The Dutch Relationship with the Amerindians in Guiana during the 18th Century By Carlene R. Bascom
TITLE
The Dutch Relationship with the Amerindians in Guiana during the 18th Century.
AUTHOR
Ms. Carlene R. Bascom
Indigenous People Studies Course, University of Guyana
Date: December 9th, 2009; Revised: April 19th, 2016
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author (Carlene R. Bascom) would like to firstly give praise and thanks to Almighty God for
His strength, wisdom, guidance, patience, and love, without which, nothing is possible. Secondly,
I would like to express special thanks to my Parents and Brother for their constant support,
guidance, and encouragement in all endeavours I pursue. Finally, I extend gratitude to the
dedicated Lecturers and Teachers along the way, for the knowledge and educational principles
they have imparted in me.
ABSTRACT
The relations with the Native Amerindian people of the Newly discovered world was marked by
large population decline of the Natives due to epidemics, enslavement, abuses, hardships, strife
and a forced change in their cultural identity by the conquering Spanish colonist in the Region at
that time. Unlike the Spaniards, the Dutch chose a different path; they were not interested in
imposing their Christian religion on the Natives. Rather the relationship fostered by the Dutch with
the Native Amerindian people, through the implementation of the Dutch Friendly Policy, was
critical to the Dutch survival at the time. The policy was crucial, as the Dutch faced a number of
issues that threatened the survival of their colony from hunger and starvation initially, to the
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The Dutch Relationship with the Amerindians in Guiana during the 18th Century By Carlene R. Bascom
development of a plantation economy, and the insurmountable threat of external incursion and
internal uprising by the neighbouring Spanish and enslaved Africans respectively. In addition, the
relationship they fostered was not that of a conquering Nation demanding service, but rather the
relationship was a beneficial alliance between both Nations.
Keywords: Dutch, Amerindians, Relation, Guiana (Guyana)
INTRODUCTION
During the colonial period in the region, the Europeans through their contact with the Amerindians
have in one form or another affected the Amerindian Societies (aka Nation). This impact felt by
the Amerindian people was most notably that of rapid population decline. Overall, with a careful
examination of the European /Amerindian Relations, striking differences amongst the Europeans
were apparent. Case in point, for instance, the Natives resisted the Spanish due to their encomienda
system in comparison to the Dutch friendly policy with the Natives. This act of resistance clearly
shows rebellion by the Native Amerindian people to the system imposed on them by the Spaniards
Under the encomienda system, the encomendero essentially owned the Amerindian people1,
whereby the Natives endured forced labour, loss of liberty etc., and as a result faced tremendous
hardships, strife, and abuses. The encomienda system, established by the Spaniards was under the
false pretence of Christianizing and making the Amerindians “civilised” noting, that at the point
in time, the Native Amerindians were considered primitive people.2 In actual reality, the Spaniards
were exploiting the Natives for their own self-interest.
1
Menezes, Sr. Mary, The Amerindian, and European revised edition, Georgetown, Red Thread Women’s Press,
1993, p. 61.
2
Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), The Amerindian in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, London, Frankcass, 1979 p.
xvii.
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However, in comparison the Dutch pushed their friendly policy in Guiana with the intention to
foster alliances and trade with the Amerindians. Despite the implementation of the policy, the
Dutch initially engaged in Amerindian Slavery. In addition, close contact with the Dutch had other
impacts on the Amerindian society, such as the development of dependence. Overall, the
Amerindian culture despite these influences generally remained intact due to the Dutch Nation not
imposing their ways on them.3
The good Dutch relations with the Amerindian Nation fostered and helped in the overall
development of the Dutch colonies [which was a necessity for Dutch Survival at the time]. To
better understand and appreciate the great value, or rather how vital the Dutch policy was, it is
important to note and refer to the fact that the British adopted the friendly policy on gaining control
of Dutch territories.4
Therefore, this paper will attempt to convey that the Dutch Strategic Approach with the
Amerindians was vital for the Survival of the Dutch.
Theme: Friendly Strategy begets Alliance Ensuring Survival
The Dutch arrived in the Guiana territory during the late 16th Century and their early settlement
were small among the large Amerindian population, with an estimate of 5000-6000 Natives for
just Berbice (excluding Corentyne Caribs etc.).5 Therefore, we can insinuate the extent of the
Amerindian population in the territory overall, which the Dutch upon their settlement of Guiana
would have determined and weighed the pros and cons. This conveys the point that conquering the
3
Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, Barbados West Indies, Caribbean
Research and Publications Inc., 1987 p. 191.
