10/28/16
Chapter 38
Challengestothe
PostwarOrder,
1973–1980
Presented by:
Mr. Anderson, M.Ed., J.D.
I.WatergateandtheUnmakingofa
President
• Watergatescandal:
• (June17,1972)5menarrestedinWatergate
apartment-officecomplexinWashington:
– Planned toplant electronic “bugs” in Democratic party's
headquarters
– Soon revealed they worked for Republican Committee to
Re-Elect the President, “CREEP”
• Nixonadministration's“dirtytricks”
– Watergate break-in one ofthem
– Forged documents to discredit Democrats
– Used Internal Revenue Service to harass innocent citizens
named on White House “enemies list”
p912
1
10/28/16
I.WatergateandtheUnmakingof
aPresident(cont.)
– Burglarized office ofpsychiatrist who treated leaker of
Pentagon Papers
– Perverted FBIand CIA to covertricksters' tracks
• Agnewforcedtoresign(Oct.1973)fortakingbribes
fromcontractorswhilegovernorandwhileVP
• Asinvestigationsbegan,Nixondenied
– Any prior knowledge of break-in
– Any involvement in legal proceedings against burglars
• FormerWhiteHouseaiderevealedsecrettaping
systemhadrecordedmostofNixon'sconversations
• Nixonagreedtorelease“relevant” portionsoftapes
I.WatergateandtheUnmakingof
aPresident(cont.)
– (July 24, 1974) Supreme Court unanimously ruled “executive
privilege” gaveNixon no right to withhold evidence
– Nixon reluctantly complied
– Three subpoenaed tapes ofNixon's conversations with chief
aide on June 23, 1972 proved fatal
– “Smoking gun” tape revealed Nixon giving orders, six days
after Watergate break-in, to use CIA to hold back an inquiry by
FBI
– Nixon's own words on tape convicted him of being involved
– House Judiciary Committee drew up articles of impeachment
based on:
» Obstruction of justice
» Abuse ofpresidential power
» Contempt of Congress
p912
2
10/28/16
I.WatergateandtheUnmakingof
aPresident(cont.)
– Publicwrathprovedtobeoverwhelming:
• RepublicanleadersinCongressconcludedhewasguilty
– Informed Nixon his impeachment by full House and removal
by Senate were foregone conclusions
– He would do best to resign
• Nixonannouncedresignationindramatictelevision
appearanceonAugust8,1974
• Nationsurvivedwrenchingconstitutionalcrisis
– Confirmed impeachment machinery forged by Founding
Fathers could serve its purpose when public demanded
I.WatergateandtheUnmakingof
aPresident(cont.)
• Principles,thatnopersonabovethelawandthat
presidentsmustbeheldaccountableforactions,
strengthened
• U.S.A.cleaneditsownsulliedhouse
– Impressive demonstration of self-discipline and selfgovernment to rest of world
• Watergateweakenedpublic'sfaithingovernment
• Economicproblemsfurtherdeepeneddisillusionment
p913
3
10/28/16
II.Sources ofStagnation
• Massivepost-WWIIeconomic growth based
onbigincreases inworkerproductivity:
– becauseofproductivityincreases,workers
doubledtheirstandardoflivingbetween1945
and1970
– Butproductivityincreasesstalledin1970s
• Result:medianincomeofaveragefamilystagnatedin
decadesafter1970(seeFigure38.1)
– Failed to decline only because many wives entered work
force
– Economistsstilldebatecausesofproductivity
slump
p914
II.Sources ofStagnation
(cont.)
• Somecausesofproductivity slump:
• Increaseofwomenandteenagersinworkforce
• Declininginvestmentinnewmachinery
• Heavycostsofcompliancewithgovernment-imposed
safetyandheathregulations
• Shiftofeconomyfrommanufacturingtoservices
• VietnamWarcausedeconomic distortions:
– Drained taxdollars from improvements in education
– Deflected scientific skill and manufacturing capacity from
civilian sector
– Contributed to inflation
4
10/28/16
Figur e 38-1 p914
II.Sources ofStagnation
(cont.)
