Boston University
OpenBU
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Boston Theological Institute
Journal of Faith and Science Exchange
2012-08-21
The Excellency of Theology: A
Critique of Robert K. Merton\'s
\"Puritan Thesis,\" with Reference
to the Works of Robert Boyle
Patton, Elizabeth
Boston Theological Institute
http://hdl.handle.net/2144/3967
Boston University
The Excellency of Theology:
A Critiqlie of Robert
K. Merton's "Puritan Thesis," with
Reference to the Works of Robert Boyle
Elizabeth Patton
New Hall
The Universiry of Cambridge
Robert K. Merton's "Puritan Thesis" asserts a direct correlation between Puritan theoand participation in natural philosophy (what today would be known as sci-
logical beliefs
This essay corrects the misleading assumptions
ence).
and conclusions brought about by
Merton's argument, by using the writings of Robert Boyle. Boyle, whom Merton designated a
"Puritan scientist," wrote extensively on the connection between natural philosophy and theology;
and his
writings demonstrate that the relationship between the two
was far more com-
plex than the simplicity of Merton's thesis suggests.
and empirical study of Nature for the
God in His works and
The nearly contempcManeous occurrence
in
glorification of
European history of the Protestant Refor-
lor the control of the corrupt world.'
mation and the "Scientific Revokition" has led
many
historians to attempt to link the trans-
Merton's thesis, accurate or not, has had a very
formations of religion and science together.
long reach.
Many
For example, some have argued
idea that the
strict,
tant theology
tive the empirical
phy
that attained
century.
One
that Protes-
promoted or made more
attrac-
and experimental philoso-
dominance
in the
seventeenth
people
still
have a vague
highly industrious and se-
rious tone that supposedly characterized Puritan life led
many
of them to become com-
mitted practitioners of natural philosophy.-
Besides propagating an oversimplified
of the more long lasting, and
many ways,
inaccurate conception of
perhaps one of the more misleading, of these
and, in
theories about Protestantism and Science
the
the Puritans and their beliefs, Merton's use of
so-called "Puritan Thesis" of twentieth-cen-
the views of various seventeenth-century natu-
tury
is
American sociologist Robert K. Meilon.
ral
philosophers as evidence for his thesis has
many of
One
In the essay, "Puritanism, Pietism and Sci-
led to the incorrect categorization of
ence," Merton asserts that Puritans were
these individuals as definitively Puritan.
at-
whom
Merton repeatedly
re-
Robert Boyle. In
this
tracted to and pursued science to a greater de-
such figure to
gree than their contemporaries, because of the
fers to in this context is
tenets of their specific theology.
Merton
states:
essay,
I
address two of the major difficulties
with Merton's thesis, by using the example
|T|he Puritan ethic, as an ideal typical
expression of the value-attitudes basic
to ascetic Protestantism generally, so
canalized the interests of seventeenth
century Englishmen as to constitute one
important clement in the enhanced
cultivation of science.
of Robert Boyle and his writings on the relationship between natural philosophy and theology.
The deep-rooted religious
the day demanded in llicir
interests
of
forceful
demonstrate, by a succinct
I
nition of Puritan used
is
Merton goes even further with the argument:
Firstly,
examination of what a Puritan
that the defi-
is,
by Merton
in the
essay
misleadingly over-generalized and incon-
sistent.
This inconsistency means that
Merton's thesis
is
unable to provide an accu-
rate insight into the
complexity of views on
implications the systematic, rational.
The Boston Theological Institute
15
theology and natural philosophy held by
Secondly,
ures like Robert Boyle.
I
fig-
will ap-
pher," as the terms "science" and "scientist"
are
modern and,
therefore, as applied to the
ply the four tenets of "Puritanism" that Merton
seventeenth century, anachronistic.) In addi-
identifies as being correlated to natural phi-
tion to the
losophy to two of Robert Boyle's works on
in this essay, then, serves as
between theology and natu-
the relationship
ral
philosophy. Applying Merton 's markers
of Puritanism to a close reading of Boyle indicates that, far
from
articulating
views on the
two
my
stated goals,
very approach
an indirect meth-
odological critique of Merton's dependence on
statistical calculations
of such categories as
educational background and Royal Society
membership
to support his thesis of a causal
theology that indicate a strong Puritan pref-
link between Puritanism, Pietism and science.
As the case of Robert Boyle shows, fortunately
relationship
between natural philosophy and
drew a boundary be-
or unfortunately, historical figures often defy
tween natural philosophy and theology that
was expressly non-sectarian and general.
cessful application of the sociological tool of
Boyle's theology and his relation of
statistics quite difficult to achieve.
erence, Boyle instead
ral
it
to natu-
philosophy was not demanded or gener-
strict
like to argue.' Rather, as
I
am
Boyle himself
it
is
the suc-
The Puritans constituted an important
force in seventeenth-century England.
His-
said:
torian
not a Chi-istian because
John Spurr describes the time:
the
England's stormy seventeenth century
was the puritan century, the era of the
"puritan revolution" when civil war and
revolution ushered in government by
Countrey and my
Friends.... I admit no mans opinions in
the whole lump, and have not scrupled,
on occasion, to own dissents from the
generality of learned men, whether
Religion of
makes
Defining the Puritans
ated by the project of natural philosophy nor
of "'prevailing social values" as Merton would
categorization, a fact that
my
Philosophers or Divines: And when I
choose to travel in the beaten Road, 'tis
not because I find 'lis the Road, but
because I judge 'tis the Way.^
the saints, and Protestant
isls
emerged
nonconfomiand
as an undeniable
ineradicable social and political force.^
who were these people called Puriwho wielded such influence in England?