4
Granvesande, Caesar, ‘Amerindian Jurisdiction in the Guiana Territory in the 17th and 18th Centuries’, History
Gazette #44, Turkeyen, May 1992 p. 1.
5
Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during
the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, Guyana Historical Journal Vol. IV and V, Georgetown, 1992-1993 p. 1.
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Amerindians would not have been an option for the Dutch, due to the circumstances and
vulnerability on the part of the Dutch. Notably, considering the provision of food, threats from
Spanish invasion, and later revolts from the enslaved Africans to name a few. As a result, the early
Dutch settlers became more and more dependent on the Amerindians for their survival, initially,
by the Natives’ provision of food such as cassava, crabs, turtles to name a few.6
Trade between Nations
The need for provisions from the Amerindians, in fact fostered TRADE development between the
two nations (Dutch and Amerindian Societies). This necessity indicates that trade was critical to
early colonial activities, as the Dutch recognised its economic viability7 and at the same time the
concept of exports. Consequently, due to trade, the Dutch received (Native) Indian commodities
in exchange for European goods.8
The Dutch, because of the trade with the Amerindians received besides food, hammocks, annatto
dye (critical for exports),9 letter-wood, canoes, oriane paint, red slaves, maraan oil,10 crab oil,
balsam copaiba, timber planks, parrots, to name a few. In exchange, the Amerindians received
mirrors, beads, axes, choppers, knives, razors, combs, iron arrowhead, 11 hardware, copperware,
fishhooks, glass, textiles, kilthum (rum) to name a few. This established trade was through the
intricate system of ‘Uitlopers’ (outrunners) and Uitleggers’ (outlyers).12
6
Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during
the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, p. 2.
7
Ibid, p. 4.
8
Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, New Hampshire, Van Goreum and
Comp., 1985 p. 432.
9
Simmons, Terrence, ‘The Amerindian in Dutch Defence’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday October 25th, 1991 p. 5.
10
Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 432.
11
Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 4.
12
Cornelis Golinga, op.cit., p. 432.
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As stated before, trade in Red slaves was common initially, although the Dutch recognised the
Amerindians as ‘Free people’ in the 1688 ordinance for Berbice.13 To be more specific the
ordinance applied mainly to the Caribs, Arawaks, Waraus, and Akawaios (the tribes that initially
had greater contact with the Dutch).14 In other words, this indicated that, if the Dutch did not
recognise an individual or group of people, that particular group legally were slaves by law.
On the other hand, despite allowing trade in red slaves (Natives not recognised by law), the Dutch
treaded cautiously concerning red slaves. The reason being, all of the trade practically depended
on the good will of the (Native) Indians and freedom from internal conflict.15 Hence, the Dutch
settlers did not want to antagonise the Native Amerindians. Therefore, due to this concern, Hendrik
Rol (1670) issued a regulation prohibiting the purchase of red slaves without first appearing before
him.16 The regulation attempted to regulate the trade in Red slaves by the requirement of
authorisation.
Dutch Jurisdiction
Dutch JURISDICTION (or influence) penetrated a wide area of the Guiana colonies, because of
trade and the establishment of post-holders at distinct locations, which the British later mapped
and defined in the 19th Century. What was striking about jurisdiction was the actual
misunderstanding about the Dutch influence with the natives. That misunderstanding was in terms
of the indictment of the (Native) Indians’ recognition of Dutch authority as the protectorate, and
as a consequence the Dutch assumed responsibility of being protectors of the Indians.’17 In reality
13
Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during
the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, p. 9.
14
Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 9.
15
Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 434.
16
Ibid, p. 432.
17
Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 198.
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however, it was the Dutch who needed the protection of the Amerindians from the threat of
Spanish invasion, from the maroons and even from hunger (as mentioned earlier by facilitating
trade in goods) and not the (Native) Indians. Hence, the Dutch depended on the (Native) Indians
and not the (Native) Indians on the Dutch.18 Consequently, the relationship between the Dutch and
Natives was that of an Alliance, rather than control by the Dutch.
Understandably however, at that point in time the viewpoint of most Europeans was, if ‘I occupy,
I control’. The Dutch therefore tried to establish this view in their relations with the Amerindians
even if they did not administer the area.19 Despite this, Dutch correspondence has even implied
that the Dutch depended on the assistance of the Natives, forming a critical alliance20 between the
Dutch and the Amerindian population. Therefore, one must not confuse Influence with
Jurisdiction, nor Alliance with Allegiance.21 The Dutch /Amerindian relationship was rather a coexistence for each Nation’s own interest.