– Othercausesofinflationaryspiral:
• Sharplyrisingoilpricesin1970s
• Deepestrootslayindeficitspendingof1960s
– Especially Johnson's insistence on fighting war in Vietnam
while funding Great Society programs at home without tax
increases to finance these new expenditures
• Withouttaxincreases,militaryspendingandwelfare
spendinginherentlyinflationarybecause:
– Put money into people's hands without adding to supply of
civilian goods that those dollars can buy
II.Sources ofStagnation
(cont.)
– Pricesincreasedastonishinglythroughout1970s
• CostoflivingtripledindecadeafterNixon'sinauguration—
longestandsteepestinflationarycycleinAmericanhistory
• U.S.economylaidbarebyabruptreversalofAmerica's
financialfortunes
• AfterWWII,companieshadsmallincentivestomodernize
plantsandseekmoreefficientmethodsofproduction
– Problem when challenged byrebuilt Japan and West Germany
• Astalematedwarandastagnanteconomyendedliberal
dreamthatanaffluentsocietycouldspenditswaytosocial
justice
5
10/28/16
III.TheFirstUnelectedPresident
• Gerald Rudolph Ford
– Firstmanmadepresidentsolelybyvoteof
Congress:
– Entered WhiteHouse(August1974)withserious
handicaps:
• Hadbeenselected,notelected,vicepresident,following
Agnew'sresignationindisgrace
– Odor ofillegitimacy hung about this president
• OdorincreasedwhenFordpardonedNixonforany
crimeshemayhavecommittedaspresident,discovered
orundiscovered
p916
Table 38-1 p917
6
10/28/16
III.TheFirstUnelectedPresident
(cont.)
• Fordsought toenhance détentewith Soviet
Union that Nixon hadcrafted
– 1973:joined34worldleadersatHelsinki,
Finland,tosignseveralhistoricaccords:
• OnewroteanendtoWWIIbylegitimizingUSSRdictatedboundariesofPolandandEasternEurope
• Inreturn,Sovietssigned“thirdbasket” agreement:
– Guaranteed more liberal exchanges of people and
information between East and West
– Promoted certain basic “human rights”
III.TheFirstUnelectedPresident
(cont.)
• ReactionstoHelsinkiaccords:
– Small dissident movements in Eastern Europe and in USSR
– West Germany cheered conference as milestone of détente
• Americancriticschargeddétenteaone-waystreet
– American grain and technology flowed to USSR, but little of
importance flowed back
– Moscow's continued human rights violations, including
restrictions on Jewish emigration—prompted Congress to
add punitive restrictions toU.S.-Soviet trade bill
III.TheFirstUnelectedPresident
(cont.)
• Fordatfirstclungstubbornlytodétente
• DomesticfuryoverUSSR'sdouble-dealinggrew
– Stoked by conservative hawks
• EventuallyFordrefusedeventopronounceword
détente inpublic
• ThawinColdWarthreateningtoprovechillinglybrief
7
10/28/16
p918
IV.DefeatinVietnam
– Early 1975,NorthVietnamesestartedlongexpecteddrivesouth
• WithoutU.S.aid,SouthVietnamquicklycollapsed
• LastAmericansfranticallyevacuatedonApril29,1975
• Alsorescuedwere140,000SouthVietnamese:
– Ford compassionately admitted these refugees to U.S.A.,
where they added further seasoning to melting pot
– Eventually some 500,000 arrived (see Makers of America)
• America's long, frustrating warendednot
with abangbutwith awhimper
IV.DefeatinVietnam
(cont.)