But just
tans,
The complicated views of individuals
like
I
Boyle regarding natural philosophy and
sci-
passing definiti(Mi of the Puritans here, as
ence do not
into the neat matrix of "Puri-
will not attempt to provide
an all-encom-
beyond the scope of
overview is important
it
is
a project far
this essay;
tan" or "Anglican," and a picture of seven-
but a brief
to correct-
teenth-century science and religion contingent
ing some of the problems of Merton's argu-
fit
on such categories
ity
fails to reveal the
complex-
of the English historical situation. Merlon's
failure to
examine
individuals he
tans
means
in detail the
was anxious
that, in
nearly
thoughts of the
to classify as Puriall
cases, he used
ment.
The
label of "Puritan" has a long
ied history.
ter part
From
its
and var-
earliest usage, in the lat-
of the sixteenth century, as a mocking
insult suggesting self-righteousness
and hy-
such a blunt instrument of description that he
pocrisy, to
missed the rich complexity of the
reality in
implications in the seventeenth, "Puritan" as
which men
In letting
a temi has carried with
like
Boyle operated.
Boyle speak for himself, the competing ten-
many
its
later
anti-monarchical political
ferent stereotypes.^
it
numerous and
dif-
These stereotypes also
natural philosophers experi-
extended to actions or attitudes that allegedly
enced, caused by both religious conservatives
sprang from Puritan beliefs. Various histori-
sions that
and philosphic
liberals,
and immediacy
that
emerge with
Merton's use of
a clarity
statistical
categories fails to capture, (hi this essay,
I
have
ans have sought to define Puritans in a
that
alization, focusing
on the Puritan's
always used the seventeenth-century terms
self-identity, rather than
"natural philosophy" and "natural philoso-
David Sceats describes the Puritans
16
way
goes beyond these kinds of broad generspiritual
on what they
this
did.
way:
The Journal of Faith and Science Exchange, 2000
commitled
...those
pushing
to
to
Such marks could only be recognized through
work of grace upon the heart, but the understanding of the work of grace could only
its
programme of
reform in the English Church initiated
in the time of King Edward VI, but
interrupted by Queen Mary's reign of
logical conclusion the
the
come through reasoned
terror.^
taining these
Ascer-
meditation.
marks of grace was
central to
linked directly with
Puritans were in favor of thorough and real
puritan theology, for
reform, but for the most part mainstream Puritans did not advocate separating from the
the doctrine of Election, the idea that
Church of England. Their concern was the
reform of the English church from within, and
were damned. Only God
most Puritans abhorred the
could gain assurance by finding the signs of
ist."
label of "Separat-
Their commitment to refomi was in some
cases radical, but not to the degree that
it
wished to subvert the entire structure of the
As
Anglican Church.
historian Patrick
Collinson describes, Puritans could
be distin-
grace in their
who was
own
lives.
truly
knew who was
not, but individuals
Thus, "the hope and
desire for (election], the awareness of
the assurance of
some
for salvation, while others
were predestined
assured and
it
it,
were fundamental
it,
and
to the
much
of
puritan literature, sermons and otherwise,
is
Puritan religion."" For this reason,
guished from their English Protestants neigh-
preoccupied not only with impressing upon
bors by "everything that separated real from
the audience the importance of receiving
merely formal Protestants."**
grace, but also with the intricate analysis of
on
Puri-
such heartfelt experiences; for the Puritans
tans focuses, as John Spurr notes, on
what
were
Most of
the historical literature
Puritans did, whether that
the
was lobbying
for
no way pure
in
and
faith
What
links
spiritualists,
without reason was no faith
at all.
reform of the
Elizabethan church in
Boyle argued that natural philosophy simply
the early seventeenth
cannot encompass the divine^ and to argue
for a theology and a God that can be totally
century, leading a political reform in the
course of the Civil
War and
grasped through the application of reason
Interregnum,
or sustaining their
community
in
the natural order
the
is
to
arrogantly to overreach
the limits of human reason.
years of persecution
during the Anglican
reaction after the restoration of the monarchy.
Puritans together across the seventeenth cen-
This tendency to define Puritans based on their
tury
response to their circumstances has meant that
son and empirical spiritual experience cen-
it
often appears impossible to define just what
a Puritan
is,
since their description
is
seem-
ingly contingent on their environment
at a
moment. Yet Puritans
particular historical
throughout the seventeenth century did have
a
it
common spiritual heritage, which,
although
underwent change,
main aim
still
kept as
its
the pursuit of individual salvation as well that
of the English Church
at large.
strain of rational analysis
Both a strong
and the experience
of the heiul characterized Puritan spirituality
—
Puritans sought to find in themselves the
marks of grace as evidence of
their election.
was
tered
this
theology which combined rea-
on the pursuit of individual
salvation.
In his history of seventeenth-century English
Puritanism, Spurr writes:
We
should remember that the goal of
English puritans was not literary
monuments, nor was it political power:
it was the kingdom of heaven....