The Plantation Economy
By the commencement of the 18th Century, the importance of trade to the Dutch colonial economy
slowly faded, as there was an increase in Plantation agricultural development. The development
of plantation agriculture was due to the move by colonists primarily towards the coastal plains (aka
the then swamplands). Nevertheless, it was due to the Dutch, with their extensive knowledge of
drainage and irrigation development22 that resulted in the shift from trade to a PLANTATION
ECONOMY along the coastal plains of Guiana.
18
Thompson, Alvin, op.cit. p. 198
Ibid, p. 198
20
Thompson, Alvin, op.cit. p. 199
21
Caesar Granvesande, History Gazette #44, p. 6.
22
Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 438.
19
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The shift to plantation economy however, accompanied the increasing dependence on African
slave labour, with the African slaves numbering approximately 21,259 in Essequibo by the end of
the 18th Century.23 Therefore, it was the high demand for increasing plantation yields that resulted
in the increased demand for intensified labour of enslaved Africans. The African slaves brought to
the Guiana territory encountered harsh conditions – maltreatment and grave abuses were received
at the hands of the Dutch colonists. The harsh conditions faced, and the reality of forced labour
gave rise to increased resistance and revolts, an increase number of runaways, and the
establishment of maroon communities by the enslaved Africans in an attempt to be free.
Consequently, taking into account the increasing disproportionate numbers of enslaved Africans,
the threat of rebellion, and the threat of Spanish invasion24, the Dutch settlers relied more and more
on alliance to ensure their survival.
Dutch Defence
Based on the circumstances at the time, the most effective method of defence the Dutch
implemented was primarily based upon their friendly relations towards the Natives. This defence
method was particularly pushed by Lauren Storm Van Gravesande under his administration.25 This
form of alliance defence was crucial for the Dutch colonists, ‘since the Dutch greatest weakness
was their inability to defend themselves against their enemies, especially the Spanish.’26
Thus, the alliance formed between the Dutch and the Amerindian Nations in-turn strengthened the
external military DEFENCE, and fostered internal security for the Dutch colony. The alliance was
a success, given that the Amerindians were crucial in quelling uprisings. Their knowledge of the
23
Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit. p. 439
Menezes, Mary Noel, ‘British Policy towards the Amerindians in British Guiana 1803-1873’, The Caribbean Press,
2011, p. 1.
25
Simmons, Terrence, ‘Dutch Indian Trade’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday November 1st, 1991, p. 5.
26
Ibid, p. 5
24
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extensive interior forest locations enabled them to track runaway slaves (maroons), capture them,
and return them to the Dutch authorities. This was all possible because African Slaves were
unaware of the “Indian-Path” and the Natives keen observation in the forest.27
A case in point to note for example, is the suppression of the 1763 Berbice slave revolt. The 1763
Berbice revolt highlights the point that the co-operation of the Natives was critical for the Dutch
victory over Cuffy (Coffy/Koffy) and his group, indicating the Amerindian effectiveness. General
Storm proclaimed the point of the key role of the Natives, when he indicated that ‘he had never
seen so many Caribs in his life as mustered on that occasion.’28 In other words, the Amerindians’
role as slave catchers attributed to the practical absence of maroon communities29 and extensive
uprising in the colonies (Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice) compared to the Dutch Suriname
colony.
Therefore, the Natives were clearly the key defence and security of the colony because of good
relations. This was emphasised by Storm, the Governor General of Essequibo, in a dispatch of
1762:
“So long as we have the good fortune to stand well with the Indians and I shall always continue
to try to do so… we will need have no fear”30
Dutch Rewards and Gifts
A misguided assumption concerning the Amerindian militia was that they were under Dutch
authority and command, but this was not so. It should be noted that when the Dutch sent word to
27
Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 464.
Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 15.
29
Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 440.
30
Ibid, p. 448
28
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the chieftains (or captains), as the Dutch called the Amerindian leaders,31 to gather manpower for
military expeditions against maroons and invaders, the Native Amerindians were not ordered (or
commanded) to do so but rather asked if they would co-operate (assist).
These requests were accompanied with the added bonus or promise of rewards, which was apart
from the regular presents32 given to chiefs in order to foster an alliance with the Amerindians
against all those who the Dutch deemed their enemies. For example, in 1763 when the Dutch
sought Carib assistance, the Director-General of Essequibo said: “I shall write… to instruct to
post-holder to induce the Carib nation, by the promise of recompense, to take up arms in this
matter.”33
As a result, one can deduce that the distribution of gifts or rewards was in-turn aimed at stimulating
or fostering assistance34 in an attempt to cultivate friendship with the Native Indians as a matter of
survival35 and cementing the alliance between the two Nations.
