MONGOLIA’S CULTURE AND
TRADITIONS
Your Guide By Jess
‘Just as God gave different fingers to the hand so he has given different ways to men.’
Mongke Khan
‘Customs of every country are different; grass of every meadow is different.’
Mongolian Proverb
‘If you drink the water, follow the custom.’
Mongolian Proverb
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There are many customs and social rules that remain an inherent part of Mongolian life but they are so integrated
into everyday life that it can be hard for visitors to tell that they exist.
It is not possible or even expected of you to know all the traditions of Mongolia. However, Mongolians are always
appreciative when a visitor takes the time to learn some of the rituals and customs. The following are to help you
get a more welcome reception. They are only an informal guide.
Culture, Customs and Traditions
Background
Page Three
Ger Life
Page Four
Traditional patterns inside and outside the ger
Page Five
Ger Etiquette
Page Seven
Hospitality
Page Eight
Traditional Ceremonies
Page Nine
Mongolian Nomads and their livestock
Page Ten
Herder Calendar
Page Twelve
Mongolian Zud
Page Thirteen
Traditional Food Products
Page Fourteen
Mongolian Clothing
Page Fifteen
A sacred landscape
Page Sixteen
Superstitions
Page Nineteen
Music in Mongolia
Page Twenty
Mongolian Biyelgee Dancing
Page Twenty-One
Tale of a weeping camel
Page Twenty-One
Mongolian Names
Page Twenty-Two
State symbols of Mongolia
Page Twenty-Three
Mongolian Legends and Proverbs
Page Twenty-Seven
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Background
The culture of Mongolia has been heavily influenced by the traditional nomadic way of life. Other important influences come from
the practising of ancestral shamanism (the worshipping of the Eternal Blue Sky (Tenger) and the myriad spiritual forces of nature)
and Mongolia’s relationship with Tibet – including the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism.
Mongolian customs, traditions and taboos are considered like
an unwritten law. Some have a religious background, others
developed from the practical requirements of nomadic life,
Similar to elsewhere in the world, from their early
childhood, Mongolian children are taught what to
do or what not to do - showing respect to their
and, of course, there is just plain superstition.
parents, other people, and possessions and to
Traditions have been inherited from the ancestors of each
nature. A strict hierarchy normally rules the family
family, including the teachings of Chinggis Khan - contained in
life - especially those of herders. Traditionally,
his code of law called Ikh Zasag (translated as great or
authority and privilege were determined by age -
supreme governance and designed to inspire and preserve
respect for the elderly was expected from
good management of family, society and the environment).
everyone but especially the young.
The laws dictated respect of people’s relationships, respect of
nature and the environment, of family and society, of the sky,
of norms of behaviour, of traditions and of education. They
Family is the most basic unit of social organisation
in Mongolia. Ger life made it possible for all family
members to be both physically and emotionally
have been strictly observed by the Mongols for centuries and
have become a homemade discipline for the educating and
upbringing of children. Combined with these taboos are
astrological concepts, such as an auspicious day or hour to
close to each other. Men were the leading
authoritative figures in making important decisions
for their children; mothers had more influence and
embark on a trip, cut one’s hair or start a business.
communication on a daily basis.
Vision should never stray far from the teaching of the elders. The old tunic, or dell, fits better and is always
more comfortable; it survives the hardships of life in the bush, while the new or untried dell is quickly torn’.
(Chinggis Khan)
As modernisation started taking place in Mongolia after the socialist revolution in the 1920’s, the nomadic culture,
preserved over the centuries, began to change. The role of the direct family in disciplining a child faded away,
especially in urban areas. Children went to school and started learning from their teachers rather than merely from
their parents. Although Mongolia is going through the process of urbanisation and westernisation, since most parents
are still offspring of herders in the countryside, many families in the city strive to preserve the traditional teachings in
bringing up their children.
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Ger Life
The ger has had a role in shaping the Mongolian character and family life. The small confines prevent privacy but
compel families to interact and to share everything. Life in a ger tightens the relationship between relatives – making
families stronger.
Interesting To Know
• In a ger the stove / fire is the central feature. The stove used to be mounted on three stones which represented
the host, the hostess and the daughter-in law who was to bear the family heir. The stones also represented the
past, present and future.
• The door of a ger will always face south. It is considered an auspicious direction. The doorway facing south allows
for light and warmth of the southern sun to come through the doorway as well preventing the mainly north –
north/west wind from entering, thus providing protection.
• Guests usually move in a clockwise direction when entering a ger – following the direction of the sun from sunrise
to sunset. The west (left) is usually where saddles, bridles and other items associated with men’s work are
situated (the west side is believed to be protected by heaven). The east (right) is usually where food and cooking
implements are situated – the women’s side of the ger (the east side is believed to be protected by the sun).
• Sitting on beds is not considered rude; these double as seats even if someone is sleeping in one.
(For more on ger etiquette on the next page)
The Family Altar - The Khoimor
The north end of the ger is considered the ‘place of honour’, the khoimor, and this is where you will usually find
the family altar.
During socialist times, there was an absence of personal religion. Within the area of the khoimor there were no
religious decorations, no votive butter lamps or candles, no khadags and no prayer books. Mirrors and collages of
family photos occupied the space – socialist approved secular substitutes for religious icons. In the 21st century there
is an amalgamation of both if the family is Buddhist - religious icons and family photos.
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Traditional Patterns Inside and Outside The Ger
Traditional ornamental patterns are a primary form of decoration in a ger – you will find these patterns on the
door, the ger supports and other furniture. Orange is the main colour – the colour of joy, energy and warmth.
Mongolians value anything old and of good workmanship as they derive real pleasure from craftsmanship and
traditional style – often personal possessions are also highly decorated.
• Traditional Mongolian patterns are often a combination of
Tibetan, Mongol and Chinese designs – merged together to create
Ulzii Hee - Knot
a rich decorative repertoire.
• The use of auspicious symbolism is to bring strength, offer
protection and bring long life and happiness.
• You will see designs of the Buddhist Swastika, and ‘strong and
fearless’ animals such as lions, tigers, dragons and the mythical
Garuda. There are also stylised representations of the five
elements.
• Patterns used in the embroidery of bedcovers and tablecloths are
usually symbols of beauty and nature such as flowers or
butterflies.
• The Buddhist ‘Knot of Eternity’, a geometric design, is also
frequently used.
• You will also frequently come across these designs on doorways,
The Ulzii Hee represents protection
(including against evil spirits) and longevity.
The plaited/squared interlace is said to
represent the universe and eternal
movement. Buddhist ‘Knot of Eternity’,
another geometric design, is also frequently
used and is said to represent the endless
cycle of rebirth.
gates and inside the monasteries.
Hee – Fret Pattern
The Akkhan Hee is a fret pattern. The idea is maybe taken from the tethering line for foals
and calves and/or labour tools such as the hammer - its meaning represents long life and
prosperity. Other interpretations mention that it represents the eternity of life and the
absence of beginning and end.
Tumen Nast/Khas Hee – the Mongolian Buddhist Swastika
Its name comes the Sanskrit word svasti (sv = well; asti = is), meaning good fortune, luck
and well-being. The swastika is most commonly used as a charm to bring good fortune (in
which case the arms are bent clockwise).
In Mongolian terminology, the observation that the constellation called the ‘Big Dipper’ rotates around the axis of
the Pole Star (North Star) through the year led to the Buddhist swastika representing position of the Big Dipper in
the four seasons.