[Wjhat they did, what they achieved,
in their own eyes ultimately less
important than why they did it and who
they were: God's people.'"
was
In light of this description of the Puritans,
how do Merton's
Merton claims
The Boston Theological Institute
uses of the term compare?
in a preface to his essay to
be
17
—
using the term Puritan to designate
groups
tant
a use he
in
all
Protes-
is
and
ture
in that
of theology, (b) the relation-
ship between empiricism and rationalism, (c)
acceptable, because he be-
the theological requirement for industry so
such groups shared a core set
of religious and ethical convictions (a dubious proposition at best). Such a generalization
.
seventeenth-century England,
deemed
lieved that
all
—
far outside the historian's ordinary use
aptly filled
utility
ecclesiastical." " Yet within his essay,
Merton
Do these
(d) the
four tenets
match up with the ideas of the natural philosophers that Merton is discussing?
In the following sections,
of Puritan, for which Merton excuses himself,
saying that his interest was "social rather than
by natural philosophy, and
of both pursuits.'^
I
apply in turn
each of Merton's four "Puritan" tenets
to
two
works by Robert Boyle that deal specifically
definitely uses "Puritan"
to designate a
much nar-
In Boyle's frame worky God's revelation to
rower band of English
the individual, not immutable divine law,
Protestants, particularly
with regard to the
mem-
paramount for both natural philosophy
and theology.
is
bership of the Royal Society, a scientific society
officially
founded
after
in the i660s.
with the relationship of natural philosophy and
His equation of the terms Protestant and Pu-
plification, as has his
theology: The Excellency of'Theology, Compared with Natural Philosophy (1674), and
"The Cliristian Virtuoso" 1690). The fonner
jority of
was
the restoration of the
monarchy
ritan has been shown to be a great oversim-
Puritan
argument that the mamembers of the Royal Society had
affiliation.'- The reality of post-Res-
toration English religion, characterized as
was by the Anglicans and numerous
ers"
it
"dissent-
— hidependents, Presbyterians, Quakers,
who might
with those
be called Puritans
spread across the spectrum of these sects
means
wants
ert
that
many
of the individuals Merton
to single out as Puritans,
Boyle, do not
fall into
such as Rob-
any neatly defin-
able sectarian or theological category.'^
can
all
(
who, having been lead astray by the fleeting
glories of natural philosophy, had failed to
give theology
ten
was
dif-
ferent for each individual.
So, in
tan"
is
some
sense, Merton's use of "Puri-
shorthand for Protestimt, and even more
than that,
it
is
shorthand for a set of social
values that he saw operating in seventeenth-
century England.
Merton noted four major
was writwere
was no
in-
consistency between being a "virtuoso" of
natural philosophy and a Christian.
Boyle was born
in
1
626 and died
in
1
69 1
He is perhaps best known for the law that bears
name,
gases.
religious convictions or lack thereof
latter
ing that natural philosophy and theology
his
they worked out that interest in relation to
The
not incompatible, and that there
simple sense. All of the members of the Royal
how
proper place of primacy in
by Boyle with the intention of demonstrat-
classified as "pro-" or "anti-science" in a
Society shared an interest in science, but
its
the pursuit of knowledge.
Nor
of these different Protestants be easily
written as an extended letter to a "friend"
relating the pressure
He lived through the
and volume of
English Civil
War
and the Restoration of the monarchy, with
all
the concomitant religious transformations.
Although Merton
ritan,"
it
is
labels
him
would mean or where Boyle
many
a "moderate Pu-
difficult to ascertain
fits in
Protestant sects of the time.
what
this
among the
He did, as
Hooykaas notes,
have several influential non-conformist
historian of science Reijer
friends,
such as Thomas Syndenham
—
a phy-
Cromwell
tenets of "Puritanism" that directly linked
sician with connections to Oliver
natural philosphy and theology: (a) the pres-
and John
ence of an immutable law which must be dis-
sionary to North American Indians.
covered and obeyed
did write, during his teens, a narrative of his
18
in
both the order of na-
Eliot,
who would
later
become a mis-
He
also
The Journal of Faith and Science Exchange, 2000
immutable law was
conversion, a type of biographical writing
by God. In science,
common among more
that of the divine order of nature,
stringent Protestant
Uke many
in
sects such as the Puritans.
Yet,
the post-Restoration era, in
which the Resto-
many
this
which could
be discovered through experimental philosophy, but not altered or manipulated.
Both
so-called
natural philosophy and theology were, in a
non-conformists both inside and outside the
way, detenuinistic; and through the devoted
ration church settlement left
Anglican church, spread among various
groups, Boyle does not
category
fit
Boyle was, Merton
easily.'"^
"one of the
any one sectarian
acknowledge the divine law which
'''
states,
who attempted explicitly
scientists
study of natural philosophy, one could continually
had created the order of the natural world.
This link of immutable law is the baseline for
to link the place of science in social life with
Merton's "Puritan" science. Protestants, be-
Boyle did not see him-
cause of their theology of the absolute law of
mainly as a natural philosopher, but as an
who pursued natural philosophy as
predestination, were required to engage indus-
other cultural values."
self
'^
individual
whatever knowl-
part of a larger quest after
edge of the divine was graspable by human
While some
reason.
of his writings were, as
Mellon terms them, "apologia|s] for science"
to religion, in many of his works Boyle was
equally
—
not
if
more
—concerned with main-
taining the distinct superiority of theology to
natural philosophy.'^
He was
not only one of
the foremost natural philosophers of his day,
but also,
among
Hooykaas
notes, "takes his place
the eminent apologists of Christian re-
ligion."