– TechnicallyU.S.A. didnotlose;theirclientnationhad
– Estimatedcostofwar:
• $118billionincurrentoutlays
• 56,000deadand300,000wounded
– U.S.Ahad provided everything that could be injected by outsiders
– America lostmorethanawar:
– Lost facein eyes offoreigners
– Lost self-esteem
– Lost confidence in political leaders and military prowess
– Lost much of the economic muscle behind global preeminence
8
10/28/16
V.Feminist VictoriesandDefeats
• While other protest movementssplintered,
• Feminists,althoughtheyhadtheirdifferences,showed
vitalityandmomentum:
– Won legislative and judicial victories
– Provoked rethinking of gender roles (see Makers of America)
– Thousands marched in Women's Stride for Equality on fiftieth
anniversary ofwoman suffrage in 1970
– In1972 Congress passed Title IXof the Education Amendments
» Prohibited sexdiscrimination in any federally assisted
educational program or activity
– Created opportunities forgirls' and women's athletics at
schools and colleges
V.Feminist VictoriesandDefeats
(cont.)
• Gavebirthto“TitleIXgeneration” thatwouldmature
bycentury'send
• Helpedprofessionalizewomen'ssports
– EqualRightsAmendment(ERA)toConstitution
woncongressionalapprovalin1972:
• 28ofnecessary38statesquicklyratifiedamendment,
firstproposedbysuffragistsin1923
• PresidentsNixonandFordendorsedERA
• HoperosethatERAmightsoonbecomelawofland
p919
9
10/28/16
V.Feminist VictoriesandDefeats
(cont.)
– EvenSupreme Courtseemedtobeon
movement'sside:
• InReedv.Reed(1971)andFrontierov.Richardson
(1973),Courtchallengedsexdiscriminationin
legislationandemployment
• LandmarkcaseofRoev.Wade(1973)
– Court struck down laws prohibiting abortion, arguing a
woman's decision to terminate apregnancy was protected
by constitutional right ofprivacy
V.Feminist VictoriesandDefeats
(cont.)
– Feministmovementfacedformidablebacklash
• 1972:Nixonvetoedproposaltosetupnationwide
publicdaycare
– Nixon claimed it would weaken American family
• Antifeministsblamedwomen'smovementforrising
divorcerate,whichtripledbetween1960and1976
• CatholicChurchandevangelicalsorganizedpowerful
grassrootsmovementtoopposelegalizedabortions
p920
10
10/28/16
p921
p921
p922
11
10/28/16
p923
V.Feminist Victoriesand
Defeats(cont.)
• Formanyfeminists, mostbitter defeatwas
deathofERA:
– Antifeminists,ledbyconservativePhyllisSchlafly:
• ArguedERAwouldremoveprotectionswomenenjoyed
byforcinglawtoseethemasmen'sequals
• Believedamendmentwouldthreatenfamilystructure
– HerSTOPERAcampaignsuccessful:
• Antifeministactivistsorganizedgrassrootsstate-level
effortstoblockratification
• ERAdiedin1982,threestatesshortofsuccess
V.Feminist Victoriesand
Defeats(cont.)
• Politics not whole storyofsecond-wave
feminism:
– Women'slaborforceparticipationrate
accelerated
– Majorprofessionsopeneddoorstowomen
– Feministenterprisesproliferated
– Ongoingtransformationsinsizeandstructureof
familiesensuredwomen'scentralitytodebates
overlife-stylechoicesand“familyvalues”
12
10/28/16
p924
VI.TheSeventiesinBlackandWhite
• Raceremained explosive issuein1970s
– Supreme CourtinMillikenv.Bradley(1974)
blindsidedschoolintegrationists:
• Ruleddesegregationplanscouldnotrequirestudents
tomoveacrossschool-districtlines
• Effectivelyexemptedsuburbsfromshoulderingany
partofburdenofdesegregatinginner-cityschools:
– Reinforced “white flight” from cities to suburbs
– Pitted poorest, most disadvantaged elements of white and
black communities against one another
VI.TheSeventiesinBlackand
White(cont.)
