
337
and soil
yr1 ). However, oil palm plantation established on grassland rehabilitation acted as
it
is
Therefore,
ha''
Mg
CO,.
135
preferable
carbon sink with a net sequestration of
for establishing oil palm plantations on grassland rehabilitation.
V
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Dedication
ii
Acknowledgement
iii
Abstrak
iv
Abstract
V
Table of Content
vi
List of Tables
X
List of Figures
xii
List of Abbreviations and Notations
xiv
List of Appendices
xv
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Greenhouse Gases
i
1.2
Peat Forest
ý
1.3
Oil Palm Plantation
3
1.4
Problem Statement
4
1.5
Scope of'study
5
1.6
Aim and Objectives
6
1.7
Structure of thesis
K
vi
CHAPTER
2 LITERATURE
2.1
Tropical Pcatland: Distribution and Carbon storagc
9
2.2
GHG Emissions from Tropical Pcatland
11
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.3
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
REVIEW
Natural Tropical Pcatland
12
2.2.1.1 Mcthanc Fluxcs
12
2.2.1.2 Carbon Dioxidc Fluxcs
14
Dcgradcd Pcatland
15
2.2.2.1 Deforestation
18
2.2.2.2 Rolc of Firc
19
2.2.2.3 Draincd Pcatlands
20
Pcat oil palm plantation and GHG
23
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1
General
29
3.2
Background Study
28
3.3
Data Collection
29
3.4
Importance of Data Collection
29
3.5
Results and Discussions
29
3.6
Conclusion and Recommendations
30
3.7
Progress of Work
31
4 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1
Peat distribution. thickness and carbon storage
32
4.2
Deforestation Rate in South East Asia
35
vii
4.3
G11G Emissions from Natural
38
Tropical Peat Forest
4.4
4.5
4.3.1
CI{4 Flux Emissions
38
4.3.2
C02 Flux Emission
40
GIIG Emissions from Degraded Pcatland
4.4.1
C'11, Flux Emissions
43
4.4.2
CO, Flux Emissions
45
Comparison of GI IG Emissions from
48
Natural and Degraded Forest
4.6
4.7
4. X
42
Role of fire on Carbon Loss
from Tropical Pcatland
50
Carbon Flux by Location and Land Use
51
4.7.1
CO_ Flux Emissions
52
4.7.2
('II., Flux [: missions
54
4.7.3
N"O Flux [: missions
56
4.7.4
Total GWP for Different Ecosystems
58
Oil Palm Plantations and (ill(i
3.8.1
Emissions
CO, Emissions in Grassland and Forest
by using Zero-Burning Method
4.8.2
4. X.4
60
CO, [: missions in Grassland and
Forest by using Burning Method
4.8.3
60
(iiI(i
61
Balance for Oil Palm Plantation
Forests
Grassland
on
and
on
62
Comparison of'Oil palm Plantations
65
and other Biofuels Plantations
VIII
CHAPTER
5 CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Conclusion
69
5.2
Recommendation
71
REFERENCES
73
APPENDIX
84
Ix
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
4.1
Global Tropical Peatland
33
4.2
Estimates of Carbon Polls and Carbon Sinks
33
4.3
Deforestation Rates (2000-2005) of Total Peat
36
Swamp Forest, in SEA
4.4
Deforestation Rates (19X5-2000) of Peat
37
Forests in Some SEA Countries
4.5
Carbon Gas Emissions from the Peat Surface in
Natural and Degraded Peat Swamp Forest in
Central Kalimantan. Indonesia.