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Khatan Suik and Khaan Buguivich – Wedding Ring
Designs
The man’s wedding ring is a design of two interlocking circles
called Khatan Suik – or Queen’s Carriage. The women’s wedding
ring is a design of two interlocking triangles called Khaan
Buguivich – or King’s Bracelet. Both symbolise the strength of
everlasting love.
Zoomorphic Designs
These consist of hornlike (EVER UGALZ) and nose-like (KHAMAR UGALZ) scrolls – inspiration is
taken from Mongolia’s TAVAN KHOSHUUT (the Five Snouts as the main livestock of Mongolia are
called). These zoomorphic designs may also represent:
• The four strong animals (the lion, tiger, dragon and the mythical Garuda bird)
• The twelve Asian zodiac animals (rat, ox, pig, rooster, snake, goat, tiger, hare, dragon, horse,
ram, monkey and dog)
• The circle of two fish that represent the symbol for yin and yang - in Mongolian symbolism,
the fish (due to never closing their eyes) are said to represent reason and wisdom and the
watchfulness and vigilance of Mongolians.
Botanical motifs and natural phenomena
This includes stylised representations of the five elements. Patterns used in the
embroidery of bedcovers and tablecloths are usually symbols of beauty and nature such
as flowers or butterflies.
The motifs representing nature symbolize origin and growth. Stylised motifs linked to the
cosmos illustrate respect for the powerful forces of nature - such as fire, water, thunder,
mountains, the sun and the moon.
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Ger Etiquette
• Try not to lean against the central support columns of the ger or pass something between them as it may cause bad
luck. The two central posts are said to support the ger like the husband and wife support the family and also
represent the past, present and future.
• Try not to whistle inside a ger as Mongolians believe this may bring a natural disaster – such as a very strong wind or
heavy rain that causes flash floods. Mongols do ‘whistle for the wind’ in the summer outside, when a breeze helps to
keep down the flies. They do no whistle in the winter or spring for fear it will bring storms.
• Try not to walk in front of older people (respect for the elderly is always shown).
• When passing a knife or scissors, always offer the handle never the blade.
• Fire is sacred. Do not throw any rubbish directly into the fire as this is disrespectful to the fire. Put the rubbish into
the fuel bin (the metal pan) in front of the fire. It will be saved to start the next fire and is transformed into fuel by
its brief stop in the fuel bin. Avoid stamping out or putting water on the fire as well.
• Try not to step on the threshold of the door or speak to someone across the threshold of the doorway. It is thought
that the spirit of the house lives on the threshold and the threshold offers protection to the family.
• It is not rude to come and go as you please in a ger. Even taking a short nap is considered perfectly acceptable.
Within the Buddhist culture the head is an elevated part of the body in symbolic terms and the feet have
accordingly lower status.
• Try not to point your feet towards other people or important items such as the fire or family altar.
• Sleep with your feet pointing towards the door.
• Try not to put your feet on tables and chairs as it is considered impolite.
• Try not to accidentally touch someone with your foot. The thinking behind this is that you have invaded their
social space and you may become enemies. If you do touch someone’s foot you can balance this out by
shaking that person’s hand so that they know you did not mean it.
• Try not to touch a hat belonging to someone else. A hat should never be placed on the floor. A hat in an
honoured possessions and a very personal item.
Outside the Ger
• Try not to walk across an area where women are milking the animals as you may spook them.
• Try not to step across any lines that animals are tied to.
• Try not to step over the long wooden pole used as a lasso if it is lying on the ground. If you see a lasso or a wooden
pole planted in the ground, avoid that area. This is a symbol for privacy by whoever planted it upright.
• Remember that dogs are not pets. They are working dogs and often used for guarding the property.
• When you see animals hobbled (either singularly or head to head with another), this is to act as a drag to stop them
ranging (usually the herder has just bought a new animal and wants to make sure that it does not try to return to its
old home).
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Hospitality
‘Happy is he whom guests frequent. Joyful is he at whose door guests’ horses are always tethered’.
Mongolian Proverb
Mongolian Greeting
When Mongolians meet conversation begins with an enquiry about the wellness of the family, their livestock, the
condition of the pasture or the grazing and also the weather. Only after quite some time is it appropriate to discuss
other matters. The expected response to ‘How are You?’ (Sain baina Uu?) should always be ‘good’ (Sain) even if you are
not feeling your best. Talking about bad things such as sickness is taken as a bad omen and should be avoided as much
as possible.
It is oddly redundant to say, ‘Sain bain uu?’ to the same person more than once in the same day.
It is normal for Mongolians to not introduce friends they are with to the friends they meet. It is also normal for
Mongolians to ask strangers where they come from and who their father is. However, they can be reserved if you
try to ask them similar questions.
When Visiting A Family
Mongolians often use gestures in the place of a verbal ‘thank you’. Mongolians use the right hand for all auspicious and
respectful activity – using this hand to gesture and pass items. It is respectful to roll down the sleeves before taking or
giving an item, or before being introduced to an older person. To show special respect one supports the right elbow
with the left hand when passing an item. The use of both hands to offer or take something is acceptable.
Not feeding a guest is considered a sign of rudeness and unfriendliness so please do accept when your host offers tea,
food or dairy products. Not only should you accept it but you should also taste it (or pretend to by placing the rim of
the cup to your lips) before placing it on the table.
• Try to avoid standing up when drinking tea or other beverages. Ask permission before taking any photographs as well.
• If you place food or cigarettes out on the table they will become communal property.
• When drinking vodka Mongolians will often make a toast with the vodka in their first cup. You also can do this –
having dipped the ring finger of your right hand into the cup, flick your finger to the four winds – this is offering a
taste to the gods. You should always return the cup to the person who offered it to you.
• On your departure you will always be encouraged to take a small item of food for the journey. Again, please show
willing. You can always hand it to your driver or trip assistant once outside.
‘Like so many Mongols, used from childhood to coaxing and controlling live things and to adaptation and makeshift
in keeping camp equipment and travelling gear in working order, he had a talent for machinery that only needed
opportunity’.
Owen Lattimore
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Traditional Ceremonies
It is possible that whilst travelling through Mongolia you may come across one or more of these ceremonies. This is a
just a brief overview:
Receiving The Snuff Bottle
Passing a snuff bottle is a formal occasion. Always accept it with your right hand and with an open palm. You may take
a pinch of snuff or just sniff the bottle’s top. Before passing the bottle to another person, you should offer it back to
its owner. Do not replace the cap firmly before passing the bottle back – simply leave it resting on top of the bottle,
with the snuff blade inside.
The Tea Offering Ceremony
Every morning after the sun has risen a member of the household (usually the grandmother or mother) makes a small
offering of either salted milk tea or milk (milk is a symbol for goodness) to the sun and the spirits, hoping for
protection, future happiness and wellbeing. This ceremony represents one of the core values of nomadic life.
The Hair Cutting Ceremony - Daah Urgeeh
This is a traditional rite of passage that takes place when a child reaches the ages of between 3 to 5 years, when it is
considered the child has survived the dangers of infancy (before this age, parents do not cut their child’s hair). The
age of the child depends on the family and also whether it is a boy or a girl - boys traditionally have their first hair cut
on an even year and girls in an odd year.
The hair cutting takes place on a day marked as auspicious in the Mongolian calendar with the first hair cut being
carried out by someone born in the same lunar year as the child. Throughout the day, the family members and visitors
then cut further locks of hair.