Dutch Amerindian Policy/ Regulations
The Dutch developed various POLICY/ regulations (aka The Red Code)36 in order to protect the
Amerindians from abuses by other Dutch white colonists. The whole aim of the Red Code was
intended to keep the peace with the Natives, as the Dutch saw them as valuable allies. As a result,
the earlier references to the occurrence of Red slaves, which existed, later ceased (no enslavement)
31
Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 8.
Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 202.
33
Ibid, p. 202
34
Granvesande, Caesar, op.cit., p. 8.
35
Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), The Amerindian in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, p. xviii
36
Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 432.
32
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as the Dutch now recognised all the Amerindian tribes along the coast and in the interior, which
General Storm’s administration accepted and confirmed.37
This policy change and acceptance of the Native Amerindians was emphasised by the Abraham
Beekman (Essequibo) 1686 ordinance, which stated that no Planter “would be permitted to buy
directly or indirectly Indian slaves, nor carry the same away from their houses with or without
force.”38 In addition, the 1793 ordinance, which supported the 1686 ordinance, forbade ‘the
purchasing or holding as slaves, any Indian or the offspring of Indian women of whatever tribe.’39
The Amerindians as a result, were recognised as a Free Nation40 of independent people, and their
Chieftains (captains) treated with respect. Recognising the chief status as leaders was received in
colonial capitals,41 and presents regularly given. The Chiefs were also encouraged to bring any
form of complaints/ disputes or grievances for the Dutch42 officials to settle.
The Dutch therefore, acted as mediators in an attempt to keep the peace, with examples of cases
such as those in 1686 and 1765 to identify a few.
43
This act of mediation by the Dutch was to
prevent conflict, as occurrences of conflict would have hindered trade and the overall security of
the Dutch colony of Guiana. In the end, the Amerindians practically enjoyed a form of status,
which the enslaved Africans never attained during the Dutch reign,44 and in-turn the Dutch fostered
alliance with great reciprocal Benefits for security and trade.
37
Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 448.
Ibid, p. 432
39
Menezes, Sr. Mary, (ed), The Amerindians in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, p. xvii.
40
Sanders, Andrew, ‘Amerindians in Guyana: A minority group in a multi-ethnic society’, Caribbean Studies Vol.12;
No.2, p. 39.
41
Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 560.
42
Sanders, Andrew, op.cit., p. 39.
43
Simmons, Terrence, ‘The Amerindian in Dutch Defence’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday October 25th, 1991 p. 5.
44
Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 561.
38
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Effects of Dutch Contact with Amerindians
Nevertheless, even though there was a friendly alliance between the Dutch and the Amerindian
people of the Guiana colony, the Amerindian people still encountered effects based on their contact
with the Dutch settlers. Some of the EFFECTS faced by the Amerindian people were caused by
the introduction of diseases (epidemic) that resulted in the decline of the Amerindian population.
Other effects were also high alcohol consumption among the Natives, and a change in dress and
ornaments because of the use of glass beads and cloth.45 As a consequence, the Amerindians
became more dependent upon Dutch goods, presents, materials, and payment received. This
dependence was observed because of the apparent settling of Amerindians near plantation estates
on the East Coast.46
Additionally, increased prostitution among Amerindian women was apparent, and inter-racial
relations occurred which produced a mixed set of people into the society.47 Note also that relations
with the Dutch settlers also resulted in the development of a class system in the Guiana colony.
The class system resulted in certain tribes or groups taking the leading role in trade,48 with the
Caribs being one such group, which resulted in internal conflicts between the Amerindian tribes.
For an example of conflict, take the occurrence of when an outside tribe such as the Manaos people
from Rio Branco migrated to Dutch territory.49 This migration caused conflict between the tribes
due to fear of the Manaos people compromising the existing trade other Amerindian tribes had
with the Dutch.50
45
Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 210.
Benjamin, Anna, Guyana Historical Journal Vol. IV and V, p. 7.
47
Thompson, Alvin, op.cit., p. 210.
48
Ibid, p. 210
49
Thompson, Alvin, op.cit., p. 194.