49
4.6
Carbon Flux by Location and Land Use
53
4.7
CO, Emissions by Location and Land Use
53
4.8
('11, Flux Emissions by Location
and Land Use
56
4.9
N, () Flux Emissions by Location
and Land Use
58
4.10
Total GYP of the Soils for Different
Ecosystems
59
CO, (: mission (MG till'' ) Due to Complete
Decomposition of Above and Below Ground
Biomass of Forest or Grassland Vegetation
alter C'om erring the Land into an Oil Palm
Plantation
61
CO, Equiv'alent Emission I MG ha'') Caused by
Burning and Decomposition of' Biomass of'
Forest or (Irassland Vegetation during the First
25 year Oil Palm Rotation
62
4.1 1
4.12
x
4.13
GHG Balance in C02 Equivalents (Mg ha') for
Oil Palm Plantation on Grassland and on Forest
on Mineral and Organic Soil. during the First
25-year Oil Palm Rotation
xi
65
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1.1
Carbon Cycle in Natural Peat forest
2.1
Schematic Illustration of CO-, Emissions from
3
Drained Peatlands
22
3.1
Progress of works
31
4. I
Lowland peat extents in Southeast Asia
34
4.2
Peat Depth/Thickness Classes by Area in
35
Indonesia
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Land ('over on Peatlands in Indonesia and
Malaysia
36
Methane Fluxes at Various Peat Watertable
Depths and Annual Cumulative Methane
Emission from I lollows of Peat Swamp
Forest
39
1lwnmock and Ilollow Mean ('O. Flux Rates
from Peat Swamp Forest at Various Peat
Watertable (WT) Depths
40
Watertable Depth and Annual Cumulative
CO, Emission from Mixed Peat Swamp
Forest I lummoeks and I lollows
42
Peat ('I I, Fluxes Rates at Three Tropical
Peatland Sites at Various Peat Watertable
Depth ('lasses
44
Annual Cumulative C'11,and CO, Fluxes at
the Peat Surface of Three Drained Sites
44
Peat CO, Fluxes Rates at Three Tropical
Peatland Sites at Various Peat Watertable
X11
Depth Classes
46
Historical, Currcnt and Projcctcd CO:
Emissions from Pcatlands duc to Drainagc
(fires cxcludcd)
47
Cumulativc CO_, cmissions from SE Asia
over 100 ycars
47
Fire Ilotspot Data (Number of Fires Counted
per ycar)for Borneo from 1997 to 2006
50
Tentative Estimate of Annual and Average
Annual Carbon Emissions due to Peatland
Fires
51
4.14
GWP for CO_ by Locations and Land Usc
53
4.15
GWP for C'H, by Locations and Land Use
56
4.16
GWP for N, O by Locations and Land use
58
4.17
Carbon Debt. Biofuel Carbon Debt
Allocation, Annual Carbon Repayment Rate,
for
Different
Repayments
Debt
Carbon
and
Biofiuel Production
68
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
X111
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AND
NOTATIONS
GI1G
Greenhouse Gases
GWP
Global Warming Potential
co,
Carbon Dioxide
CHa
Methane
N, O
Nitrous Oxide
Ha
Hectare
Pg
Pctagram (g x 10
Gt
(Iigatonnc (t x 10°)
Mg
Megagram (g x 10")
mg
Milligram (g x 10")
Percent
FAO
Food and Agriculture Oragniiation of the United Nations
XIV
LIST OF APPENDIX
Appendix
Page
Oil Palm Plantation in Malaysia (1957-2007)
85
Oil Palm Plantation in Indonesia (1990 ---2008)
86
XV
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHG)
Greenhouse effect is no doubt one of the major problems nowadays due to its
Greenhouse effect is caused by the trapping of
contribution to the global warming.
heat from the sun in lower atmosphere of the earth. Grccnhousc gases ((ill(i)
gases in the atmosphere which give rise to this greenhouse effect.
are
(; llG allow
shortwave or solar radiation to penetrate down to the atmosphere and the Earth's
surface (The Green Lane, 2003).
traps heat in the atmosphere which then
(ili(1
causing the radiation been absorbed and the Earth's surface becomes warm.
Greenhouse gases can be produced either in natural or man-made.
greenhouse effect"
is an important
phenomenon to biological
life
"Natural
on Earth.
"Enhanced greenhouse effect" is caused by human activities such as burning fossil
fuels, deforestation or land surface change, industrial processes, etc. The additional
Gl iG produced by enhanced greenhouse effect has increased the concentration of
I
GHG in the atmosphere at an alarming rate thus changing the temperature and
climate system which then contribute to global warming. The main GHG fluxes arc:
carbon dioxide (C02), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N20).