Typically, a knot is tied in a khadag (a Mongolian sacred scarf) and acts as a depository for the locks of hair. Scissors are
tied to the other end of the khadag. The person giving the haircut is offered a drink of milk tea mare’s milk. The guest
or family member then offers the drink to the child and then a dab of milk is rubbed into the child’s hair. A lock of hair
is then cut and placed in the khadag. A gift usually money (a symbol of good fortune) is usually given as a wish or a
blessing. Once the hair has been cut by all the guests, it is eventually shaved.
Hair cutting days are often an alcohol fuelled community event (you have been warned!). Prior to the event and just
after it can be difficult to tell young girls and boys apart as often both will have long hair in pigtails and even
sometimes ribbons and then a shaved head.
(One reason stated for not cutting an infant’s hair is that the family hope to confuse the evil spirits that may cause the
death of child (through accident or illness). It’s a little similar to certain names being given to protect a child,
especially if parents have lost a child or misfortune has been predicted by a fortune-teller - the names confuse evil or
jealous spirits, and thus misfortune is avoided).
Horse Branding Ceremony
In the mid of autumn ( September- October ) herders typically brand the year’s foals. A auspicious day is chosen using
the lunar calendar. As with the hair cutting ceremony relatives, friends and neighbours are all invited.
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Mongolian Nomads and Their Livestock
Mongolian livestock are known as the tavan kosighu mal (Five Snouts). Goats, cattle/yaks, and camels make up
a group known as the cold snouts and horses and sheep are known as warm snouts – these are the two animals
that are given as a gift or ‘in honour.
In 2013,the 45 million livestock population was made up of 322 thousand camels, 2,620,000 horses, 2,908,000
cattle/yaks, 20 million plus sheep and over 19 million goats.
In 2013, 792 thousand adult animals died during the winter/spring period.
Traditionally herders have grazed animals by rotating animals over shared pasture according to the seasons. Sometimes
this involves moving the animals away from where the main family ger is located to where it has rained recently and
where the grass would therefore be richer. If you see a single tent out on the grasslands, this is usually a herder
following the good grass (traditionally this was called otor – when a herdsman took temporary shelter with him and
pastured his animals at a distance from a central point).
Herders continuously micro-adapt to the climatic
Co-operation between herders was and is still common
conditions and the quality of available pasture. Fat
– such as the traditional khot-ail - this is a group of
animals survive the long winter better so it is
nomadic families that share the labour resources and
important to try to fatten them throughout the
control grazing. Herders operate and move across their
summer.
If there is poor grass in the summer, the
territory within strictly regulated and controlled ways,
animals go into winter thin and weaker, and there is
linked to the specific designation and use of grazing
likely to be high mortality particularly if the winter is
grounds and to territorial rights and social units.
harsh.
Depending on the characteristics of the environment
Herders have in-depth knowledge of conservation and
and the climate, some pastoralists will move
sustainable use of resources, and are able to respond
hundreds of miles while others only move short
quickly to change. Migration is a key strategy to
distances. Similarly, in some areas or during certain
reduce risks of food shortages by moving to different
years, herders may make frequent moves in a year,
grazing lands following a traditional seasonal pattern.
whereas in other areas they may move just a few
Herders do not own land but recognise land use – with
times.
accommodation made for changes in water supply and
Herders will move when grass near their ger has
become exhausted and the herds daily trips from
areas expend too many calories in travel.
A basic
migration strategy is to leave enough standing
pasture at the end of the growing season in
September to suffice until the new growth appears in
May.
productivity.
Disputes are settled on the basis of traditional usage –
a usage sanctioned by ancient rights. The in-depth
knowledge of herders is also key to limiting ecological
impact. Herding and seasonal migrations disperse the
impacts of grazing over several pasturelands in a
relatively large area and allow the recovery of
Your Guide to Mongolia’s Culture, Customs and Traditions - Written by Jess!
seasonally used pastures.
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Towards their livestock, herders are neither cruel nor particularly affectionate - they regard their animals as working
tools which have to be maintained properly or herding life becomes impossible.
The animals are integral part of
nomadic life yet there is no room for sentimentality.
Livestock act as an insurance policy for herders, with all animals
At the end of 2013, the total number of
providing food through meat and dairy products. Look at the
animals were estimated at 45.1 million.
sheep, known as ‘fat-tailed’ sheep, they are bred particularly for
(The savage winter/spring of 2009/2010
their large tails that are predominantly consist of pure fat and can
wiped out over 11 million head of livestock
weigh up to 20 pounds. Horses, camels and yaks provide transport –
in a zud. Further details can be found on
camels are highly adaptable, Mongolian horses are bred to endure
the next page.). However, it is not just the
the harsh winters and yaks can rapidly regain in the spring and
number of livestock that a herder owns
summer the weight losses sustained over the previous winter.
that is important but the ratio of one type
(If you are travelling at the start of the academic year in
to another – for example, a recent
September/October look out for herders taking their livestock to be
cashmere ‘goldrush’ led to an increase of
sold to help raise funds to pay for the university tuition fees.)
goats which led to degradation of the
Skin and wool from all animals is used to make items in and around
grazing pasture.
the ger – including the rope you will see. Sheep’s wool in particular
is used to make the eskii – the felt coverings for gers. Yak wool,
camel wool and the cashmere from goats are all highly sought after
for clothes production.
‘Goats, sheep, cattle, horses and camels are themselves members of tribes, having their own preferences in a
way of water, grass and soil, summer coolness and winter shelter. To combine different livestock in the
proportions that are best suites to the pastures is an art and at the same time a professional economic
requirement.’
Owen Lattimore
‘Herders must have expert knowledge of animal behaviour, fodder growth, springs, rivers, lakes, soil
fertility....The animals provide the meat, the milk, the multiplicity of dairy products – over 150 kinds – ger
coverings and clothing, and the transport that allows the people to migrate back and forth between winter and
summer pastures. As a result, rural Mongols do not possess land; they use it, moving on, moving back, in rhythms
dictated by established practise combined with unexpected extremes, like deep snow in May or extended
drought’.
John Man
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Herder Calendar
Mongolia’s herders and their animals try to make optimal use of the seasons. Below, is an impression of the annual
calendar of herders. Mongolia is a vast country so these activities will change from area to area. Even within a single
province, activities amongst herders vary: some cultivate crops, others don’t, some move up to 15 times a year, others
2-3 times, not all herders have all species of animals (and some even have chickens).
Spring - March through to early May
In early spring (March) the herders will still be in their winter pasture. One of the main activities now will be keeping
the animals alive as the end of the winter approaches and they are severely weakened. Also, most goats/sheep will
start to give birth to their young by the middle of March. Older goats will be combed for cashmere wool. Castration is
also carried out now as well. By late spring the herders will consider moving either from their winter or spring pasture
to their summer pasture - this will be a place near a water point.
Cashmere Combing
As the weather warms, the undercoat of goats begins to shed. Combing the hair allows the guard hairs to remain
intact - these are the hairs that provide protection from the weather. Mongolia’s goats produce some of the longest
and finest cashmere fibres in the world.