50
Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 194
46
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Amerindian Sense of Security
Despite these effects, the overall general Amerindian culture remained fairly intact with the
Dutch not imposing their way of life or religion on the (Native) Indians like the Spanish. It was
because of the Amerindians resentfulness against the Spanish encomienda system and the Spanish
forced cultural and religious conversion, that they gravitated towards the Dutch settlers to foster
an alliance. The Caribs practically allied themselves with the Dutch for their own self-interest, in
terms of their survival, preferring the Dutch against being targeted by the Spanish.51 As a result,
the Caribs were one of the key Amerindian groups that co-operated with the Dutch.
Furthermore, due to the Amerindian status and sense of equality, they did not hesitate to voice
objections or even threaten the Dutch administration if needed in order to get what they wanted.
The Governor-General of Essequibo in 1785 was faced with such a situation where, ‘the Caribs in
the presence of African slaves pressed to obtain their presents and if not received, would ally
themselves with the blacks against the whites if a next revolt occurred. Therefore, the Governor
had no choice but to give them what they wanted.52
Regardless of this, overall, the Dutch-Indian Relationship was one of an alliance between the
Nations; so successful that the British on gaining control of the Dutch colonies adopted the Dutch
Friendly Policy realising the significance of maintaining such an alliance.53 In fact, upon the
British colonists’ control of the Guiana colony in 1803, the Native Amerindians pressed the new
colonists to receive the same treatment bestowed upon them by the Dutch. As stated before, the
51
Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during
the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, p. 10.
52
Ibid, p. 18
53
Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), The Amerindians in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, p. xviii.
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British obliged like the Dutch, having analysed the significance of good relations with the
Amerindian Nation.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, although the Dutch successfully obtained the Guiana territory of Essequibo,
Demerara, and Berbice, they encountered issues in the management of the colony because of their
vulnerability and extending circumstances. A number of issues threatened the survival of their
colony mainly:

Threats of external invasion from the Spanish neighbours

Hunger (starvation) of the colonists initially

Instability due to:
o The disproportionate population of the African and runaway slaves,
o Rebellions and the establishment of maroon villages (as was experienced in
Suriname).
The Dutch moreover, having analysed the extenuating circumstances they faced initially from
settling in the Guiana colony, to the development of the plantation economy, coupled with both
the external and internal security, realised with great importance the necessity of good Amerindian
relations for their own survival and the overall growth and development of the colony.
Consequently, the Dutch settlers on the shores of Guiana strategically sought to foster good
relations with the Amerindians through the implementation of the Dutch Friendly Policy towards
the Amerindian Nation. The friendly policy emphasized the abandonment of the ‘Red Code’ policy
and the recognition of all Amerindian tribes as free people, not traded as slaves. The friendly policy
also highlighted the gifts and presents bestowed on the Amerindian tribes for services rendered to
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the Dutch, the elevated status of the Native Chiefs, and the fact that these Chiefs could raise
concerns to the Dutch authority.
The friendly policy implemented by the Dutch was in order to cement strong ties and build a
critical/ vital alliance with the Amerindians, without whom, literally, the Dutch would not have
survived. Thus, in the final analysis, the Amerindians were an integral part of Dutch
Administration of the Guiana colony during the early 17th and 18th Century.
REFERENCE
1. Benjamin, Anna, (1992-1993),
‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch
Plantation System in Guyana during the Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries’, Guyana Historical Journal, Vol. IV
and V, Georgetown.
2. Golinga, Cornelis, (1985),
The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791,
New Hampshire, Van Goreum and Comp.
3. Gravesande, Caesar, (1992),
‘Amerindian Jurisdiction in the Guiana Territory in the 17th
and 18th Centuries’, History Gazette (#44), Turkeyen, May
1992.
4. Menezes, Sr. Mary, (1993),
The Amerindians and Europeans (revised ed), Georgetown,
Red Thread Women’s Press.
5. Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), (1979), The Amerindians in Guyana 1803-73: A Documented
History, London, Frankcass.
6. Menezes, Mary Noel, (2011),
British Policy towards the Amerindians in British Guiana
1803-1873, the Caribbean Press.
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7. Sanders, Andrew. (n.d),
‘Amerindians in Guyana: A Minority Group in a Multi-ethnic
Society’, Caribbean Studies Vol. 12; No.2.
8. Simmons, Terrence, (1991),
‘The Amerindian in Dutch Defence’, Guyana Chronicle,
Friday October 25th, 1991.
9. Simmons, Terrence, (1991),
‘Dutch-Indian Trade’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday November
1st, 1991.
10. Thompson, Alvin, (1987),
Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803,
Barbados,
West
Indies,
Caribbean
Research,
and
Publications, Inc
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