1.2 Peat Forest
Tropical
pcatlands are major
atmospheric methane.
storage for carbon dioxide
and source of
The peat content in Southeast Asia is the highest among
regions, as much as approximately 69% of overall global peat. According to Riclcy
have
forests
in
the ability to sequester carbon
(2008),
natural
state
peat swamp
et al.
from the atmosphere during photosynthesis, retain this in plant biomass and store
from
in
C
in
The
it
in
the
pcatland
results
the
storage
changes
change
peat.
part of
balance between net exchange of CO,, emission of ('114. and hydrological losses of
carbon (e. g. dissolved
organic
and inorganic
C and particulate
organic
C)
(International Peat Society, 2008). Net pcatland flux is determined largely by the net
balance between CO,
uptake in photosynthesis
and C release by ecosystem
(autotrophic and heterotrophic) respiration (Riclcy et al., 2008).
Recently, (ilI(i
deforestation
due
forest
have
increased
from
to
over
rapidly
peat
emissions released
for agricultural developments.
Figure 1.1 shows the carbon cycle in natural peat
forest.
I
UNDRAINED
NATURAL
FOREST
Figure I. I: Carbon Cycle in Natural Peatforest
(Source: Minkkincn et al., 2008)
1.3 Oil Palm Plantation
Global palm oil production is increase by 9% every year due to the expanding
of'biofuel
China
India
in
Indonesia,
by
demand
food
Union
in
European
and
and
markets
(Clay,
2004:
European Commission,
2006).
Oil
palm
plantations
are
low
forest
less
tree
age structure,
with uniform
complex than natural
structurally
disturbance
human
less
stable microclimate and greater
canopy, sparse undergrowth,
2003;
Tinker,
25-30
(Corley
and
year rotation
and are cleared and replanted on a
Oil palm is harvested in many tropical
Danielsen et al., 1995; Pell et al., 2006).
32
hectares
12
million tonnes of oil
than
and yields over
million
countries on more
annually.
It accounts for more than one quarter of the global vegetable oil market
2000)
Sauerhorn,
bean.
important
is
(Genner
and
oil crop next to soy
and the most
ý
Indonesia and Malaysia own the largest oil palm production (over 80%) in global oil
palm plantation.
Oil palm plantations in Indonesia often replace forests which arc
previously degraded by fire and logging and illegal oil palm development has been
increased by 4.4 million
million
ha to 6.1 million
ha with the total forest loss about 28.1
ha in pcatland and climate change (FAO, 2006; Hansen et al., 2005;
McMorrow ct al., 2001; Ministry of agricultural republic of Indonesia).
In Malaysia, oil palm was first planted commercially
in Peninsular Malaysia
forest
for
1917
(Corley et al., 2003; Abdullah
and
rubber
plantations
since
replacing
et al., 2007). As land became scarce, its expansion was shifted to Sabah and Sarawak
in association with logging and was facilitated by the reclassification of some state
forest reserves to allow conversion to oil palm plantations (Hansen et al., 2005;
McMorrow
et al.. 2001).
Between 1990 and 2005, the oil palm plantation area in
Malaysia has increased by 1.8 million ha to 4.2 million ha while 1.1 million ha of
forest were lost (FAO. 2006; Malaysian Palm Oil Board). Oil palm establishments
fire,
in
drainage
deforestation,
peat
and
peat
resulted
which
usually associated with
high amount of GH(i emissions due to carbon losses in peat soil.
Therefore, further
impact
be
done
for
determining
to the greenhouse
palm
oil
plantation
should
studies
effects.
1.4
Problem Statement
There are uncertainties and knowledge gaps in determine (ill(i
emissions from
pcatlands. According to Page et al. (2OO8). although tropical peatlands have global
4
significant
carbon sinks that store large amount of carbon, the data on this
information
inaccuracy
due
to
of precise
to
errors
are subjcctd
uncertainly and
pcatlands locations because of rapid land-use change developments in recent years.
Since the smog episode in 1997 in Southeast Asia, oil palm has been at the
be
to
a polluter which
as
oil
palm
was
seen
centre of an environmental controversy
use substantial input such as fertilizers and pesticides, discharging considerable
during
large
from
consuming
of
water
mills,
and
amounts
oil
effluent
amounts of
However, oil palm itself has high carbon
2005).