• Affirmative-action programsremained highly
controversial:
– Whitescried“reversediscrimination,” charging
theirrightshadbeenviolated:
– Allan Bakke(1978): Supreme Court upheld claim that his
application to medical school had been rejected because ofan
admissions program that favored minority applicants
– University ofCalifornia (Davis) medical school had to admit
Bakke
– YetCourt ruled race might be taken into account in admissions
to assemble diverse student body
– Sharp dissent by Justice Marshall, but conservatives cheered
verdict
13
10/28/16
VI.TheSeventiesinBlackand
White(cont.)
– Inspiredbycivilrightsmovement,NativeAmericans:
• Usedcourtsandwell-plannedactsofcivildisobedienceto
assertstatusasseparatesemi-sovereignpeoples
• SeizedislandofAlcatraz(1970)andvillageofWounded
Knee,SouthDakota(1972)
• UnitedStatesv.Wheeler(1978):SupremeCourtdeclared
tribespossessed“uniqueandlimited” sovereignty,subject
toCongressbutnottoindividualstates
p925
VII.TheBicentennialCampaign
• America's 200th birthday (1976)fellduring a
presidential election year
– ModerateFordgainedRepublicannominationby
narrowlydefeatingRonaldReaganofCalifornia
– Reaganpropelledbyconservative“NewRight”
•
•
•
•
Benefittedfromnewemphasisonprimaries
Activistsbuiltnetworkofinterlockingadvocacygroups
Adoptedmorepopulisttonethanearlierconservatives
Emphasizedhot-buttonculturalissues(e.g.,abortion)
andanationalistforeignpolicy(rejecteddétente)
14
10/28/16
VII.TheBicentennialCampaign
(cont.)
• JamesEarl(“Jimmy”)Carter, Jr.ofGeorgia
– DarkhorsecandidateforDemocraticnomination
– Born-againBaptistwithdown-homesincerity
– RanagainstmemoryofNixonandWatergateas
muchasagainstFord
– Promised“I’ll neverlietoyou”
– Ranasoutsider:
• UntaintedbycorruptWashington
• Wouldcleanhouseof“biggovernment”
VII.TheBicentennialCampaign
(cont.)
• Carter's narrow victory:
– 51%ofpopularvote;electoralcount:297to240
• SwepthisnativeSouth,exceptVirginia
• Won97%ofAfricanAmericanvote
• FordwonmorewhitesouthernvotesthanCarter
• Carter hadDemocratic majorities inCongress
• EnjoyedinitialsuccessasCongressagreedwithhim
to:
– Create Department ofEnergy
– Cut taxes
VII.TheBicentennialCampaign
(cont.)
• Carter'spopularityremainedhighinitially:
– Even though he pardoned some ten thousand draft evaders
of Vietnam War era to fulfill acampaign promise
• Carter'shoneymoonnotlastlong:
– Had campaigned against Washington “establishment”
– Never quite made transition tobeing an insider
– Repeatedly angered Congress by failing to consult with
congressional leaders
– Isolated himself in shallow pool of fellow Georgians
» Whose ignorance ofways ofWashington compounded
problems of greenhorn chief
15
10/28/16
VIII.Carter'sHumanitarianDiplomacy
• Displayedoverriding concern for“human
rights” asguiding principle offoreign policy
– InRhodesiaandSouthAfrica,heandU.N.
ambassador,AndrewYoung, championedblack
majority
– Mostspectacularforeignpolicyachievement:
• Sept.1978:invitedPresidentSadat(Egypt)andPrime
MinisterBegan(Israel)toconferenceatCampDavid
• Persuadedthemtosignaccord(September27,1978)
thatheldconsiderablepromiseofpeace:
p926
VIII.Carter'sHumanitarian
Diplomacy(cont.)