Each Mongolian goat produces (on average) 250 to 300 grams of cashmere per year. After processing (when the dirt
and the coarser fibres are removed), the combings yield only around 50% of the original weight in cashmere. Castration
Herders castrate their animals in spring as a way of controlling breeding within their herds. It’s a way to ensure that
only the higher quality animals are used for breeding. Known as khungulakh in Mongolian, there are specific
traditions that are followed to make sure that they don't suffer unnecessarily. Castration is performed with a small
scalpel with the herder finding the testes, making a small incision and then pulling first one and then the other
testicle out. The herders boil the testicles and eat them as part of a soup/broth (there's a belief that if they're eaten
quickly, then the animals will recover quickly). Summer - Late May to early September
The main activities are the herding of the animals (all in separate groups per species although sheep and goats are
often herded together). All animals are milked (herders typically start to milk their horses around the start of Naadam.
They are milked 6-7 times a day for the milk that will become airag). Dairy products are made, the wool of sheep is
collected, horse/camel/yak hairs are cut or combed, horses are trained. The main focus however is the finding good
grass growth for the fattening of all animals. Crops are cultivated. Children are at home as school is finished (June
1st) and help with activities. Naadam Festival is celebrated in July.
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Auspicious Days
As a herder in Mongolia, you live your life through the lunar calendar - all your activities are typically conducted on
'auspicious' days. In the Mongolian lunar calendar, there are favourable and unfavourable days according to the
combination of elements: earth, air, fire and water. These combinations impact on the effectiveness of one’s
activities as well as one’s health. Herders look at the lunar calendar to look for a suitable (positive and auspicious)
day on which to move their herds, put up their ger, to comb the cashmere or to castrate their male animals.
Autumn - September and October
The herding of the animals continues. All animals are milked up to the 1st of September (after that, sometimes
sheep/goats and/or cows will be milked, but this changes family to family). Dairy products are made. The wool/
animal hair is used to make (felt) products. Where available, families cut their ‘winter hay’. School starts on
September 1st and loans are asked from banks to pay school fees (or animals are sold to pay for it). Repair work is
also carried out on the winter shelter.
Winter - November to February
Already at their winter pasture, families will be collecting their drinking water from a nearby water point (such as a
frozen river or well) or from any melting ice. They will still be herding their livestock with the main focus being the
protection of the animals from prey such as wolves and making sure the animals can access feed underneath any snow
cover. Tsagaan Sar - Mongolian Lunar New Year (White Month) is celebrated in late Jan/Feb.
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A Mongolian Zud
Zud means ‘lack of grazing’ and describes the conditions that prevent livestock from grazing – including drought, deep
snow or even degradation of the pasture due to overcrowding. A zud causes massive losses to livestock due to fodder
shortage over a severe winter.
A zud can also result from a summer drought which
There are different types of zud:
results in poor grass so that winter begins with little
• Gan Zud – Occurs when there is a thaw followed again by
or no grazing for the animals. If snow comes and the
freezing conditions. Grass becomes sheathed in a film of
weather calms then the snow melts into the soil
ice and the animals cannot graze.
providing moisture for the grass. If winter blizzards
arrive they blow long and hard and either the snow
blows away or evaporates before it can soak into the
ground. With no soil moisture the grass fails to grow
in the spring.
• Khar zud – when there is a lack of snow to serve as a
substitute for water in a waterless region.
• Tsagaan Zud – this is when heavy snowfall prevents
animals from grazing.
• Tuurain Zud (hoof zud) – this is when pasture is trampled
down as a result of too many livestock in one area (and is
therefore predominantly a manmade situation).
There have been two zud events in recent years - in the winter/spring of 2009/10 and the winter/spring on
2015/16.
• After the 2009/2010 zud, Mongolia’s National Statistics Office released figures revealing that 10.6 million sheep and
goats, 360,000 horses, 475,000 cattle and 11,700 camels had died in just a few short months.
2015/16
The figures published by the Mongolian Montsame News Agency on March 25th indicated that 681,000 livestock had
perished so far - including 222 camels, 25,200 horses, 65,200 cattle, 237,000 sheep and 353,500 goats.
Such was the concern, that the United Nations (under the Central Emergency Relief Fund (CERF)) kickstarted a US
$2.4 million emergency response to the situation. According to the report:
'Around 60 per cent of Mongolia’s 339 districts have been in dzud or near-dzud condition since December 2015. Dzud
is a cyclical slow onset disaster unique to Mongolia. It consists of a summer drought followed by a deterioration of
the weather conditions in winter (10 to 350 cm snow thickness, temperatures -40° C to -50° C) and spring during
which shortage of pasture and water leads to large scale death of animals. The dzud conditions have been
compounded by a prolonged, El Nino induced, drought in the summer of 2015 that resulted in a 40% reduction in
wheat harvests and grazing pasture in some areas. As of 15 February 2016, an estimated 225,788 people (62,719 herder households or 41 per cent of the total herder
population) in 211 districts are impacted by adverse weather conditions. Out of this, an estimated 11,800 herder
households with less than 100 animals who reside in the 98 most dzud affected districts are considered particularly
vulnerable.'
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Traditional Food Products
As is to be expected, the nomads of Mongolia sustain their lives primarily with the products of their domestic livestock
(that will be meat and milk then!). These simple base materials are processed with a surprising variety of methods,
and combined with vegetables and hand made noodles and other flour products such as dumplings and pancakes.
Suutei Tsai
Aaruul
Taking Mongolian tea is a time-honoured tradition - at
the root of all nomadic hospitality and as old as the
history of nomads on the steppe. Tea is frequently
served with boortsog - home made biscuits cooked on
the ger stove. The everyday beverage is salted milk tea
which may be turned into a robust soup by adding rice,
meat, or dumplings (bansh). Since milk spoils quickly, herders have developed an
effective process that converts the abundant milk
into more easily storable products – creating yoghurt
(tarag), butter, cream (orom) and various type of
cheeses. Hard cheese such as aaruul is especially
important in winter and spring when there is little or
no fresh milk.
Herders mainly use brick green tea – compressed tea leafs
in the shape of a brick thus helping to eliminate bulk and
Borts
being convenient to transport and store. When making tea
Yak/cattle and goat meat is dried in thin slices,
they chip off a few flakes of tea and place in a large
called Borts, which can be kept for more than a year
cooking pot. The leaves are boiled in a small amount water
and is often carried by the herders as they move
before a large amount of milk and a dash of salt are added.
from one location to another during the grazing
The mix is then aerated/blended by ladling the tea high
season.
into the air.
Although animals are killed for meat, the herders relationship with their livestock is one of interdependence
rather one of exploitation. As a result, herders will use virtually all parts of livestock that they kill (traditionally
waste was taboo and an insult to Tenger and the spirits of nature).
Airag – Fermented Mare’s Milk
Airag is a meal in one or even a meal replacement as herders will frequently drink airag rather than eating. The
chemistry of airag (apart from the sugars) does not change during fermentation. It is said to stimulate the
metabolism and has an alcoholic content of approximately 1.5-2.3 %.
William of Rubruck was a Franciscan Monk who visited Mongolia in the 1200’s. His description of the process of making
airag has not changed to this day:
‘They stretch above the ground a long rope attached to two stakes in the soil and tether to the rope the foals of the
mares they intent to milk. Then the mares stand beside their foals and let themselves be milked peacefully. In the event
of any of them providing intractable, one man takes the foal and puts it underneath her to let it suckle a little, and
then withdraws it while the milker takes it place.
So having collected a great quantity of milk, which when it is fresh is as sweet as cow’s milk, they pour it into a large
skin or bag, and set about churning it with a club which is made for this purpose, as thick at the lower end as a man’s
head and hollowed out. As they stir it rapidly, it begins to bubble like new wine and turn sour and ferment.’