Bouillct,
(Lamadc
and
processing
(ilIG
help
to
atmospheric
reduce
can
sequestration which
through carbon fixation.
Therefore, this paper focuses on determining the major GIIG fluxes in pcatforcst and
oil palm plantation establishment.
1.5
Scope of Study
This study focused on extensive literature review on the greenhouse gas
is
It
forest
from
concentrated on
oil
palm
plantation.
tropical
and
peat
peat
emissions
data compilation
journals,
from
data
scientific magazines,
analysis
and statistical
from
is
emission
gas
related about greenhouse
news, engineering websites etc which
its
based
GlIG
types, emission
forest
on
are compared
and oil palm plantation.
peat
rate, and global warming potential under different situations such as waterlevel, types
drainages,
By
fire
reviewing and comparing all the available
peat
etc.
of vegetation.
data and information, it comes out with problem identification and recommendations.
5
1.6
Aim and Objectives
The purpose of this research is to compare the amount of GHG emissions from
peat forest and peat oil
palm plantation.
effectiveness of carbon sequestration
It is essential for determining
the
in peat forests and oil palm ecosystems in
order to find the best solution to mitigate global climate change which caused by
GHG emissions.
The main objectives arc:
o
To study the amount of greenhouse gases produced by peat forest and palm
oil plantation under different situations.
o
To determine the types of greenhouse gases produced by peat forest and palm
oil plantation.
o
To compare the emission rate of GI IG in peat forest and oil palm plantation.
o
To investigate the causes for GIIG formations and emissions from peatfbrest
and peat oil palm plantations.
o
To study the effectiveness
of peat oil palm
plantations
in reducing
emissions.
o
To search for effective solutions for mitigating (i i(I emissions.
6
(111(1
Structure of Thesis
1.7
This thesis consists of five chapters which aim to clarify the concepts in
determining the major GHG emissions from peat forest and peat oil pal plantations.
Chapter
1 gives general information
related to grccnhousc gases effects,
grccnhousc gases (GHG) emissions from peat forest, and oil palm plantations in
Southeast Asia. Figure 1 illustrate about carbon cycle in natural peat forest.
Chapter 2 is the literature review on journals and wcbsitcs about greenhouses
forests,
forests,
degraded
from
(GHG)
peat
peat
and peat oil
natural
emissions
gases
fluxes
between
IG
in
GI
focuses
It
the
and
major
sources
sinks
of
on
palm plantation.
peatforest and oil palm plantation establishment.
distribution
It also mentioned about pcatland
(ill(;
in
Southeast
Asia.
and carbon storage
formation and emissions
from different peat ecosystems are also studied.
Chapter 3 describes the methodology which is formed from analysis of data and
information collected. The steps are background study, data collections, results and
discussions, and finally, conclusion and recommendations.
Chapter 4 focuses on the results and discussions of this study. Graphs and tables
have been plotted for indicating the results. Discussions are made based on the given
results.
7
Chapter 5 assimilates the conclusion of this research. It consisted of the overall
results for GHG emissions from different land use in peatlands. Effectiveness and
in
to
oil palm plantations
gases
emissions
of
method
mitigate
greenhouse
suitability
arc discussed and recommendations are given for improving the problems.
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE
2.1 Tropical
Tropical
Peatland: Distribution
REVIEW
and Carbon storage
in
found
mainland
arc
pcatlands
East Asia, Southeast Asia, the
Caribbean and Central America. South America and southern Africa with current
is
in
30
tropical
the
pcatland
range
the
total
of
undeveloped
area
estimate of
million
(Immirri
45
10-12% of the global peatland resource
hectares, which is approximately
& Maltby. 1992; Riclcy ct al., 1996). In lowland Southeast Asia, pcatlands
form part of the mosaic of rain forest types that includes mangrove, lowland
diptcrocarp, heath, montane and cloud forests (Riclcy ct al., 1996, Page et al., 1999).
Most tropical peatlands arc located at low altitudes where peat swamp forest
occurs on top of a thick mass of organic matter, to which it has contributed over
thousands of years, forming accumulated deposits up to 20 in thick (Anderson.
1983).
According to Fargione et al. (2008), soil and plant biomass arc the two
largest biologically
active stores of the terrestrial carbon which both of them contain
9