"*
In these
two essays, especially
in
triously in the world, interpreting their spiritual
experiences both rationally and empiri-
Through
cally.
the continuous evaluating of
experience by reason, individuals
spiritual
could hope to determine whether they bore
marks of God's grace, a sign of their indiThe study of the order of
nature and of the immutable laws underlying
the
vidual salvation.
it
was an
ideal arena for this interaction be-
tween industry and empiricism.
correct to
the
draw
immutable divine law of nature's order and
the interests of Protestants in pursuing
The Excellency of Theology, Compared
Natural Philosophy (hereafter referred to as
The Excellency of Theology) Boyle did make
a case for the connection between natural phi-
Excellency of Theology:
losophy and theology, but
is
was not made
to
legitimate natural philosophy to the theological
community, as Merton's
thesis argues.
the following sections of the essay,
that Boyle's
aim
in
making
I
will
In
show
the connection be-
tween theology and natural philosophy was to
re-establish the primacy of theology, to which
natural philosophy
was
a subordinate,
if
im-
mon
foundation of Boyle's theology and natural philosophy?
One prominent connection between "Pumade by
Merton is that both entail belief in an "immu-
ritanism" and natural philosophy
Merton states, Puritan theology asserted the immutable law of
predestination, under which the fate of an
In religion,
individual's soul
was predetermined and
in
The
But as the two great Books, of Nature
and of Scripture, have the same Author;
so the study of the latter docs not at all
hinder the study of the former.
The study of natural philosophy can even lead
the mind "directly to the acknowledgment and
adoration of the most intelligent powerful and
benign author of things," Boyle stated in "The
Christian Virtuoso."'"
natural order
God's immutable law: the com-
table law."
Merton has described when he writes
Yet, while the
portant, pursuit.
its
Robert Boyle echoed the position
study.
with
Merton is
between
attention to the link
is
a
immutable law of God's
pan of Boyle's understand-
ing of the relationship between theology and
natural philosophy,
it
is
not the cornerstone.
Boyle did accept natural philosophy as able
to discern substantial knowledge about God
through the rational study of nature; yet such
a religion was, for him, insufficient and, in
the end, unsatisfying.
In
The Excellency of
Theology, Boyle argued that natural philoso-
phy simply cannot encompass
the divine, and
set
The Boston Theological Institute
19
—
to argue for a
totally
theology and a
God
that
can be
grasped through the application of rea-
son to the natural order
reach the limits of
is
human
arrogantly to over-
make
a
man behold many
glorious Attributes in the Deity; Yet the
same Reason, when
assisted
by
Revelation, may enable a man to
discover far more excellencies in God,
and perceive them, that he contemplated before, far greater and more
distinctly.-'
Merton's statement that natural philosophy
and theology were linked for "Puritans" because both were founded on immutable divine laws does not reveal the logic that underlay Boyle's integration of the two.
For
God
are con-
tained therein, but such a contemplation of
nature
reason:
So although bare Reason well iniprov'd
will suffice to
Individuals can and should study nature to
discover which attributes of
is
incomplete without the addition of
God's revelation, as may be found through
the scriptures and the study of theology. In
Boyle's framework, God's revelation to the
individual, not immutable divine law, is
paramount for both natural philosophy and
theology.
Rationalism and empiricism in
Protestant theology and science:
identical or parallel
In
concepts?
Merton's argument, science and theol-
ogy are linked not only by the two forms of
divine immutable law, but also because both
are founded
on a combination of rationalism
and empiricism. For
:
Merton, these ideas also
The two forms of empiricism contributed
connect science and the-
of the understanding of the
divine; spiritual empiricism the truths
about God^s own nature and willy natural
ology thiough the ideas of
to
two
levels
the Protestant
and of
"Puritanism" that
ine
philosophical empiricism data about
below
in
ically,
ethic
I
of
exam-
two sections
of this essay.
God^s order of nature.
work
utility, tenets
Theologi-
Puritanism did have
both rational and empirical strains.
Boyle, natural philosophy and religion were
related
on the basis of what each could offer
scholastic theology, liked to described their
Merton's sense of
theology as "practical affectionate divinity"
to the individual, not in
the theological
demand
that
each individual
take responsibility for personal salvation and,
thus, pursue the study
God's creation, but
rather in the sense of the elevation of an
individual closer to
will.
Puritans, al-
though undoubtedly intluenced by earlier
knowledge of the divine
As Boyle wrote
in Tlie
Excellency of
[The individual may] know something
of the Nature of God by the Light of
Reason, yet we must owe the knowledge of His Will or Positive Laws to
own
indeed arose from
that
engaged with
—experience, context and
situation, seeing itself as the
godliness."
'^
handmaid of
Spiritual experience required
rational analysis to be understood, but reason
without empirical experience permitted only
a superficial understanding.
Theology:
His
which was, "a theology
Merton is correct in saying that there was
between empiricism in natural philosophy and in spiritual experience. Both placed
a link
strong emphasis on the individual's gaining
Revelation.-'
insight through direct personal experience.
