FAULTY REASONING: FALLACIES IN ARGUMENT
Fallacies
Fallacy--An argument that relies upon faulty reasoning.
Term
Definition
Examples
a.
1. Ad Hominem
Attacking the individual instead of the
argument.
b.
c.
a.
2. Appeal to Force
Telling the hearer that something bad will
happen to him if he does not accept the
argument.
He’s not a great athlete; he’s a fraud, a
cheat and a liar.
If you don't want to get beaten up, you will
agree with what I say.
b.
c.
a.
3. Appeal to Pity
4. Bandwagon (appeal to
Popular)
5. Appeal to Tradition
Urging the hearer to accept the argument
based upon an appeal to emotions,
sympathy, etc.
Urging the hearer to accept a new
position because a majority of people
hold to it.
Trying to get someone to accept
something because it has been done or
believed for a long time.
b.
c.
a.
6. False Dilemma
7. False Cause
8. Poisoning the Well
9. Double Standard
Comments or information that do not
logically follow from a premise or the
conclusion.
Presenting negative information about a
person before he/she speaks so as to
discredit the person's argument.
Applying a standard to another that is
different from a standard applied to
oneself.
c.
a.
10. Begging the question
This is the way we've always done it.
Therefore, it is the right way.
b.
You either did knock the glass over or you’re
lying. Which is it? (Someone else could have
knocked the glass over)
b.
c.
a.
We know why it rained today: because I
washed my car.
b.
c.
a.
Don't listen to him because he is a loser.
b.
c.
a.
Those rules don't apply to me since I am
older than you.
b.
c.
a.
Assuming the thing to be true that you are
trying to prove. It is circular.
Everyone else is doing it. Why shouldn't
you?
b.
c.
a.
Giving two choices when in actuality there
could be more choices possible.
Oh, come on. I’ve been sick. That’s why I
missed the deadline.
b.
c.
I am a good worker because Frank says
so. How can we trust Frank? Simple: I will
vouch for him.
Pitfalls
Pitfalls--An argument, that while not a fallacy, might lead an inattentive reader to commit a fallacy.
Term
Definition
Example
11.
Vagueness
A lack of clarity or precision in language. Words
or groups of words are vague when their
meanings are inexact or when it is unclear to
which things the word applies.
Wife: “I see Mr. Smith is cooking out on his new
barbecue grill.” Husband: “So his wife finally got
fed up with his unfaithfulness!”
Explanation:
12.
Equivocation
A subcategory of vagueness that consists of using
a term or expression in an argument in one sense
in one place in in another sense in another (in
other words: changing the definition of the word
within the argument).
Any law can be repealed by the proper legal
authority. The law of gravity is a law. Therefore,
the law of gravity can be repealed by the
proper legal authority.
Explanation:
13.
14.
Suppressed Evidence
Appeal to Authority
15. Questionable use of
Statistics
A failure to mention or otherwise acknowledge
important, relevant evidence. Suppressing
evidence is not always a fallacy (for instance,
defense lawyers are professionally obligated to
ignore evidence of their client’s guilt), but
ignoring relevant facts is often a sign of an
attempt to mislead.
Accepting the word of authorities when we lack
good reasons for thinking that they have the
information we need or when we think that they
might be biased, or when we ought to figure the
matter out for ourselves, or when the authority in
question is not really an expert in the relevant
area.
Employing statistics that are questionable without
further support. Subcategories include:
Hasty Conclusion: Accepting an argument on the
basis of too little evidence.
Small Sample: Drawing conclusions on the basis
of a sample that is too small to be reliable.
Unrepresentative Sample: Reasoning from a
sample that is not representative of the general
population.
That type of car is poorly made; a friend of mine
has one, and it continually gives him trouble.
Explanation:
I am not a doctor but I play one on the hit series
Grey’s Anatomy. Take it from me, there is no
faster-acting pain relief formula than Advil LiquiGels®.
Explanation:
The store brand soda is cheap, so the Pepsi will
be cheap too.
Explanation:
Propaganda Tactics
Propaganda--The expression of opinion or action by individuals or groups deliberately
designed to influence opinions or actions of other individuals or groups with reference to
predetermined ends.
Term
16.
Name Calling
17.
Glittering Generalities
18.
Transfer
19.
Testimonial
20.
Plain Folks
Definition
Examples
The propagandist appeals to our hate and fear by
giving “bad names” to those individuals, groups,
nations, races, policies, practices, beliefs, and ideals
that he would have us condemn and reject.
By use of “virtue words,” the propagandist appeals
to our emotions of love, generosity, and
brotherhood.
A device by which the propagandist carries over the
authority, sanction, and prestige of something or
someone we respect and revere to something he
would have us accept.
The technique involves a source the audience
approves of, trusts, or respects vouching for what the
propagandist wants to promote.
A device used to win our confidence by appearing
to be people like ourselves—“just plain folks,” “just
an ole country boy/gal,” “just an American citizen.”
Sources:
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http://www.roleplayingtips.com/readissue.php?number=389#T4
http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/
http://carm.org/logical-fallacies-or-fallacies-argumentation
http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lessonplans/identifying-understanding-fallacies-used-785.html?tab=4#tabs
http://literarydevices.net/ad-hominem/
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http://atheism.about.com/od/logicalfallacies/fl/Suppressed-EvidenceFallacy.htm
Ann T. Rudkin, Winston-Salem, College Board Presenter