Milk Products
Dairy products in Mongolia are known as Tsagaan Idee (White Food) and the colour white for the Mongols connotes
goodness, nobility and luck. Milk products are considered holy (try not to spill any) and both airag and arikh are used in
shamanistic and Buddhist ceremonies. ‘The milk sprinkling ceremony is done to honour the gods of fertility and
protection’.
is usedCulture,
to wishCustoms
‘bon’ voyage’
to travellers,
it by
is sprinkled
‘in the direction
traveller 2016
is taking,
Your Guide toMilk
Mongolia’s
and Traditions
- Written
Jess!
Eternalthe
Landscapes
Pagewhile
15
everyone present prays or, as the Mongols say, thinks good thoughts.’ (Jane Blunden).
Mongolian Clothing
Mongolian Del/Deel
This traditional tunic coat has a myriad of uses. They can be ceremonial for events such as for Tsagaan Sar (Mongolian
New Year) or for Naadam as well as more practical for when worn carrying out herding jobs. They are an important
item of clothing for nomadic herders, who are limited to the amount of clothing they can own due to their necessity to
be portable.
The del traditionally represented the ethnic group of the wearer, changing in pattern, design and decoration
depending on their ethnicity. Often, the style of the del worn differed depending on the age, gender and social status
of the wearer. For example, when the Manchu (Qing) Dynasty gained power in China and Mongolia in the 17th century,
the Manchu’s strongly influenced the traditional costumes of the Mongols – especially those holding a privileged rank.
During the Manchu Dynasty the use of the dragon, a symbol of ancient Chinese tradition, was used to help define those
of noble birth – you will still see the use of dragons on dels today.
All dels share a basic component – they are an all a long overcoat with long sleeves (the herders use the long sleeves to
act as gloves to cover their hands in the winter). They are incredibly practical – an all-purpose garment that can be
used as coats (and blankets) to prevent the wind, cold and rain from penetrating and which are of great use (especially
as padding) when riding on the traditional wooden saddles.
Mongolian Hat: Malgai
Traditionally, the style of hat denoted social status and varied from one ethnic group to
another. Although still an integral part of a man’s clothing the hat no longer really carries the
significance of its wearer’s social position.
The construction of the traditional hat (see the photo right) still carries significance. The cone
on top of the hat is sewn together with 32 knots – each knot representing one of the supposed
32 tribes and therefore the unity of all Mongol tribes (and the Mongol nation).
Mongolian Boots – Gutal
Traditional Mongolian boots (mainly worn by herders and monks) have a wider bottom. This is so that
they exert less pressure from the owner’s body weight and therefore do not leave deep marks on the
ground – they make as small an imprint as is possible.
Silk Belt – Bus
The silk belt is worn wrapped around the del – it is said to help the organs in place when galloping and prevent nausea
for the wearer when travelling. It also helps to create an internal pocket in the del – which allows a herder to carry his
snuff bottle or small amounts of food etc.
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A Sacred Landscape
Mongolia is known as the 'Land of the Eternal Blue Sky'. Historically, tribes lived and moved in ever shifting
combinations in a vast area of land that stretched from Lake Baikal to the southern Gobi. As a result, tribes in the
northern steppe regions shared a common cultural and linguistic heritage with some of the tribes of Siberia who
practised shamanism. The Mongols practised ancestral shamanism - they worshipped the Eternal Blue Sky (Tenger) and
the myriad spiritual forces of nature. The Eternal Sky was the most powerful and mighty of all forces. Genghis Khan
believed that he conquered with the Rule of Heaven - the supreme god of the Eternal Blue Sky.
A combination of shamanistic and Buddhist belief remains to this day as an easy and unselfconscious part of
Mongolian life. It is expressed in the names of mountains: most are holy or sacred (mountains are the closest
thing on earth to the Eternal Blue Sky and thus they are venerated and sacred). Tall mountains are the khan
(king) of the area and given strong titles such as Burkhan Khaldun - God Mountain. According to custom to
pronounce the name of a mountain within its presence is forbidden as it may anger the resident spirits.
Did You Know?
The relationship with nature is traditionally one of
interdependence rather one of exploitation – the forest,
mountains, lakes, rivers, rocks and trees all have their
spirits and they needed to be respected for their gifts to
mankind in the form of food and shelter.
The core beings in the shamanist religion are Father
Heaven (Tenger Etseg) and Mother Earth (Gazar Eej).
Father Heaven is worshiped for what he is, the timeless
• When a new bottle of vodka is opened, the top
portion of the contents is poured into a cup/
container and offered to Father Heaven, Mother
Earth, and the ancestors or the protector spirits –
this ritual is a very crucial one in the religion of
Mongolia and Siberia.
• Prayers and offerings are made to Tenger on
holidays and at times of sacrifices to the mountain
spirits.
and infinite blue sky - he is not visualised as a person. No
• Rainmaking rituals directly address Tenger, and are
shamanist ritual starts without the invocation of Father
held at ovoo shrines dedicated to Tenger and the
Heaven, Mother Earth, and the ancestors. Everyday
mountain spirits.
activities acknowledge Tenger’s presence and are integral
• Every human being has the right to appeal to
to living one’s life aligned with the balance of the
Tenger directly for help; however when balance has
universe.
been disrupted by calamity or the intrusion of a
powerful spirit the shaman will use the power of
The sun and moon are the eyes of Tenger – their light
his spirits to restore his patient’s connection with
represents the power of Tenger shining eternally upon
Tenger and state of balance with the universe.
the earth. The cycles of the sun and moon
demonstrate the circularity of time and all other
natural processes - time circles around infinitely, so
each point in time is in contact with every other. The
most powerful days are at the times when the moon is
new or full. The sun cycle, the solstices as well as the
equinoxes, is coordinated with the moon cycle to set
dates for festivals. For instance, Tsagaan Sar
(Mongolian New Year) is held on the first new moon
after the winter solstice.
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Travel across the landscapes of Mongolia and you will
frequently come across small mounds made up of rocks and
stones. In the forest steppe regions, these mounds often
consist of branches of trees. Look more closely and you will
see steering wheel covers, plaster casts, crutches, empty
bottles of vodka, sweets, small pieces of dairy products such
as cheese and blue scarves. The stone shrines are known as
ovoos - erected by local families and travellers to show
gratitude and respect, and to honour the spirits of the
surrounding land.
They are circled three times in a clockwise direction and a
small offering made in order to ensure the safety of the trip or
to ensure good fortune in life. You don't need to find a
plaster cast or consume an entire bottle of vodka - small
‘Creating ovoos remains an easy, unselfconscious
stones are enough of an offering. The discarded casts,
part of travel, a ritual by which Mongolians assert
crutches, steering wheel covers and food offerings are
their heritage and the network that binds them'.
people's ways of giving thanks for better health, a safe
John Man
'With time the ovoos become strange spiritual junk
heaps piled with the debris of Mongolian life - a
rickety construction of anxieties and hopes'
Tim Severin
journey or maybe thanking the spirits for the much-needed
rain.
Don't be alarmed if you see a horse's head. The horse is a
symbol of strength of spirit, freedom and independence - an
honoured animal for a Mongolian herder and often when a
herder's best horse dies, the spirit of the animal is honoured
by the head being placed on an ovoo.
The blue scarves that can always be found flying in the wind on an ovoo are known as khadags and are traditional
ceremonial scarves. The colour blue represents the Eternal Blue Sky.