• Israelagreedinprincipletowithdrawfromterritory
conqueredin1967war
• AndEgyptpromisedtorespectIsrael'sborders
– Both parties pledged tosign formal peace treaty within
three months
• CarterresumedfulldiplomaticrelationswithChinain
early1979afternearlythirty-yearinterruption
• Hesuccessfullypushedthroughtwotreatiestoturn
PanamaCanalovertoPanamanians
– Despite campaign byconservatives (Reagan) against treaties
– U.S.A.gaveup control of canal on December 31, 1999
16
10/28/16
VIII.Carter'sHumanitarian
Diplomacy(cont.)
• Trouble stalkedCarter's foreignpolicy
– Reheated ColdWarwithSoviets:
• DétentefellintodisreputeasCubadeployed
thousandsoftroops,assistedbySovietadvisers
– To Angola, Ethiopia, and elsewhere in Africa
– To support revolutionary factions
• Arms-controlnegotiationswithMoscowstalled
becauseofthisSovietmeddlingaswellasaggressive
oppositionbydomestichawks
IX.EconomicandEnergyWoes
• Carter's economic troubles
• RecessionduringFord'sadministrationbroughtinflation
ratedownslightlytounder6%
• WhenCartertookover,pricesresumedrapidascent,
– Drove inflation rate above 13% by 1980 (see Figure 38.2)
– Bill for imported oil plunged America's balance ofpayments
deeply into red (an unprecedented $40 billion in 1978)
• “Oilshocks” of1970staughtAmericanstheycould
neveragainconsiderapolicyofeconomicisolation,as
theyhadtriedtodobetweentwoworldwars
– By late 1900s, foreign trade 27% of GNP (traditionally 10%)
IX.EconomicandEnergyWoes
(cont.)
– Federal budgetdeficitof$60billion,1980
– “Primerate” vaultedto20%inearly1980
– Carter blamedinflationonnation'sdependenceon
foreignoil,butAmericansignoredconservation
effortsheproposed
• Pro-USAdictatorMohammedRezaPahlevihadlong
ruledoil-richIran,butwastoppledinJanuary1979
• ViolentrevolutionbyMuslimfundamentalistswho
resentedshah'scampaigntowesternizeandsecularize
Iran
– Denounced U.S.A.as “Great Satan”
17
10/28/16
IX.EconomicandEnergyWoes
(cont.)
• DisorderspreadtoIran'soilfields
• WithIran'soilproductioninterrupted,shortages
appeared,andOPEChikedpetroleumprices
• Americanscaughtinsecondoilcrisis
– Carter retreated toCamp David in July 1979, remaining out
of public view for ten days
– Carter called in over ahundred leaders to give their views,
while nation waited for results of these deliberations
– On July 15, 1979, Carter stunned perplexed nation with his
malaise speech (although he never used word malaise)
IX.EconomicandEnergyWoes
(cont.)
• Malaisespeech:
– Chided his fellow citizens for falling into a “moral and
spiritual crisis” and
– For being too concerned with “material goods”
• Cartersoonfiredfourcabinetsecretariesand
– Circled wagons of his Georgia advisers more tightly around
White House by reorganizing and expanding power ofhis
personal staff
Figur e 38-2 p928
18
10/28/16
X.TheTurntowardtheMarket
• Energycrisis, stagflation, andCarter's woes
nurtured powerful conservative movement
– Challengedfoundationsofpostwar“social
contract”
•
•
•
•
Strongfederalgovernment
Economicregulation
Expandedsocialprovision
Largemeasureofincomeequality
– Emphasisshiftedtoenergy/promiseoffreemarket,
andburdens/dangersof“biggovernment”
p929
X.TheTurntowardtheMarket
(cont.)
• “Neoconservatives” (often former liberals)
spearheaded conservative revival
– Appalledbyexcessesof1960s
– Championedfree-marketcapitalism
– QuestionedefficacyofGreatSocietywelfare
– Wantedtorestoretraditionalvaluesathome
– Advocatedharshlyanti-USSRpositionsabroad
• Economist Milton Friedman criticized
Keynesianeconomics andactivist
government
19
10/28/16
X.TheTurntowardtheMarket
(cont.)