And
later in the text
Boyle wrote:
[Through revelation,
are Discoveries
God shows]
Spiritually,
there
more valuable than
those which relate but to the Objects
that he has expos'd to all men's Eyes.-^
20
one could
truly
know God only
in which God
through a direct experience
touched the heart. Philosophically, true
knowledge was gained by actually observing
and measuring the data oneself. Yet beyond
The Journal of Faith and Science Exchange 2000
^
shared emphasis on the real presence of
this
the individual, the theological and philosophical concepts of
empiricism were rather
dif-
Boyle's emphasis on revelation dem-
ferent.
onstrated the key distinction between the two:
theme of the "Puritan work
The rigorous application of reason to
empirical experience would ensure that indiin the related
ethic."
viduals did not
sin.
gence
sufficiently propos'd tiicm to Her, she
can readily embrace and highly value
diverse of them.-''
prey to the temptation of
for "system-
methodic labour," and "constant
atic,
Reason cannot discover Truths [about
God] but when Revelation once
fall
The demand of Puritanism
dili-
one's calling" matches perfectly to
in
experimental natural philosophy, with
quirement to study
all
its re-
em-
aspects of nature
Merton claims. The eschewing of
idleness by Puritans as a means of avoiding
pirically,
Revelation could, in the form of spiritual experience, provide the material of Divine
which could be shaped by reason,
Truths,
whereas empirical natural philosophical experience could provide observations and data
by which reason could construct hypotheses
about the natural world. The two fonns of
empiricism thus contributed to two levels of
the understanding of the divine; spiritual
piricism the truths about God's
and
will, natural philosophical
own
em-
nature
empiricism
data about God's order of nature. Philosophi-
sinful temptations again
the
a natural
is
fit
with
demands of experimental philosophy.
Rather than being tempted by vice, one can
occupy oneself with experiments.-^ The Excellency of Theology does have some references to these advantages of natural philosophy.
Boyle noted
God gave human
that
be-
ings reason, "which permits the study of
Natural Philosophy by
doing
so, they
its
may come
edge of God's
exercise," and in
to a greater
knowl-
Again, though,
attributes.-**
God could
Boyle deemed natural philosophy insufficient
not be seen only with a "Philosophical eye";
both as a means of obtaining knowledge of
and Boyle argued
God and
cal
empiricism was insufficient, as
that, as a result, far better
as a motivator for worthwhile in-
conceptions of God had been "penned by fish-
dustry and guard against temptation. For in
ennen and early Christians" (who placed a
greater premium on spiritual empiricism) than
by most Greek, Roman, and Chinese philoso-
cal truths increased the piety
phers.^''
the link
paths, in religion
spectively.
Boyle's eyes; but again, the theological version of the relationship, emphasizing the cen-
of the empirical experience of the re-
ception of revelation,
was
Hope
and well-grounded
in Him.-''
re-
Rationalism and empiricism did
link natural philosophy with theology in
trality
to give us a strong
distinct but parallel
and natural philosophy
virtue of
Servile Fears of the Deity: and tend
all
between rationalism and
empiricism takes two
and
wrote:
ISludics of Divine truths] not onely
Restrain One undue Passion, but
Advance all vertucs, and free us from
Merton argues,
Boyle's The E.xcclleiicy of Theology, the
meaning of
He
the contemplator.
Rather than being a double applica-
tion of an identical concept, as
in
Boyle's eyes, the contemplation of theologi-
the superior one.
For Boyle, natural philosophy was not the
primary source of valuable occupation, but
it
method
did elucidate a
theology, could render
"Nor do
able.
I
it
that, if
applied to
even more valu-
doubt, but that a
greater progress might be
made
much
in the Dis-
covery of Subjects where, though we can
A
shelter from sin: natural philosophy
and the "Protestant work ethic"
"The combination of rationalism and emis so pronounced in the Puri-
piricism which
tan ethic forms the essence of the spirit of
modern science," Merton
states,
between science and theology
is
and
we may still know farther,"
speaking of theology.
when
Boyle stated,
Rigorous analysis was far more produc-
never
know
all.
tively applied to theology than to natural
philosophy:
this link
also evident
The Boston Theological Institute
I
If
I
Speculative Geniuses would proto themselves particular Doubts
posed
21
portions of senseless matter; and leads
and Enquiries about particular Attributes,
and frame and examine Hypotheses,
establish Theorems, draw Corollaries;
and (in short) apply to this study the
same sagacity, assiduity and attention of
mind which they often employ about
inquiries of a very
a far
I
God
much
adoration of a
and benign author of things....^'
Merton
more comprehensive knowledge of
vidual to glorify
utility
The focus of one's industry should be rational analysis of God's revelation, to which
natural philosophy might contribute some insight into God's natural order or a method of
analysis. For Boyle, theology
rightly notes that the
need for indus-
would enable the indiGod is one link between the
trious occupation that
inferior nature
could be achieved |.-"
dominant partner
it
acknowledgment and
most intelligent, powerful
directly to the
remained as the
in relationship to natural
what
tive
of natural philosophy and religion; yet
is
striking in the
Boyle texts
is
his rela-
weighting of theology over natural phi-
In The Excellency of Theology,
Boyle wrote of using a "balance" to "show
losophy.
that [natural philosophy's] Excellencies,
though solid and weighty are
less so than the
philosophy.
prepondering ones of theology."^' Theology
The usefulness of theology
compared to natural philosophy
derstanding of the divine, but also had ends
Experimental philosophy was a means of
earnest activity, but activity that
and goals
and
two highly prized
values: utilitarianism and empiricism."
^'
Boyle did see natural philosophy as useful,
but its primary utility was in pointing individuals towards a greater acknowledgment
of God's glory. This argument
is
more
use-
they receive from the Naturalist, both in
the Nobleness of the Advantages and in
the Duration of them, [for] the boasted
use of Natural philosophy, by its
advancing Trades and Physick, will still
be to serve the Body; which is but the
Lodging and Instrument of the Soul.^''
their spiritual
goal of "the good of many." In short, Merton
argues, "science embodies
far
The Benefits which men may receive
from the Divine, surpass those which
Merton, with the "Puritan" bias against the
life
were ultimately
ser-
vice to the world. This melded, according to
withdrawal of monastic
that
into an un-
than those of natural philosophy.
ful
was of
more closely
not only drew one
Theology, thus, could always claim to be the
supremely
utilitarian object of study, for
especially
it
M
alone dealt with the true
i
nature and state of the
soul.