Khadags and prayer flags are used on ovoos – the wind both activates and carries the essence of the prayer and image
on the prayer flag / khadag whenever it blows and creates auspicious energy for the area in which the flags rest.
On some khadags you will see the Eight Auspicious Symbols (Naiman Takel in Mongolian) – each symbol represents an
aspect of Buddhist teaching and when they appear together their powers are multiplied. (There is a detailed
description of them in my guide to UB).
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Superstitions
Traditionally, Mongolian customs and taboos were considered unwritten laws. Some developed from the practical
requirements of nomadic life; some have a religious background and others are formed from plain superstition.
Traditional Mongolians are afraid of misfortunes and believe in a variety of good and bad omens. For example:
• When travelling, never make a joke about the possibility of breaking down or having a flat tyre - misfortune might be
attracted by talking in such a negative manner. • Never ask how many hours the journey will take – as this may influence and bring bad luck on the journey.
If you see a shooting star never point to it or mention it. Why?
In Mongolia, shooting stars are seen as an omen of a death. This is because they say that each star
represents a person and when you see a shooting star it highlights that person's death. If a Mongolian
sees a shooting star they will basically spit and say ‘it’s not mine.’
In Mongolia the baby tooth is given to a young dog. Dogs are respected and considered a guardian angel. The baby
tooth is put in the meat fat and it is fed to the young dog. When the dog eats it, it is said, that a strong tooth will grow
back.
Dogs in Mongolia
Traditionally the dogs role in Mongolia was to alert it's owners to the arrival of strangers arriving from the wide-open
steppe, herding the livestock when families moved to new pasture and guarding against the threat of wolves. Dogs are the only animal given their own name in Mongolia - a belief remains that dogs are the last stage before
humans in the reincarnation process. When a dog dies, the owner whispers in the dog’s ear his wishes that the dog will
return as a man in his next life. They are buried high in the hills so that people do not walk on their remains. Their tail
is cut off and put beneath the head, and a piece of meat or fat is cut off and placed in the dog's mouth to sustain its
soul for its journey; before the dog is reincarnated, the dog’s soul is freed to travel the land, to run across the high
open steppe for as long as it would like. When choosing a new dog, Mongolians give food to the mother dog and milk to the young dog and whisper it's new
name into its ear.
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Music of Mongolia
Music is used to control livestock when herding and to encourage the livestock to give milk or accept their young. It
permeates domestic and public celebrations such as Naadam when rhythmic calls form part of archery competitions
and ritual songs are performed by child-jockeys during the horse racing competition.
Khoomi (over-tone singing, often called throat-
For most of the communist era in Mongolia, Stalinist
singing), is an extraordinary vocal technique in
cultural policies held sway – not least in music. All
which a single performer simultaneously produces
music was doctored to become national in form and
two or three vocal lines by selectively amplifying
socialist in content. One aspect of traditional
harmonics. Higher melodies are created above the
Mongolian music is the Long Song (Urtin Duu). (A long
deep fundamental notes. Melodies are sung by
song is when each syllable of text is extended for a
bringing out different harmonics of the
long duration.) ‘Tumenk Ekh’ (First of Ten Thousand) is
fundamental note by means of precise movements
a long song that begins all Borjigin Khalkha (the main
of the lips, tongue and larynx. To put it simply, it is
ethnic group in Mongolia) celebrations – it refers to
a replacement of musical instruments with all
Genghis Khan in religious terms, but as he was decreed
aspects of vocal organs - it is a remarkable musical
a non-person during the Communist era, the song was
said to refer to a fast horse, so that it could still be
skill.
performed. It is sung at the start of something new –
such as the construction of a newly married couple’s
first ger or the beginning of a Naadam competition.
One of the most traditional instruments in Mongolia is the Morin Khuur; the horse head fiddle. The fiddle’s significance
extends beyond its function as a musical instrument - it was traditionally used as an integral part of rituals and
everyday activities of nomadic Mongolians and to this day, the Morin Khuur repertory has retained some tunes (tatlaga)
specifically intended to tame animals. The design of the Morin Khuur is closely linked to the all-important cult of the
horse and when played, it can produce sounds similar to the noises that a horse makes.
The Legend Of The Morin Khuur
Once upon a time, a horseman rode through the night sky and spotted the ger of a
beautiful herdswoman. He stayed with her for one night and at dawn he rode away.
The second night he returned to the woman’s delight, but at dawn he disappeared.
After several nights, the woman was determined to keep the horseman by her side.
While he slept, she crept out to his horse and noticed that the animal had little
wings above its hooves. In a drastic moment, she cut off the horse’s wings. When
her lover left the following morning, his mount fell to the earth and died.
Despairing over the loss of his horse the man grieved night and day. To sooth his
sorrow he carved the horse’s head from a piece of wood and transformed it into a
two-string instrument, using the bone and hide of the dead horse. It is played to
this day in memory of the spirit of his horse.
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Mongolian Biyelgee
• This is the Mongolian Traditional Folk Dance. Regarded as the original
forebear of Mongolian national dances, Biyelgee dances embody and
originate from the nomadic way of life.
• The Mongol Biyelgee includes a variety of dances performed by men and
women of different Mongolian ethnic groups during important events of their
communities. The dance expresses distinct ethnic identities as well.
• It is passed on from generation to generation while constantly being reimagined and recreated.
• Hand, shoulder and leg movements express aspects of Mongol lifestyle including household labour, customs and
traditions, as well as spiritual characteristics tied to different ethnic groups.
• Biyelgee dancers wear clothing and accessories featuring colour combinations, artistic patterns, embroidery,
knitting, quilting and leather techniques, and gold and silver jewellery specific to their ethnic group and community.
The Tale Of the Weeping Camel
Spring in Mongolia is a hard time of year - especially in the Gobi. Mother animals give birth to their young in a harsh
and dusty environment and there is a big risk of losing a mother or a calf.
Mongols have a variety of rituals relating to husbandry in traditional Mongolian society. One of them is a chanting ritual
for a new-born baby animal and its mother. To chant is to stimulate, through the use of special words and melody, the
adopting of a baby animal to a mother.
There are different gestures, melodies and chanting techniques for the five types of livestock in Mongolia.
Coaxing (Ингэнд Ботго Авахуулах - commonly known as khuuslukh) a camel is a ritual for a mother who rejects her
baby; or for adopting an orphan baby to another female who has lost her baby, because only a suckling mother will
have milk.
Most herdswomen engage in techniques and methods of coaxing, but these techniques and methods aren’t enough
sometimes. A specialist musician is brought in (often with a horse head fiddle). The mother is tied close to the calf,
and the musician will begin their monotone song ‘khuus’ or lullaby.
A mother camel will typically bite, savage or spit at her calf at the beginning of the ritual. The coaxer can change their
melody, depending on the mother’s behavioural reaction. When a mother camel is being coaxed into accepting a
rejected or orphan calf, it is said to break into tears at the gentle sound of the ‘khuus’ and this is when they start to
accept the calf.
It is not necessarily a common occurrence as female Bactrian camels give birth just once in March or April after a
gestation period of 14 to 15 months.
Watch the Tale Of The Weeping Camel for more of an insight!
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Mongolian Names
Mongolian names traditionally have an important symbolic character — a name with auspicious connotations being
thought to bring good fortune to its bearer.
Generally, the Mongols have only one personal name, which remains the same throughout their lives. Nowadays names
consist of two nouns or adjectives (in Mongolian grammar, it is considered a single word), representing qualities such as
solidity and strength for boys or beauty in the case of girls.