– BookFreetoChoose(1979)andTVdocumentary
arguedsuperiorityoffreemarketsinsolving
socialproblemsandprotectingindividualliberty
• Conservatives helped organizePolitical
Action Committees linkedwith business
• Corporations alsohired manylobbyists:
– Killedlaborlawreformbills,aminimumwage
hike,andcreationofConsumerProtection
Agency
X.TheTurntowardtheMarket
(cont.)
– Conservativesandcorporationsblamed
stagflationononerousgovernmentregulations
• Encouragedderegulationintransportation,
communications,andbanking
• Carter andyounger Democrats alsomoved
awayfromNewDeal-style liberalism
– Bysupportingfreemarketsandderegulation
• InU.S.A.andabroad, movetoembrace free
marketsabipartisan development
X.TheTurntowardtheMarket
(cont.)
– “Taxrevolts” partofnewantigovernmentpolitics
• 1978actionsinCaliforniaandotherstatessnowballed
intotax-cuttingagendaforconservativesnationwide
• Shapedpoliticsof1980s
20
10/28/16
XI.ForeignAffairsandtheIranian
Imbroglio
• SALTIIagreements
– June1979:CarterandSovietleaderLeonid
BrezhnevmetinViennatosignSALTII:
• LimitedlevelsoflethalstrategicweaponsinSovietand
Americanarsenals
• ConservativesharshlycriticizedSALTIIwhenitcameto
Senatefordebateinsummerof1979
• Politicalearthquakesinpetroleum-richPersianGulf
buriedallhopesofratifyingSALTII
p930
XI.ForeignAffairsandtheIranian
Imbroglio(cont.)
• Nov.4,1979:anti-AmericanMuslimmilitants
stormedU.SembassyinTehran,Iran
– Took all occupants hostage
– Demanded United States return exiled shah to Iran
– Americans agonized over fate of hostages and stability of
Persian Gulf
• Dec.27,1979:SovietarmyblitzedintoAfghanistan
andseemedpoisedforthrustatoiljugularofGulf
• Carterreactedvigorously:
– Slapped embargo on export of grain and high-technology
machinery to USSR
– Called for boycott of upcoming Olympic Games in Moscow
21
10/28/16
p930
XI.ForeignAffairsandtheIranian
Imbroglio(cont.)
– Proposed creation of “Rapid Deployment Force” to respond to
sudden crises in faraway places
– Requested young people (including women) register for
possible military draft
– Proclaimed U.S.A.would “use anymeans necessary, including
force,” to protect Persian Gulf against Soviet incursions
– Conceded that he had misjudged Soviets, and SALTIItreaty
became dead letter in Senate
• Meanwhile, USSRboggeddown inAfghanistan
XI.ForeignAffairsandtheIranian
Imbroglio(cont.)
• Iranianhostage crisishardon Carter and
U.S.A.
– CapturedAmericanslanguishedincruelcaptivity
– Carter triedtoapplyeconomicsanctions
– PoliticalturmoilinIranrumbledonendlessly
– Carter atlastordereddaringrescuemission:
• Hadtobescrappedwhenkeyequipmentfailed
• Duringwithdrawal,2aircraftcollided(killingeight
rescuers)
• Rescue'sfailureanguishingforAmericans
– Seemed to underscore nation's helplessness
22
10/28/16
XI.ForeignAffairsandtheIranian
Imbroglio(cont.)
• As1970sclosed, muchhadchanged inU.S.A.
– Postwarboomandbroadlysharedprosperityover
• Replacedbymorefitfulandlessequitablespurtsof
economicgrowth
– Ascendantconservativemovementpopularized
• Supportforfreemarketsandcriticismofgovernment
– Economicinequalityandpoliticalpolarizationgrew
– Sodidtoleranceandinclusionon
• Race,gender,ethnicity,andsexualorientation
p931
23