Boyle was concerned with those who
Natural philoso-
phy, in Boyle's mind,
professed belief in the veracity of the scriptures but for whom a natural philosophy
was indissoluably linked
to theology, as
it
gave
the individual a greater
without divine revelation had
assume a place of primacy
come
to
understanding of God's
attributes; but
in explaining
it
was
never sufficient unto
the world.
I
:
i
clear in
logical understanding.
of Merton 's claim that "Puritans"
were particularly concerned with "the good
stated:
And
indeed, the experimental philosophy giving us a more clear discovery,
than strangers to it, of the divine
excellencies displayed in the fabrick and
conduct of the universe. ..very much
indisposeth the mind, to ascribe such
admirable effects to so incompetent and
pitiful a cause as blind chance, or the
tumultuous justlings of atomical
22
What
"The Christian Virtuoso," where he
it-
self to provide full theo-
of
many" and were,
thus, united with Francis
Bacon. Bacon, according
to
Merton, believed
power of science to improve the "material condition of man," which, "apart from
its purely mundane value," was "a good in
in the
the light of the Evangelical Doctrine of Sal-
vation by Jesus Christ."" Boyle had his sus-
The Journal of Faith and Science Exchange, 2000
picions about the benefits that could be gen-
Directly in contrast to Merton's argument that
erally derived from natural philosophy.
natural philosophers
Whereas the study of theology benefited
with making natural philosophy acceptable to
individuals equally, natural philosophy
all
was
a
were chiefly concerned
dominant theology, Boyle stated
that
it
was
who were
less egalitarian.
Many improvements that re-
students of "Physicks," in particular,
sulted from the
work of
prone to demoting theology below natural phi-
"prejudiced one sort of
Advantage another."
had
own
its
natural philosophy
Men
much
as they
Natural philosophy
^''
particular uses, but theology
the source of universal
thus,
as
losophy. Natural philosophers had fallen prey
to
undervaluing theology, because of
was
Attainments of
Natural Philosophers are so noble a
kind and argue so iransccndent an
Excellency of Parts in the Attaincr, that
he may justly undervalue all other
without excepting Theology
Learning,
^
a Conceit, that the
had superior value.
Just as the skill of a jeweller
is
preferable than that of a mason because
of the nobleness of the object [where
we know upon tradition the value of
jewels over common stones], so a more
dim and imperfect knowledge of God,
and the Mysteries of Religion, may be
more desirable, and upon that account
more
delightful, than a clearer
edge of those Inferior Truths
Phy sicks
are
Boyle believed
its
wont
when
philosophy gained
inspiring the indi-
vidual toward the study of theology, a pursuit
that
would always generate
itself.'"
But notable
truths far supe-
rior to those discovered through natural phi-
Boyle's comments
in
is
his stress
on the undervaluation of theology. Boyle was
not writing to atheists, agnostics, or skeptics,
for
that
to teach."
that natural
true utility only
knowl-
grounded upon
...a certain secret Pride,
improvement and,
if
he were, Boyle stated that his argument
would have been different, focusing much
more on scriptural proofs. Boyle was concerned with those
who
professed belief in the
veracity of the scriptures but for
whom a natu-
philosophy without divine revelation had
ral
come to assume
a place of primacy in explainTheology was being subsumed
into natural philosophy, rather than being
ing the world.
losophy.
Boyle's project: re-establishing
the priority of theology
as Merton's thesis argues, the seven-
If,
teenth century was the age of "Puritan
ence,"
why
sci-
did Boyle bother to write such
lengthy expositions of the relationship be-
maintained as superior.
He was,
thus, not
seeking to demonstrate the religious value of
science to an atheistic community, but rather
to
combat what he saw
as an insufficient natu-
theology, and to reconfigure the relation-
ral
ship between natural philosophy and theology.
tween theology and natural philosophy? One
Boyle's specific focus, as evidenced by his
would suppose that the natural philosophic
community, if dominated by "Puritans,"
repeated references to "your friend Descartes"
arguments
Excellency of Theology, was on those followers of Descartes who were described as de-
would be
for the
in full
agreement with
his
supremacy of revealed theology, thus
rendering his project superfluous.
Boyle's
in
addressing the intended recipient of The
Deism
ists.
essays depict a picture of the natural philo-
notes,
sophic community that differs from Merton's
that
thesis.
In his preface to
The Excellency of
The undervaluation of the study of
things sacred is not his [a friend's] fault
alone, but is grown so rife among many
(otherwise ingenious) Persons,
especially Studiers of Physicks, that I
wish the ensuing Discourse were much
seasonable than
I
fear
in
Boyle's time, as Hooykaas
"customarily defined as the doctrine
God gave
the world
its
laws and
fate," although there were
left
it
to
many deists who
did "acknowledge God's constant concern for
Theology, Boyle lamented:
less
its
is
it is.^**
creation."^" Perhaps a better definition of deists
would be the following: those who ne-
glect "revealed religion [and] argue that the
natural light
(i.e.,
that of reason)
is
sufficient
to arrive at
pure religion."^' Natural philoso-
who
subscribed to this view believed
phers
they could arrive
The Boston Theological Institute
at all sufficient
knowledge
23
of God through reason and study of the natural world. God's revelation outside of that of
the natural order, thus, had
Descartes was often taken
little
as a
importance.
for the existence of
rived at by
ing, not
among
between natural philosophy and theology, with
ar-
Natural phi-
other types of learn-
because naturalists were atheists or
premium on
Boyle sought
devaluing of revelation.
losopher" in such a
One
of Boyle's
to define "the natural phi-
way
that interest in theol-
ogy was not only a pemiissible, but an
gral part.