When addressing a familiar person, names are shortened, most commonly by choosing one of the parts of the name
and adding a vowel (making it into one) or adding a suffix. As an example, Enkhtur becomes Turuu. Enkhtuya becomes
Enkhee.
Mongolians do not use surnames in the way that most Westerners do. The father’s single name is used instead of a
surname. If the father's name is not legally established (i.e. by marriage) or altogether unknown, then the mothers
name is used. The fathers or mother name is written before the given name. Therefore, if a man with given name
Tsakhia has a son, and gives the son the name Elbegdorj, the son's full name, as it appears in passports is Tsakhia
Elbegdorj. Very frequently, the fathers name is abbreviated to an initial - Ts. Elbegdorj.
Today male names still include elements denoting strength, such as 'hero', 'strong', or 'axe': some examples are Gansükh
‘steel-axe', Tömörbaatar 'iron-hero', or Chuluunbold 'stone-steel'. Women's names commonly refer to flowers, the sun
and moon, or may be made up of any other word with positive connotations using the feminine suffix -maa (Tibetan
meaning ‘mother’). Some common examples are Altantsetseg 'golden-flower', Narantuyaa 'sun-beam', Sarangerel
‘moon-light’ and Tsetsegmaa ‘flower’. Siblings are sometimes given names related to the same theme, like Naran
('Sun'), Saran ('Moon'), Tsolmon ('Morning star').
Many gender-neutral name components refer to auspicious qualities. Examples are Erdene 'jewel', Oyuun 'mind', Altan
'golden', and Enkh 'peace'. Many names include the names of places, including mountains, rivers etc., e.g. Altai or Tuul.
Buddhist names are also used and one example is the Tibetan days of the week (the day on which the names were
born). (The Tibetan days of the week are themselves named after the Sun, Moon, and five visible planets).
There is also a tradition of giving names with unpleasant qualities or no meaning to children in a family where where a
previous child may have died. Also, boys are given female names . Another possibility is giving a name where there is
no meaning as in Nergüi (no name) or Enebish (not this one). All three situations are to try and mislead spirits seeking
to steal the child.
Since 2000, Mongolians have been officially using clan names on their ID cards. Many people chose the names of the
ancient clans and tribes such Borjigin. Others chose the names of the native places of their ancestors, or the names of
their most ancient known ancestor. Mongolia's first cosmonaut Gürragchaa chose 'Sansar' (Outer space).
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State Symbols of Mongolia
The Mongolian Flag
There are three equal, vertical bands of red, blue and red – red symbolises
progress and prosperity (it is said that the red initially represented Mongolia’s
socialist beliefs) and blue represents the Eternal Blue Sky. In yellow is the
national emblem – the Soyembo which contains individual symbolism within it
(see below). The old Mongolian flag was roughly the same design but with a
socialist star.
Soyembo
The Soyembo is a special character out of the Mongolian Soyembo script
(created by Zanabazar, the First Living Buddha of Mongolia). It serves as a
national symbol of Mongolia. The elements in the symbol are given the
following significance (from top):
• The three flames represent fire and the fire represents prosperity, regeneration and success. The three tongues of
the flame represent the past, present, and future.
• The sun and moon symbolize the universe and are believed by Mongolians to be the mother (sun) and father (moon)
of their nation.
• The two triangles pointing at the ground are arrowheads and represent Mongolian's willingness to defend their nation
against interior and exterior enemies.
• The two horizontal rectangles give stability to the round shape and represent the honesty, justice and righteousness
of the Mongolian people.
• The Yin and Yang symbol represents complementary opposite forces existing together in the universe - such as
positive and negative, male and female, passive and active, fire and water, etc. The circle can also be interpreted as
two fish that never close their eyes, representing the watchfulness and vigilance of Mongolians.
• The two vertical rectangles represent pillars or walls of a fort and symbolise strength and unity (a Mongolian proverb
says that ‘The friendship of two is stronger than stone walls’).
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The Mongolian Standard – The White Sulde of the Mongol Empire
Throughout Inner Asia – ‘a warrior-herder carried a Spirit Banner, called a Sulde, constructed by tying strands of hair
from his best stallions to the shaft of a spear, just below its blade. Whenever he erected camp, the warrior planted the
Spirit Banner outside the entrance to proclaim his identity and to stand as his perpetual guardian.’ Jack Weatherford –
Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.
The Sulde was used to capture the power of the wind, the sky, and the sun, and the banner channelled this power from
nature to the warrior. Genghis Khan had one banner made from white horses to use in peace-time and one made from
black horses for guidance in war.
The white Spirit Banner disappeared early on in history, however the black
one survived. In April 1964, the official Soviet newspaper Pravda issued a
warning against attempting ‘to place the bloodthirsty barbarian Genghis
Khan on a pedestal as a historically progressive personage.’ At some time
during the 1960’s, Genghis Khan’s Sulde (that he had carried across Eurasia)
disappeared from where the Communist authorities had kept it in Shankh
Monastery in Central Mongolia.
The State Emblem
The state emblem was adopted on March 25, 1992, following the fall of the Communist
Government. The details of it are laid out in the Constitution of Mongolia (see below).
The design is based on the Buddhist lotus representing purity. The outer rim features a
tumen nasan hee (Buddhist swastika pattern), symbolising eternity, surrounding a
circular blue field, symbolising the Eternal Blue Sky. On the centre of the field is a
combination of the Soyembo symbol and the wind horse (or treasured steed),
symbolising Mongolia's independence, sovereignty and spirit. Above the field is a
Chandmani (the Buddhist Three Jewels) representing the past, present and future. The
Chandmani in Mongolian folklore grants wishes. Below the central emblem is a green
mountain range (representing Mother Earth) with the Buddhist Wheel of Law and a
khadag – the Mongolian ceremonial scarf.
The Constitution of Mongolia - Sovereignty of the State
The Constitution of Mongolia was adopted on 13 January 1992 and came into force on 12 February 1992.
• The symbols of the independence and sovereignty of Mongolia are the State Emblem, Standard, Flag, Seal and the
Anthem.
• The State Emblem, Standard, Flag and the Anthem shall express the historical tradition, aspiration, unity, justice
and spirit of the people of Mongolia.
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• The State Emblem shall be based on the white lotus of purity. The outer frame shall be the "Tumen Nasan" of
eternity in the shape of a blue sphere symbolizing the eternal sky. In the centre shall be a combination of the Golden
Soyembo and the Treasured Steed, an expression of the independence, sovereignty and spirit of Mongolia.
• In the upper part is the Chandmani that grants wishes and symbolizes the past, present and future. In the lower part shall be a green background of mountains representing Mother Earth and the Wheel of Destiny.
Mixed in with the Wheel of Destiny shall be a "khadag" – the ceremonial scarf symbolizing welcome.
• The traditional Great White Standard representing the unified Mongolian State is a State ceremonial attribute.
• The State Flag shall be divided vertically into three equal parts coloured red, blue and red. The three stripes, of
identical width, shall be blue for the eternal sky in the middle, and red, the symbol of progress and prosperity, for
the two stripes on either side. The golden Soyembo shall be depicted in the centre of the red stripe nearest to the
flagpole. The ratio of the width to the length of the Flag shall be 1:2.
Mongolian Coat of Arms
!