"Men can be
philosophers
inte-
who
also
view of religion
Excellency of Theology; natural philosophers
should not be limited to the study of natural
philosophy.^'
to reassert the impor-
theology. Spiritual experience and revelation
were two key elements of theology
that could
to
argued:
other subject. Nor is it Reasonable, that
what I did or may write, to gratifie
other mens Curiosity should deprive me
not be grasped through the study of nature.
two essays, Boyle strove
As Boyle
[I am] no Lecturer or Professor of
Physicks, nor have ever engaged myself
by any Promise made to the Publick, to
confine myself, never to write of any
tance of the rational and empirical study of
In these
was
natural theology, or
on that which could be discovered by a combination of rational and empirical study of
nature.
its
chief concerns
study Divine Learning," Boyle stressed in The
skeptics, but because their
put such a
the secularization of natural philosophy sug-
gested by the deist conception of the relation
losophy, for Descartes' followers, assumed a
place of primacy
mere partner of philosophy. What
in one sense, was
arguments
God, which could be
human reason alone.
into the
Boyle was arguing against,
in this
model
strain of thought, with his rational
ogy
prove that
of mine Own Liberty, and Confine
to One Subject.^
reason alone was insufficient. In The Excel-
me
lency of Theology, Boyle constructed a brief
dialogue between himself and his imagined
audience of deists.
He argued
that the im-
Boyle wished to restore the relationship between theology and natural philosophy to one
mortal nature of the soul could be ascertained
where theology was universally accepted
only with assurance through God's revelation.
the cornerstone discipline, so that natural phi-
"Yet didn't Descartes demonstrate the immor-
losophers' interest in theology could only en-
tality
of the soul by reason only?" Boyle's
answer, for
all
the Cartesian proof offers
rational demonstration that the soul
from the body, not
that
it
is
is
a
distinct
continues on after
the destruction of the body. For Boyle, such
a proof
is
an example of the failure of natural
philosophy to match the elevation offered by
theology and divine revelation.
The Carte-
good for "Atheists,
Epicureans and other men. Naturalists who
will not allow God to have anything to do in
sian proof, he wrote,
the case."^-
is
For natural philosophers
profess to be Christians,
it
was
who
insufficient,
and presented a flawed relation between natural
hance their natural philosophic work.
No, Boyle would
imagined audience asks.
In
At the heart of Boyle's arguments was
his
"The Christian Virtuoso" and
in
The
Excellency of Theology, Boyle argued for natural
philosophy and theology to be integrated;
but he did not advocate a relationship in
which
theology became simply another basis for the
rational
ists
methods of natural philosophy,
who argued that God could be
as de-
found purely
through reason and the study of nature did. In
his "Puritan thesis,"
Merton correctly
distin-
guishes several points of correlation between
natural philosophy and theology, but his con-
ception that
terested in
men
like
making
Boyle were chiefly
in-
natural philosophy accept-
able to their faith leads
that
philosophy and theology.
as
governing belief
in
him
to
misunderstand
Boyle's case was the-
ology, rather than natural philosophy.
Boyle
desire to maintain the proper connection be-
valued natural philosophy highly, but the de-
of the dangerous
terminant element in the relation of natural
conflation of theology with natural philosophy
philosophy to theology was theology. Natural
tween the two,
in the face
offered by the deists.
expounded by
24
The
natural theology
the deists marginalized theol-
philosophy and theology did share the idea of
an immutable law, but
it
was
revelation, for
The Journal of Faith and Science Exchange^ 2000
Boyle, that
phice of natural philosophy
set the
Empiricism and
in relation to theology.
nalism were needed
in faith
ratio-
and philosophy,
but spiritual empirical experience and rational
analysis of revelation
would bring assurance
of the most important Divine truths. Industry
and
utility
could be practiced
in natural phi-
losophy, but through theology one's
work was
made ultimately usewas theology that deter-
elevated and the results
ful.
In all aspects,
mined
it
Hooykaas, R. Robert Boyle:
portance relative to that of theology. Boyle's
arguments did not demonstrate a particular sectarian agenda, nor an
advocacy of the profes-
sion of natural philosophy to the religious
com-
munity, despite what Merton's thesis would
suggest. His chief concern
was
to maintain a
meaningful position for theology in light of
the growing encroachment of a
ized natural philosophy.
more
secular-
Instead of the
work
Study
in Sci-
University Press of America, 1997.
M. The Place of Religion
Hunt, Richard
the Science of Robert Boyle.
in
Pittsburgh:
University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955.
Hunter, Michael. Robert Boyle: Scrupulos-
and Science.
Suffolk, England:
The
Boydell Press, 2000.
Merton, Robert K. "Puritanism, Pietism and
Science." \n Science
and Religion: A Se-
lection of Recent Historical Studies, ed.
by
C. A. Russell, 20-54. London: University
of
London
Press, 1973.
Morgan, John.
ited." In
"The Puritan Thesis Revis-
Evangelicals and Science
in
His-
David N.
and Mark A. Noll,
torical Perspective, ed. by
Livingstone, D. G. Hart,
of a "Puritan" natural philosopher, Boyle's
43-74.
writings can be seen as an early contribution
1999.
to the long-lasting«and broader debate over the
A
ence and Christian Belief. Lanham, Md.:
ity
two, a role which was always of secondary im-
and Puritanism in
London:
Pre-Revolutionary England.
Seeker and Warburg, 1964.
the role of natural philosophy in Boyle's
understanding of the connection between the
Society
Hill, Christopher.
Oxford: Oxford University Press,
Sceats, David.
The Experience of Grace:
and Spirituality of the
Grove Books, 1997.
propriety and nature of the relationship be-
Aspects of the Faith
tween theology and natural philosophy.
Puritans. Cambridge:
Spurr, John. English Puritanism 1603-1689.
London: Macmillan Press, 1998.
"The theological context of
Wojcik, Jan.
Boyle's Things above Reason." In Robert
Works
Boyle Reconsidered, ed. by Michael Hunter,
cited:
139-55. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Boyle, Robert. "The Christian Virtuoso." In
Press, 1994.
Science and Religious Belief 1600-190(1 ed.
by D. C. Goodman, 121-28
Dorchester,
England: John Wright and Sons, in assn
with the
Open
Endnotes:
University Press, 1973.
The Excellency of Theology, Compared to Natural Philosophy. London:
Henry Herringman, 1674.
.
CoUinson, Patrick. The Elizabethan Puritan
Movement. London: Jonathan Cape, 1967.
Hall, A. Rupert.
"Merton Revisited, or
Sci-
ence and Society in the Seventeenth Century."
In Science
and Religion: A Selec-
tion of Recent Historical Studies, ed.
by C.
A. Russell, 56-73. London: University of
London
Press, 1973.
1.
Mellon,
2.
Merton uses the term "science," although
p. 20.
sense this
in a true historical
as the term science
is
anachronistic,
was not used
in its current
sense until the nineteenth century. In discussing Boyle's views,
I
have always used the term
"natural philosophy," but
when
cussing Merton's assertions
his use of the
directly dis-
have maintained
term science.
3.
Merton,
4.
Boyle, quoted
The Boston Theological Institute
I
p. 25.
in
Hunter, p. 57.
25
1.
18.
Hooykaas,
6. Hill, p. 20.
19.
Merton, 28-29.
5.
7.
Spurr, p.
8.
Collinson, quoted in Sceats,
9.
Spurr, p. 159.
11.
is
Morgan,
121;
p. 4.
21. Boyle,
p. 64, n. 11.
developed around
Morgan's essay
the Puritan thesis,
coupled with an attempt to authenticate
Merton's thesis by applying it to the writings
of numerous individuals who, by today's historical standards, are designated as '"true"
Pu-
23. Ibid., p. 182.
24. Sceats, pp. 11-12.
25. Boyle, op.
cit., p.
15.
26. Ibid., p. 5.
27. Merton, p. 25.
28. Boyle, op.
cit., p.
68.
30. Ibid., pp. 89, 94.
For example, see Hall, and Morgan.
31.Merton, pp. 24-25.
13. Ibid., p. 48.
14.
p. 5.
29. Ibid.
ritans.
12.
The Excellency of Theology,
p.
22. Ibid., p. 6.
202-203.
a thorough analysis of the historiography
that has
The Excellency of Theology,
"The Christian Virtuoso," p. 125.
20. Boyle,
Sceats, p. 4.
10. Spurr, pp.
p. 57.
32. Boyle,
Merton, pp. 24-25, 28.
15. Ibid., p. 44.
("[Tlhe climate of values
most conducive to and interest in science was
found among the moderate Puritans, as exemplified by Robert Boyle"); Ht)oykaas, p.
10; Spurr, p. 131.
It is
in other discussions
science, Boyle
is
interesting to note that
of Boyle's religion and
identified as orthodoxly
(p.
"The Christian Virtuoso,"
p.
41
125 in the anthology).
33. Boyle,
The Excellency of Theology,
p.
115.
34. Ibid., p. 132.
35. Merton, p. 24.
36. Boyle, op.
cit., p.
133.
37. Ibid., p. 160.
Anglican. See Hunt, where he asserts that the
"allegiance to Anglican theology
made
38. Ibid., author's preface.
it
'philosophically' possible for Robert Boyle
to pursue his studies in 'natural philosophy'"
(p. 57).
Puritan"
which
is
Apparently one person's "moderate
is
another's "orthodox Anglican."
perhaps unsurprising, given the con-
fused nature of post-Restoration English
gion.
16.
reli-
39. Ibid., p. 164
40. Hooykaas, p. 6.
favourite"
is
found on
p. 21.
p.
144 of The Excel-
lency of Theology.
41.1bid.,pp.
3, 6.
42. Boyle, op.
Merton,
An example of Boyle's
designation of Descartes as "friend" or "your
cit.,
pp. 25-27, 36.
43. Ibid., introduction.
17. Ibid.
44. Ibid., author's preface.
Elizabeth Patton is a native of Harvard, Massachusetts. She received her undergraduate
in the Comparative Study of Religion and the History of Science from Harvard
University in 2000, and is now pursuing a Master of Philosophy degree in Theology at
degree
the University of Cambridge.
<epatton@post. harvard. edu>
26
The Journal of Faith and Science Exchange, 2000