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1941-1960 and 1960-1991
The Mongolian People’s Republic used three different coats of arms (up until 1941, from 1941-1960 and 1960-1991). In
the two after 1941, the letters БНМАУ are an abbreviation for Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс, (Mongolian People's
Republic). The animals on either side of the 1941 Coat of Arms represent the livestock of Mongolia. In the 1960 Coat of
Arms, symbols of Socialism were used (such as the gearwheel standing for industrialization and the wheat sheaves
around the perimeter standing for the state farms and collectives). In addition, within the 1960-1991 Coat of Arms, a
red soviet star held the socialist version of the Soyembo (the national symbol of Mongolia).
In the Coat of Arms prior to 1941, you can see the classical Mongolian script (a vertical script,
derived from Uighur). This was used until the adoption of a new alphabet based on Cyrillic in
1941. The change to Cyrillic was said to be purely practical – the old Mongolian script was
said to be archaic and ‘It no longer corresponded to the contemporary language. It was said
to be inadequate for expressing modern terminology, especially scientific
vocabulary.’ (Charles Bawden -The Modern History of Mongolia).
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The City Flag of Ulaan Baatar
Centred on the flag is the mythical bird the Garuda. It represents courage
and honesty. In its right hand is a key which symbolises prosperity and
openness. In its left hand it holds the Lotus, representing equality and purity.
The snake at its feet illustrates that anything evil will not be tolerated. The
blue background represents the Eternal Blue Sky.
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Mongolian Legends and Proverbs
How Tales Originated among the Mongol People
Once upon a time, plague struck the Mongols. The healthy fled, leaving the sick, saying ‘Let Fate decide whether we
live or die’. Among the sick was a youth named Tarvaa. His spirit left his body and came to the place of death. The
ruler of that place said to Tarvaa, ‘Why have you left your body while it is still alive?’ ‘I did not wait for you to call
me’, he replied, ‘I just came’. Touched by his readiness to comply, the Khan of the Underworld said, ‘Your time is not
yet. You must return. But you may take anything from here you wish’. Tarvaa looked around, and saw all earthly joys
and talents – wealth, happiness, laughter, luck, music and dance. ‘Give me the art of storytelling’, he said, for he
knew that stories could summon up all other joys. So he returned to his body, only to find that the crows had already
pecked out the eyes. Since he could not disobey the Khan of the Underworld, he re-entered his body, and lived on,
blind, but with the knowledge of all tales. For the rest of his life, he travelled across Mongolia telling tales and
legends, and bringing people joy and wisdom.
The 12 Calendar Animals
Once upon a time during the ancient Hunnu times, God decided to create a ‘pattern of time’. One day he made an
announcement to the people: ‘I am creating a 12-year calendar; however, I need 12 different names to distinguish
each year. I’ve decided that tomorrow afternoon – the first twelve animals that appear before me will receive one of
the names, until I have named all 12’. So, the following day animals appeared before him. The first 11 were the
monkey, cow, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, cock, dog and pig. However, the 12th animal that appeared
was actually two; the camel and the mouse. God did not know which to choose. Both would be good representatives
because he created both. The camel is proud, big, and self-confident and the mouse is the opposite: quiet, shy and
modest. God decided to have a contest for the 12th year because both were equal to him. The following day the mouse
and camel were to watch for the sun to rise. The first to see it rise would go back immediately to God and tell him.
The camel, being proud, propped himself on a hill facing east where the sun always rises. He was confident that he
would see the sun rise first because he thought of himself as very intelligent. The little mouse, sitting on the camel’s
hump, faced the west, the opposite direction. Finally, when the sun began to rise the mouse first saw its reflection on
the mountains it was staring at. Thus, the mouse had won the contest.
The Legend of Erkhii Mergen, the Archer
Once upon a time, seven suns appeared up in the sky and a terrible drought made the soil redden and crack. The rivers
dried up, the plants and trees withered. The people suffered from the heat and the animals were dying. All this
seemed inevitable. But in one region there lived a handsome archer called Erkhii Mergen who shot at what he saw and
hit what he shot at. Many people and animals came to him and begged him: ‘Please shoot the seven suns in the sky and
destroy them, or everything in the world will perish’. The archer Erkhii Mergen was very conceited about his accuracy
as an archer. He was proud of his ability, his strong thumbs and his immense strength. Therefore, he took an oath: ‘If I
can’t shoot the seven suns with seven arrows, I will cut off my thumbs and no longer be a man. I will no longer drink
clear water. I will eat the dry grass from the last year and continue my life as a marmot (ground hog) living in a dark
hole beneath the earth’.
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When the sun rose, he shot at the seven suns moving high up in the sky one after another from the east to the west.
After he had shot the sixth sun, he aimed carefully at the seventh. However, just then a swallow came flying along and
concealed the sun. When the arrow was released from Erkhii Mergen’s bow it didn’t hit the sun but the swallow’s tail,
forking it as it remains today. The last sun, seeing how Erkhii Mergen had destroyed its brothers, was afraid and hurried
to hide behind the mountains in the west.
Erkhiin Mergen thought: ‘The swallow obstructed my view’ and became enraged at the unfortunate swallow.
Therefore, he took his loyal horse and set out to chase the swallow and kill it. His horse swore: ‘Master, our honour is
at stake. I will chase the swallow from dawn to dusk. If I haven’t caught up with the swallow by then, cut off my
forelegs and throw them away. Then I will no longer be a horse but live in an uneven and rough place where I shall
spend the remainder of my days’.
But no matter how fast the horse ran, the swallow was always just out of reach and boldly flew around their heads.
Finally, dusk came upon them and the horse had not been able to catch up with the swallow.
As the seventh sun began to set and the sky grew red Erkhii Mergen, now more frustrated than ever, did as the horse
demanded, he cut off the animal’s forelegs and threw them into the desert. At that moment, the archer’s horse
changed into a Jerboa, a jumping mouse. Since then it lives in an uneven and rough place and has become a Mongolian
jumping mouse whose front legs are shorter than its hind legs.
It is told, that the swallow when it spots a rider is still mocking them, crying: ‘You cut my tail, but you can’t catch me.
Catch me if you can! Just you try!’ when at dusk she is flying in circles around the rider’s heads.
The proud Erkhii Mergen stayed true to his own word and cut off his thumbs. He did not live as a man anymore but
became a marmot and sought out a dark hole in the ground. Since then it is told that the marmot has four claws on
each paw. And early each morning Erkhii Mergen forgets that he has become a marmot: he comes out of his hole and
waits for the sun to rise wanting to shoot this last sun from the sky.
And, to this day:
•
There is a piece of meat in
a marmot called ‘man’s meat’ which no human is allowed to eat because the
Mongolian people believe that it is Erkhii Mergen’s flesh.
•
The best archers at the Mongolian National Naadam (Three Manly Sports) Festival are awarded the title of Mergen.
•
The only sun remaining in the sky is still afraid of Erkhii Mergen and hides behind the mountains in the west. That
is why there is day and night.
• A man fails seven times and rises eight times.
• If you say ‘yes’, don’t sigh ‘no’.
• It is easier to catch an escaped horse than to take back an escaped word.
• Times are not always the same; the grass is not always green.
• Not everyone who smiles is a friend; not everyone who gets angry is an enemy.
• If you are afraid to do something, don’t do it. And if you do something, don’t be afraid.
• If you endeavour then fate will favour you.
Enjoy your time in Mongolia. If you would like to see anything else included in this guide or something tweaked
then please let me know! Jess
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